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Syntactica - MIT Press

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1. 1 Select a node in a tree 2 Click the Delete button in the Transforms panel When the target node is selected it is highlighted in the tree The deletion operation elides all of the children of the selected node and replaces them with the symbol used to denote the empty string EXAMPLE If the highlighted VP node is deleted the result is as shown Target Node S AN Yn NP VP P Delete vV N e Chris walks Chris Indexing To perform an indexing 1 Select a node in a tree 2 Click the Index button in the Transforms panel The Indexing panel appears B00 Indexing Please enter a positive number Gndex d Cancel 93 Chapter 8 Transformations 3 Enter any positive integer in the index field and click OK or press Return EXAMPLE If the highlighted NP node is indexed with the integer 1 the result is as shown Target Node NP VP NP1 VP Index N V N V Chris walks Chris walks Multiple Selection Syntactica allows multiple target nodes to be selected via the usual Ctrl click option The user selects one node and while holding the Control key down selects another In the case of indexing this allows coindexation of a number of phrases simultaneously EXAMPLE If the two highlighted NP nodes are simultaneously indexed with the integer 1 the result is as shown 94 Copying ee Det N V NP Index NP Poss brother likes N N s him Chris
2. Rule documents v Open Cancel Open Samples either by double clicking it in the panel or by selecting it and clicking the Open button Open Example1 rule within Samples in the same way Creating Files New files can be created in Syntactica using the menu Choose File gt New File in the menu and select an appropriate file type from the New File submenu An empty window of the appropriate type will open 13 Chapter 3 Syntactica Basics SHORTCUT Open new windows using the Button bar New Trees New Sentences New Lexicon New Rules Entering Information Once a new window is open the user can enter information in it Syntac tica windows that communicate with TreeViewer have the same general layout There is a list portion a template portion a button portion 14 Creating Files The first lists the items in the window the second and third display the contents of each item and allow the user to edit those contents For exam ple the Rule window and Sentence window look like this fUntitledO rule fEjuntitled1 sent Sentences List fa 5 Template ada Update Remove Load GEN Buttons es Add Update Remove Load sends The user enters information in the template clicks the Add button to cre ate an item in the list Lists of items are then edited and saved as files see below EXAMPLE Open a new Rules wi
3. Syntactica will allow the user to multiply select any set of source nodes However if those nodes are non identical movement fails and Syntactica returns an error message BOW Transforms 6 fi Incorrect Operation 112 Constraints on Substitutions Identity of source nodes includes identity of indices that may have been added by Syntactica in the course of performing an operation indexing movement etc USER NOTE The Tricks tab in Preferences contains an ATB pre select radio button Choosing ATB pre select permits only the selection of identical source nodes for syntactic operations Constraints on Substitutions Substitution respects two special constraints Empty Target Node Constraint The target node for substitution must be an empty node a node dominating the empty string or else a node dominating a designated pleonastic element Like Category Constraint The target node for substitution must be identical in category to the source node or else must be of a designated variable cate gory When either constraint is violated Syntactica returns an error message BOM Transforms Fo i Incorrect Operation The Empty Target Node Constraint The Empty Target Node Constraint requires that substitutions preserve information in a derivation The content of a nonempty node cannot be effaced unless it consists of a specially declared item a pleonastic whose identity is declared Pleonastic
4. benef baked O for Lesson 2 Always specify heads correctly in the rules for the comple ment categories Heads Not Specified Correctly Elsewhere EXAMPLE Suppose for and baked are entered as above and that the rules for VP and PP are entered correctly with their heads VP gt V NP PP PP gt P NP Suppose further however that a rule for VP is also included with no head specified VP gt V Result Syntactica will generate phrase markers containing baked and no complements as in John baked Reason The second VP rule does not declare V as a head hence any verb occurring in that structure passes no features Since no features are passed no complement features are passed Hence Syntactica enforces no complement restrictions on baked in this structure Lesson 3 Always specify heads correctly in every rule in which the complement taking element can occur 128 cuapten 11 Head Final Languages Syntactica will generate trees not only for languages like English in which the head of a phrase precedes the complements that it selects but also for languages like Japanese and Hindi in which heads follow their complements The former are sometimes called head initial languages and the latter head final languages When Syntactica is generating trees using rules alone no changes are required in dealing with head initial versus head final languages Phrase structure rules are entered in the usual way However when
5. ee Target NP VP Nodes A S Paa Fx N V NP1 NP1 Poss brother likes N N s him Chris Note that the same result would have been obtained by selecting the indi vidual NP nodes and indexing them with 1 in two separate operations Copying To perform a copying 1 Select a source node in a tree 2 Click the Copy button in the Transforms panel 3 Select a target node 95 Chapter 8 Transformations When the source node is selected it is highlighted in the tree When the target node is selected Syntactica replaces the subtree dominated by the target node with the subtree dominated by the source node EXAMPLE If the highlighted VP node is copied into the empty VP node the result is as shown es ae we and Un too NP VP N NP VP N V N e Source Target Node Node Chris walks Kate Copy ee ee p s and we too NP VP NP VP N V N V Chris walks Kate walks The copying operation respects two special constraints The Identical Cat egory Constraint and the Empty Target Node Constraint For more on this see Chapter 9 Constraints on Transformations 96 Left Adjunction Left Adjunction To perform a left adjunction operation 1 Select a source node in a tree 2 Click the L Adjoin button in the Transforms panel 3 Select a target node in the tree The indexing panel appears B00 Indexing I5 Please enter a positive number ndex al Cancel 4 Enter any positive integer in the index field and
6. Click the Add button Editing Sentences in the Sentence List To edit an expression in the sentence list 1 Select the sentence in the list 2 Make changes in the sentence field with the usual text functions 3 Click the Update button Deleting Sentences from the Sentence List To delete a sentence from the sentence list 1 Select the sentence in the list 2 Click the Remove button Saving Sentences To save a list of sentences as a file 1 Make the sentence window the key window 2 Choose Save from the main menu or enter control s If the file is a new one the Save panel appears asking you to name the file and give it a location Printing Sentences To print a list of sentences 1 Make the sentence window the key window 2 Select Print from the Main menu orenter control p 77 Chapter 7 Sentence Files Tree Files and Grammars 78 SHORTCUT Click the Print button in the Button bar HOB pio SEGA sR 428 Print EXAMPLE Select File gt New File gt Sentences A new sentence window opens entitled Untitled Click in the sentence field type the sentence John walks and click the Add button The expression in the field now appears as the first line in the sentence list The window UNTITLED should look like this fEjUntitled1 sent Sentences John walks Sentence Aad Update Remove Load senas Practice by adding the following sentences to the list Chris admi
7. If you save some rules or lexical items as a file and then make sub sequent changes TreeViewer will not know about those changes until you either save the file again in which case the changes are written to the file or click the Load button in which case the changes are not written to the file Inputting Sentences amp Generating Phrase markers If you load a set of rules using the Load button and make subse quent changes Tree Viewer will not be updated until you either save the file or click the Load button again Closing When you close an active rule or lexicon window its title disappears from the active windows list This indicates that Syntactica no longer has any active window of that type rule window lexicon window Inputting Sentences amp Generating Phrase markers Syntactica builds trees for input expressions using rules that have been loaded into Tree Viewer or using rules together with a lexicon Building Trees with Rules Alone Syntactica can generate phrase markers using rules alone To do this 1 Load a set of rules 2 Enter an input expression in the sentence field 3 Click the Build Tree button or press Return EXAMPLE A Enter the following rules in a rule window and load them into TreeViewer either by clicking the Load button or by saving the rules as a file S NP VP NP DetN NP gt N Det gt the N Chris N man VP gt V V gt walks Enter the sent
8. Se 28 Print EXAMPLE Select File gt New File gt Lexicon A new lexicon window opens entitled Untitled Click in the lexical item template and enter the word Chris Hit Tab The cursor moves to the category field Enter N to mark the element as a noun Tab again The cursor moves to the lower fea ture field Enter PN to indicate that Chris is a proper noun and type Return Click the Add button The name in the template now appears as the first item in the lexical item list Now select the word Chris in the lexical item list The word is highlighted in the list and its properties are displayed in the template p Lexical Items temiChris Chris N ae Inaudible eatures Update g Remove I nard Practice by adding the following words to the file including their category and feature information dog N PN walks V PRES ran V PRES the Det With the untitled lexicon window as the key window select File gt Save or enter control s Save the lexicon as MyLex 51 Chapter 5 Working with Lexicons and Lexicon Files Sorting a Lexicon Lists of lexical items can be sorted so that items of the same category are grouped together To do so 1 Make the lexicon window to be sorted the key window 2 Choose File gt Sort from the menu Edit Options H New File Open File New Ctrl N Open Ctr O SHORTCUT Click the Sort icon in the Button bar HBHER 98 9 SHS gar 8 Sort S
9. Syntactica is generating trees using rules and lexicons together the procedures for head initial and head final languages diverge In particular Rules are entered using the same rule window but following differ ent conventions Lexical items are created using a different lexicon window follow ing different conventions for entering information Entering Head Final Rules When Syntactica is using both rules and lexicons to generate trees rules must be entered in a different way for head final languages versus head initial languages With a head initial language the procedure is as follows 129 Chapter 11 Head Final Languages 130 1 Enter the category of the mother node on the left of the arrow in the rule template 2 Enter the categories of the daughter nodes on the right of arrow starting with the leftmost field and proceeding rightward with no breaks With a head initial language however the procedure is 1 Enter the category of the mother node on the left of the arrow in the rule template 2 Enter the categories of the daughter nodes on the right of arrow starting with the right most field and proceeding leftward with no breaks EXAMPLE The English VP rule in 1 is entered as shown in the rule tem plate below it 1 VP gt V PP NP Heads yj E E m a NP pr Add innate Eee I nard By contrast the corresponding Japanese VP rule in 2 is entered as shown in the rule template b
10. a Save documents Panel will appear SHORTCUT Click on the Save icon in the Button bar amam 8 9 SEGA gr 428 Save Loading Files 16 Information that has been entered in a window must be loaded before Syntactica can use it If you create some rules or lexicons you must load them in order for Syntactica to work with them If you change some rules or lexicons you must reload these items in order for Syntactica to operate with the changes Loading Files A Syntactica file is loaded or reloaded whenever the file is opened or the file is saved or the Load button in its window is clicked Opening a file automatically causes it to be loaded into Syntactica Saving from a window causes its contents to be loaded into Syntactica and a file containing those contents to be created or saved Clicking the Load button in a window causes its contents to be loaded into Syntactica without cre ating or saving a file Loading Sentence amp Tree Windows Sentence and Tree windows have a special status with respect to loading Loading a sentence or tree window creates a link between it and Tree Viewer This link allows sentences or trees to be sent back and forth between the window and Tree Viewer For more information see Chapter 7 Sentence Files Tree Files and Grammars Active Windows Windows whose contents have been loaded into Syntactica are called active windows EXAMPLE Suppose you create a new set of rule
11. be used 2 installation procedure 5 relations between windows 10 start up screen 19 system requirements 5 transforming phrase markers 9 two core functions of 7 what is it 1 Syntactica files active windows 17 creating new files 13 137 editing 16 entering information 14 lexicon 11 loading 16 loading sentence files 17 loading tree files 17 multiple selection with 102 target node 27 92 types of binary 92 unary 92 undoing 29 104 opening 11 Transforming phrase markers 9 25 rule 11 Transforms panel 25 saving 16 parts of 91 sentence 11 Status field 104 tree 11 Tree files including 85 T loading 17 Trace symbol setting 105 opening 81 82 Transformations saving 84 canceling 104 Tree window 82 constraints on copying 117 parts of compared to substitution constraints 119 Send T button 87 constraints on movement tree display 82 Identical Source Node Constraint on ATB tree list 82 movement 112 Trees Subjacency 107 adding to list 83 constraints on substitution changing format 69 compared to copying constraints 119 deleting from list 84 Empty Target Node Constraint 113 displaying triangles 71 Like category Constraint 115 including 85 copying 28 95 printing 84 deletion 26 93 saving as EPS images 72 general procedure for performing 92 saving as file 84 indexing 93 saving folders of EPS images 84 left adjunction 97 sending 74 87 across the board 99 TreeViewer _ multiple selection with 98 changing display
12. click OK or press Return In a left adjunction the source node corresponds to the node that is moved and adjoined The target node corresponds to the node that is adjoined to The left adjunction operation does the following things adjoins the source node on the left of the target node leaves a trace in the original position of the source node coindexes the trace and the moved phrase using the index that the user has entered EXAMPLE If the highlighted NP node is moved and left adjoined to the S node and the index 1 is entered the result is as shown 97 Chapter 8 Transformations a arget ee Node NP VP N V NP _ L Adjoin Chris admires N Phil Source s Node aa N NP a Phil N V NP1 Chris admires t Syntactica enforces certain general constraints on movement operations including left adjunction For more information see Chapter 9 Con straints on Transformations Multiple Selection Multiple source node selection via the usual Ctrl click option allows the user to move a number of phrases simultaneously EXAMPLE If the two highlighted NP nodes are simultaneously moved from the conjoined VPs and left adjoined to the S node the result is as shown 98 Left Adjunction S Node a NP VP es N VP and VP ra a Chris V NP V NP knows admires pS Sous S a NP1 S a N NP VP ie ee Phil N VP and VP ue ae Chris V NP1 V NP1 knows t admires t Movement
13. format 69 movement operations 92 generating trees with 65 constraints on 107 inputting expressions into 67 Identical Source Node Constraint on ATB loading movement 112 lexicons 63 left adjunction 97 rules 63 right adjunction 100 sentences 80 Subjacency Constraint 107 trees 86 substitution 101 sending right adjunction 100 sentences 74 setting properties of trees 74 updating loaded windows 64 viewing alternative structures in 22 68 TreeViewer window 61 TreeViewer window parts of active windows list 63 Build and Send buttons 63 PF display 63 72 bounding nodes 108 empty symbol 105 trace symbol 105 variable categories 115 source node 28 substitution 101 across the board 103 138 sentence field 63 tree display 63 tree list 23 62 Zoom button 63 Triangles displaying in trees 71 U Undoing a transformation 29 V Variable categories and copying 119 and substitution 115 defined 115 setting 115 WwW Window Lexicon 43 Sentence 76 Tree 82 TreeViewer 61 Windows active 17 Lexicon 11 Rule 11 31 Sentence 11 Tree 11 TreeViewer 11 X XSB Prolog 6 Z Zooming in TreeViewer window 63 139
14. in the PF display and moving to the the right with the cursor keys Sending Sentences and Trees The upper portion of the TreeViewer window contains a Send S button and a Send T button These buttons are used to collect sentence and tree information from Tree Viewer into files 73 Chapter 6 TreeViewer Sending Sentences The Send S button sends the sentence or other expression currently dis played in the sentence field of Tree Viewer from TreeViewer to the active sentence window The sentence is added to the sentence list of the active sentence window Sending Trees The Send T button sends the phrase marker currently displayed in the tree display of Tree Viewer from TreeViewer to the active tree window The phrase marker is added to the tree list of the active tree window For information on Sentence window and Tree windows see Chapter 7 Sen tence Files Tree Files and Grammars 74 cuapten Sentence Files Tree Files and Grammars Sentence Files Sentence files consist of a set of sentences or subsentential expressions Sentence files have the extension sent Sentence files are created displayed and edited in sentence windows A sentence window appears whenever you open an existing rule file or cre ate a new one To open an existing sentence file choose File gt Open File gt Sentences from the menu Edit Options Help Rules New Ctr N Lexicon Ctr O Trees Include
15. iproj 1 xsb Ci help C Japanese lproj Ci Java C OLDhelp Ci prolog_source File Name Files of Type Rule documents v Include Cancel 3 Select the file of rules to be included 4 Click Include or press Return SHORTCUT Click the Include icon in the Button bar HBHER 92 9 SHS gr dw Include Include not only imports rules into the current file but also adds certain information specified in the Rules Inspector panel Specifically Bounding nodes from the included file are added to those of the cur rent window Variable categories from the included file are added to those of the current window Include does not add root node or default head direction choice as this would potentially involve changing the values in the current window For more on the Rules Inspector panel see the section Setting Rule Defaults later in this chapter Setting and Changing Heads USER NOTE Include is useful for combining results in separate files and in allowing you to take results from previous work and extend them As an alternative to copying a rule file and changing its title you may simply include its contents into an empty rule window Setting and Changing Heads The user may specify which node s in a phrase structure rule is are the head s of that rule To do so 1 Enter the rule or select it in the rule list 2 Click in the head boxes above the appropriate nodes in the rule
16. k C English lproj C3 resources CiFrenchiproj C Samples C German iproj C xsb Ci help C Japanese lproj C Java CJ OLDhelp C prolog_source File Name Files of Type Tree documents v Include Cancel 3 Select the file of trees to be included 4 Click Include or press Return SHORTCUT Click the Include icon in the Button bar amam pi SHS gr 428 Include Loading Trees into TreeViewer A tree window is loaded into TreeViewer whenever The tree window is saved as a file or The Load button in the tree window is clicked Loading a tree window causes the title of that window to be displayed in TreeViewer s active windows list and creates a link between the tree win dow and Tree Viewer This link is exploited with the Send T button 86 Grammars The Send T Button Clicking the Send T button of the active tree window sends the tree cur rently exhibited in the tree display from the active tree window to the tree display of TreeViewer This facility makes it easy for a user to experiment with syntactic opera tions on an existing file of trees In the Tree window the user simply 1 Selects a tree in the tree list 2 Clicks the Send T button sending it to Tree Viewer 3 Performs operations using the Transforms panel Send T makes it unnecessary to generate each tree separately in the Tree Viewer tree display if the trees have already been saved in a fil
17. often analyzed as binary taking one of the two values or Furthermore no single expression is allowed to have both and values for a given feature Syntactica implements both of these notions When the user employs F and F as character strings for features e g dative and dative or loca tive and locative Syntactica recognizes a relation between the two A specification of F and F for a single lexical item is thus treated differ ently than a specification of F and G Syntactica treats any feature not explicitly specified for a or value as having an implicit value Syntactica will reject any derivation resulting in opposite values for the same feature being assigned to a single category If the user assigns F and F or F and F to a single lexical item a then any derivation involv ing a will be excluded Likewise if the user assigns F or F to a lexical item a and F to a lexical item P and both features are inherited by a cat egory y then this derivation will be excluded For more on the use of features see Chapter 10 Heads Features and Complements 55 Chapter 5 Working with Lexicons and Lexicon Files How Syntactica Distinguishes Lexical Items Syntactica distinguishes lexical items as follows Differently spelled items always receive distinct entries in a list Items of different category always receive distinct entries in a list EXAMPLE Catalogue and catalog would be assigned dist
18. or enter control s Save the list of rules as the file MyRules Rules correspond closely with trees The category before the arrow will correspond to the mother node The first category after the arrow will cor respond to the left most daughter in the tree diagram the next category in the rule will correspond to the next daughter to the right and so on Sorting Rules Sorting Rules Lists of rules can be sorted so that rules of the same category are grouped together To do so 1 Make the window to be sorted the key window 2 Choose File gt Sort from the application menu Edit Options H New File gt Open File New Ctrl N Open Ctrl O Include SHORTCUT Click the Sort icon in the Button bar Pma 8 9 SHSA Se 28 Sort Sorting alters the contents of a window just like adding or deleting rules so remember to save after sorting Including Rules From Other Rule Files Rules from other rules files can be added to those in any open rule win dow using the Include command To do so 1 Make the window to be added to the key window by clicking on it 2 Choose File gt Include from the menu or enter control i A panel appears asking you to select the rule file whose content is to be included 37 Chapter 4 Working with Rules and Rule Files 38 BOO Include Rule documents Look In Resources x l e cca E C English lproj resources CiFrenchiproj C Samples C German
19. or the rules lexicon in EXAMPLE B above input 1 and 2 1 The man walks 2 the man walks In both cases Syntactica builds the tree shown below S Paan NP VP N Det N V the man walks Note that even though input sentence 1 has its first letter capitalized the tree displays the word in lower case This matches the way the is entered in the rules in EXAMPLE A and in the lexicon in EXAMPLE B 67 Chapter 6 TreeViewer EXAMPLE Using the rules in EXAMPLE A or the rules lexicon in EXAM PLE B input enter 3 and 4 The former yields a tree The latter yields an error message since Chris was not entered in lower case in the rules in EXAMPLE A or the lexicon in EXAMPLE B 3 Chris walks 4 chris walks The Error Panel The user can enter any expression as input However Syntactica will only succeed in building a tree if the input expression is within the scope of the rules and lexicon that have been loaded If the rules and lexicon do not yield a tree for the input Syntactica returns an error message BOM Tree Viewer Cannot build tree Recheck grammar and input sentence Viewing Alternative Structures 68 A given input expression may have several different possible trees under a given grammar In this circumstance Syntactica builds all possible trees and allows the user to view them sequentially If more than one phrase marker is available for a given input Tree Viewer displays one st
20. pop up button in the Rules Inspector panel 2 Drag to the desired choice and release 3 Click Set or press Return 4 Save the rules or load them into Tree Viewer In addition to root node and head direction settings the Inspector panel allows the user to declare variable categories and bounding nodes for Subjacency For more information on variable categories and Subjacency see Chapter 9 Constraints on Transformations 41 Chapter 4 Working with Rules and Rule Files 42 CHAPTER 5 Working with Lexicons and Lexicon Files A lexicon file consists of a set of lexical items or words together with a specification of their properties including syntactic category features complements and complement features and audibility Lexicon files have the extension lex The Lexicon Window Lexicon files are created displayed and edited in lexicon windows A lex icon window appears whenever you open an existing lexicon file or cre ate a new one To open an existing lexicon file choose File gt Open File gt Lexicon from the main menu Edit Options Help Sentences Trees Grammar Save As Save To Ctrl T Save All Revert to Saved 43 Chapter 5 Working with Lexicons and Lexicon Files To create a new lexicon file choose File gt New File gt Lexicon SHORTCUT Open new lexicon windows with the Button bar OBR 9i SEGA sR 428 New Lexicon The Parts of a Lexicon Window A Lexicon win
21. template EXAMPLE The following indicates that the node N is a head in the rule NP the N Heads fa fa fa fo NP poste th e N add I Indata PBarmovo I nad Head information is not shown explicitly in the rule list To inspect the head s for a given rule select it so that it is displayed in the rule template To change the head s of a rule 1 Select the rule in the rule list 2 Click in the box es corresponding to the old head node s to remove the old check s 3 Click in the box es corresponding to the new head node s 4 Click the Update button Marking a node as a head instructs Syntactica to pass its syntactic features to its mother node the node on the left hand side of the arrow If no head is selected for a rule no feature passing occurs If two heads are selected feature passing from both nodes will occur Etc For more on this see Chapter 10 Heads Features and Complements 39 Chapter 4 Working with Rules and Rule Files Setting Rule Defaults The user may specify defaults in the creation of rules and rule files These include root node default head direction variable categories bounding nodes for Subjacency To set defaults for a rule window click in its window and select Options gt Inspector from the menu The Rules Inspector panel appears Root Node s Head Direction No Head v Transforms Bounding Nodes Variable Category SHORTCUT Open the Inspector
22. the others by an arrow gt Above each of the four right hand fields is a head box for specifying whether the item in the field is a head Below the rule template are buttons for adding rules to the list updating or remov ing them There is also a Load button for loading rules into Tree Viewer Entering Rules Add Update Remove Load Whenever you select a rule in the rule list by clicking on it that rule is highlighted in the list and displayed in the rule template Entering Rules Rules are entered using the rule template according to the following con ventions The category of the mother node is entered in the single field to the left of the arrow The categories of the daughter nodes are entered in the four fields to the right of the arrow Daughters are entered from left to right beginning with the first field and leaving no empty fields in between The third convention applies specifically to head initial languages like English Entering rules for head final languages like German or Japanese follows different conventions For more information see Chapter 11 Head Final Languages Things to Keep in Mind There are a couple of points to keep in mind when entering rules Syntactica is case sensitive which means that S gt NP VP and S Np VP are treated as separate rules Any string of characters that can be typed from the keyboard can be entered as a category label But no spaces should be left b
23. tree simply click the Build Tree button again The input sentence is reparsed and its trees are redisplayed 29 Chapter 3 Syntactica Basics 30 CHAPTER 4 Working with Rules and Rule Files A tule file consists of a set of context free phrase structure rules togeth er with a specification of the head s of those rules Rule files have the extension rule The Rule Window Rule files are created displayed and edited in rule windows A rule win dow appears whenever you open an existing rule file or create a new one To open an existing rule file choose File gt Open File gt Rules from the main menu Edit Options Help New File Ctrl N Lexicon Open Ctrl O Sentences Sort Trees Include Grammar Save Save As Save To Ctrl T Save All Revert to Saved 31 Chapter 4 Working with Rules and Rule Files To create a new rule file choose File gt New File gt Rules SHORTCUT Open new rule windows with the Button bar HOB 9i SEGA se 428 New Rules The Parts of a Rule Window Rule windows consist of two major parts a rule list for collecting and displaying rules a rule template for creating and editing rules Rule List T T Rule Template mi Add Update Remove Load The Rule List The rule list is a scrollable area where rules are displayed The Rule Template 32 The rule template contains five text fields The left most is separated from
24. values in the current window For more on pleonastic words see Chapter 9 Constraints on Transforma tions 53 Chapter 5 Working with Lexicons and Lexicon Files USER NOTE The Include command is useful for combining results in two different lexicon files and in allowing you to take results from previ ous work and extend them As an alternative to copying a given lexicon file and changing its title simply include the file into an empty lexicon window More on Features Enforcing Co occurrence Restrictions Features can be used in Syntactica to enforce co occurrence restrictions between words and phrases EXAMPLE Suppose we wish to specify the English verb baked as requir ing any complement PP occurring after its direct object to contain the bene factive preposition for This restriction can be captured in Syntactica using features We enter the complement template for baked as shown Obligatory v Complements HNP El m Pe benef Features the lexical information of the preposition for and only the preposi tion for as shown itern for Cat P Inaudible oad a Update bener 54 More on Features rules for VP and PP with headedness as shown Hesds z ff ff ff VP tly NP PP Heads fa O ff fa PP ep NP Under these conditions Syntactica will generate yp V NP PP structures with baked only when PP contains the preposition for Feature Values Features are
25. 0 Save All Trees to EPS files Look In C Resources x rs E E Ci English lproj C Samples CiFrench iproj 1xsb C3 German iproj Ci help C Japanese iproj Co Java C prolog_source C resources Folder Name Applications Syntactica app Contents Resources Files of Type x Save All Trees Cancel 2 Save the trees in a folder in the desired location SHORTCUT Click the Save To icon in the Button bar HOR 8 9 SHGA Se 28 Save To Syntactica tree images can be opened and printed out in applications that support EPS such as Adobe Illustrator or Adobe Acrobat USER NOTE Trees are displayed in tree windows in the format currently selected for Tree Viewer Trees in a tree window are also saved in the for mat currently displayed in TreeViewer Therefore to save the trees of a tree window in a given format make the appropriate formatting selections in Tree Viewer before saving Including Trees From Other Tree Files Trees from other tree files can be added to those of any open tree window using the Include command To do so 1 Make the window to be added to the key window by clicking on it 85 Chapter 7 Sentence Files Tree Files and Grammars 2 Choose Files gt Include from the Main menu A panel appears asking you to select the tree file whose contents are to be included 8 0 0 Include Tree documents Look In Resources gt rs Al
26. 1 Make the rule window the key window 2 Select Print from the menu or enter control p SHORTCUT Click the Print button in the Button bar HOB 8 9 SAGA se 28 Print When a list of rules is printed the head of each rule if any appears in boldface EXAMPLE Select File gt New File gt Rules A new rule window opens entitled Untitled Click in the left most field in the rule template and enter the symbol S Now press Tab The cursor moves rightward to the first field after the arrow Enter Np and press Tab again Enter VP and click the Add button The rule appears as the first line in the rule list The window UNTITLED should look like this 35 Chapter 4 36 Working with Rules and Rule Files fRlUntitledO rule Heads E m m E Add Update Remove Load Rules in a head initial language are entered from left to right beginning with the first field and leaving no empty fields in between Practice by add ing the following rules to the list NP gt N NP gt theN VP gt V VP gt N Click on the rule VP N in the rule list It is highlighted in the list and appears in the rule template Click Remove VP gt N disappears from the list Click on the rule S gt Np VP Change Np to NP in the rule template Click Update S gt Np VP changes to S gt NP VP in the rule list With the UNTITLED window as key window select File gt Save
27. 107 Chapter 9 Constraints on Transformations 108 BOO Transforms A Illegal Movement i More than one bounding node crossed Bounding nodes for Subjacency are set with the Rules Inspector panel To specify a bounding node make the rule window the key window and select Options gt Inspector from the menu The following panel appears Root Node s Head Direction No Head v E ia E ee Ener Loa Syntactica s default is to set no bounding nodes Enter the relevant catego ries in the lower field of the Bounding Nodes area and Press Return Then click Set Save or load the rule file Syntactica will then block any move ment that crosses two or more nodes from the declared set of bounding nodes henceforth BNs Subjacency with Substitutions Subjacency constrains both substitutions and adjunctions But it applies rather differently in the two cases General Constraints on Movement Operations EXAMPLE With S and NP declared as BNs the Subjacency Constraint will block the substitution shown below compare Who did Chris destroy this picture of CP ae XP S aAa e NP VP ee N V NP Chris destroyed Det N By contrast the following substitution will succeed compare Whose picture of Kate did Chris destroy 109 Chapter 9 Constraints on Transformations CP A XP S e e NP VP N V INP Chris destroyed Det N Subjacency is calculated in these examples by climbing upwards a
28. 5 entering 47 entering in head final languages 132 inheritance of complement information 123 interaction with features amp rules 123 multiple 49 specifying category of 47 specifying obligatoriness of 47 Constraints on transformations 135 with copying compared to substitution constraints 119 with movement Identical Source Node Constraint on ATB movement 112 Subjacency 107 with substitution compared to copying constraints 119 Empty Target Node Constraint 113 Like category Constraint 115 Conventions used in this manual 3 E Editing windows and files 16 Empty symbol setting 105 Empty Target Node Constraint 113 F Features agreement in 55 interaction with rules amp complements 123 interactions with rules 121 values of 55 Files see Syntactica files G Generating phrase markers 8 capitalization in input 67 Error panel 68 inputting expressions 67 with rules and a lexicon 24 Grammar as Science Project 2 Grammars creating 88 editing 89 loading 89 opening 87 saving 89 what are they 87 H Head direction setting 41 Head final languages creating lexicon with 131 entering lexical items complements 132 lexicon window 131 entering rules with 129 Heads declaring 39 setting default direction 41 Identical Source Node Constraint on ATB movement 112 Including lexicons 52 rules 37 sentences 79 trees 85 Installation procedure 5 L Lexical items adding to lexical item list 50 compared to dictio
29. E and double click it The Installer application will come up 2 Follow directions for installation Installation is now complete Installation Procedure for Apple Mac OS X To install Syntactica on machines running Apple s Mac OSX operating system Chapter 2 Installing Syntactica 1 Download Syntactica pkg zip and double click it An installer package called Syntactica pkg will appear in the same location 2 Double click Syntactica pkg A window entitled Welcome to the Syntac tica Installer will come up 3 Follow directions for installation Installation is now complete USER NOTE Syntactica sample files will be installed concurrently with Syntactica in the same location Also installed is XSB the Prolog engine that performs all computation for Syntactica XSB extends Prolog with memoization and a more complete handling of negation chapten SYtactica Basics This chapter briefly describes basic notions of Syntactica including the two core functions of the application the general layout of the application the central operations of opening editing saving and loading Also included are two brief sample sessions More detailed information on these topics can be found in the individual chapters of this manual and in the on line Help files for Syntactica located in Help in the application menu The Two Core Functions of Syntactica Syntactica is designed to perform two basic operation
30. Grammar Ctrl S ait As Save To Ctrl T Save All Revert to Saved To create a new sentence file choose File gt New File gt Sentences 75 Chapter 7 Sentence Files Tree Files and Grammars SHORTCUT Open new sentence windows with the Button bar OBR 8 SEGA sR 4B New Sentence The Parts of a Sentence Window A sentence window consist of two major parts a sentence list which displays the expressions in a file a sentence field for entering expressions Sentences Sentence List Sentence Field Sentence Add Update Remove Load senas Under the sentence field are buttons allowing the user to add expressions to the Sentence List update them or remove them In addition there is a Load button for making a sentence window the active sentence window in TreeViewer a Send S button for sending an expression from the active sentence window to TreeViewer Whenever you select a sentence or other expression in the sentence list that expression is highlighted in the list and displayed in the sentence field 76 Sentence Files Adding Editing Saving and Printing Sentences Sentences or other expressions that have been entered in the sentence field can be added to the sentence list edited if necessary saved as a file or printed Adding Sentences to the Sentence List To add an expression to the sentence list 1 Enter the expression in the sentence field 2
31. Item agemashita Cat Vv Inaudible _ Update Remove ikirnashita v Obligatory Complements a KE dative Features The order of complements reflects the fact that in Japanese the verb is pre ceded by its object NP which is in turn preceded by a dative prepositional phrase a PP containing ni Head Finality is Global Syntactica treats head finality as a global property of a lexicon file It therefore does not allow for the possibility of mixed lexicons where some expressions precede their complements and others follow them Furthermore once a lexicon file has been specified as head initial or head final and items have been entered into it and saved head direction cannot be reset 134 Index A Active windows 17 closing 65 81 87 lexicons 17 list 17 64 rules 17 updating 64 Bounding nodes and Subjacency 107 setting 108 Building trees see Generating phrase markers Button bar including lexical items 53 72 85 including rules 38 including sentences 80 including trees 86 Inspector panel 40 69 new lexicon windows 44 new rule windows 32 new sentence windows 76 new tree windows 82 opening files 12 position 19 saving files 16 show transforms 25 sorting lexical items 52 sorting rules 37 sorting sentences 79 C Capitalization in input to TreeViewer 67 Complements common errors in specifying 126 complement template 47 enforcing co occurrence restrictions with 12
32. Syntactica S yntactica ft Version 1 0 for Java by Richard K Larson David S Warren Juliana Freire de Lima e Silva Konstantinos Sagonas S V Ramanan Java Port x x Supported in part by the eyes National Science Foundation The MIT Press Cambridge Massachusetts London England 2010 Massachusetts Institute of Technology All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means including photocopying recording or informa tion storage and retrieval without permission in writing from the publisher This format is intended to reduce the cost of publishing certain works in book form and to shorten the gap between editorial preparation and final publication Detailed editing and composition have been avoided by distributing the text of this book directly from the authors prepared documents This project was supported in part by the National Science Foundation Opinions expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Foundation Contents Acknowledgments 2 cc ccccestecessesseecsecesseesensesseeeessenses 11 CHAPTER 1 Wearcome to Syntactica so sestertepatiednestescnesncenaniades 1 WhatisSyntactta tiser fa Sapien austen sianitedescaneeaunaghatateeanne 1 The Grammar as Science Pro Cb og cscseacccaencanicgavexernayarccsscohe 2 How Can Syntactica Be Used eerren 2 Conventions Employed in This Manual eee eeeeeeeeees 3 CHAPTER 2 T
33. TCUT Click the Save To icon in the Button bar AHER 3 SWS gr 58 Save To Syntactica tree images can be opened and printed out in applications that support EPS such as Adobe Illustrator or Adobe Acrobat USER NOTE EPS tree images are saved in the size and format parame ters in which they are displayed in Tree Viewer The PF Display 72 The PF display gives a surface expression corresponding to the tree in the Tree Display The expression in the PF display will usually correspond directly to the terminal string for the tree The two will diverge however when the tree contains elements that Syntactica knows to be inaudible specifically Lexical items that have been declared as inaudible by the user Empty elements generated by operations like movement and dele tion For more on the latter see Chapter 8 Transformations Sending Sentences and Trees EXAMPLE Load the rules and lexicon shown below into TreeViewer enter the sentence YOU leave as input and build its tree S NP VP NP gt N VP gt V YOU N inaudible leave V Syntactica generates a phrase marker in which the inaudible pronoun YOU appears po NP VP N V YOU leave However the PF display shows only the verb leave Because YOU is declared as inaudible it does not appear in the PF display Phonetic Form lleave If a phonetic form is too long to appear in the PF display you can view the hidden portion by simply clicking
34. TreeViewer makes them available for building trees There are three different ways in which a set of rules or a lexicon may be loaded into Tree Viewer by opening an existing file by saving by clicking the Load button 63 Chapter 6 Tree Viewer Opening a rule or lexicon file automatically causes that file to be loaded into Tree Viewer Saving a set of rules or a lexicon causes a file containing those rules or items to be created and loaded into Tree Viewer Clicking the Load button in a rule or lexicon window causes its rules or lexical items to loaded into TreeViewer without creating or modifying a file This allows the user to experiment with rules and lexicons without accu mulating files The Active Windows List Whenever the contents of a rule or lexicon window are loaded into Tree Viewer this action is registered in the Active Windows list The title of the rule or lexicon window appears in the list EXAMPLE If you save a new set of rules as Example1 rule or load Example1 rule using the Load button the active windows list changes to look like this Active Windows Example 1 rule Since the user may have multiple rule and lexicon windows open at a given time the Active Windows list is helpful for keeping track of which rules or lexical items are currently being used by Syntactica to build trees Updating 64 TreeViewer is not automatically updated on changes made to an active window This means
35. ate The complement template is used to enter the following information about a word the category of its complements the obligatoriness or optionality of its complements the syntactic features of its complements if any The basic picture is this Obligatory T C es Specify Obligatoriness Complement t lt Enter amp Edit Complement Cats f Features Listed Here Features 4 Enter and Edit Features Category Complements are specified by category in the three complement fields They are entered from left to right beginning with the first field and leav ing no empty fields between entries Obligatoriness Obligatoriness of a complement is indicated by clicking the box above it Check marks are understood by Syntactica as followings 47 Chapter 5 Working with Lexicons and Lexicon Files 48 A checked box above a nonempty field means that a complement of the relevant category and features must appear An unchecked box above a nonempty field means that a comple ment of the relevant category and features mayappear but com plements of any other categories and featuresmust not appear An unchecked box above an empty field means that no complement of any category and features may appear Features Complement features are entered and edited as with lexical item features EXAMPLE The complement template below for devoured specifies that this verb must be followed b
36. ce field 61 Chapter 6 TreeViewer an active windows list Build amp Send buttons Build amp Send Active Windows Buttons Sentence Field List Tree List Tree Display PF Display The Tree List The Tree List shows how many trees have been generated for an input expression and which trees is currently displayed 62 Loading Rules and Lexicons The Tree Display The Tree Display exhibits trees that have been built for the input expres sion using the currently active rule and lexicon files The PF Phonetic Form Display The PF Display gives the surface expression corresponding to the trees in the Tree Display The Sentence Field The Sentence Field is where the user enters an input expression whose tree is to be built The Active Windows List The Active Windows list shows which rules and lexicons are currently in use by Syntactica to build trees It also shows which sentence and tree windows Tree Viewer can send information to using its Send S and Send T buttons For more information on Sentence and Tree windows see Chap ter 7 Sentence Files Tree Files and Grammars The Zoom Button The Zoom button is used to resize the tree in the tree display The Build amp Send Buttons The Build and Send buttons are used to instruct Syntactica to generate a phrase marker and to send information to active sentence and tree win dows respectively Loading Rules and Lexicons Loading rules and lexicons into
37. changes to show the head final configuration of complements fC UntitledO lex Lexical Items Cat Inaudible _ Features Load T Obligatory E mi Complements Features Note carefully that the complement template now looks like this L Complements are now understood as preceding the lexical item they are the selected by Entering Complements Complements in a head final lexicon window are entered in an order opposite to that of a head initial window The closest complement to the head is entered in the right most empty field The next complement is entered in the next empty field to its left And so on Thus an item select ing one complement will show only the right most field occupied in a head final lexicon window By contrast in a head initial lexicon window an item selecting one complement will show only the leftmost field occu pied 132 Creating a Head Final Lexicon EXAMPLE The lexicon window below shows the entry for English gave English is a head initial language fEjEnglish1 lex The order of complements reflects the fact that in English the verb pre cedes its object NP which in turn precedes a dative prepositional phrase a PP containing to 133 Chapter 11 Head Final Languages EXAMPLE The lexicon window below shows the entry for Japanese age mashita gave Japanese is a head final language Japanesel lex Lexical items
38. ding nodes 108 head direction 41 root node 40 variable categories 115 parts of tule list 32 tule template 32 Rules adding to rule list 34 changing heads 39 deleting from rule list 34 editing 34 entering 33 entering with head final languages 129 generating triangles 71 including 37 interaction with features 121 interaction with features amp complements 123 loading 63 printing 35 saving 34 setting heads 39 sorting 37 S Saving 16 grammars 89 lexicons 50 rules 34 sentences 77 Sending sentences 74 81 trees 74 87 Sentence files including 79 loading 17 79 opening 75 sorting 79 Sentence window 76 parts of Load button 76 Send S button 76 81 sentence field 76 sentence list 76 Sentences adding to list 77 deleting from list 77 editing 77 including 79 loading 79 printing 77 saving 77 sending 81 sorting 79 Shortcuts including lexical items 53 72 85 including rules 38 including sentences 80 including trees 86 Inspector panel 40 69 new lexicon windows 44 new rule windows 32 new sentence windows 76 new tree windows 82 opening files 12 saving files 16 show transforms 25 sorting lexical items 52 sorting rules 37 sorting sentences 79 Sorting lexicons 52 rules 37 sentences 79 Subjacency constraint defined 107 setting bounding nodes for 108 with adjunctions 111 with substitutions 108 Syntactica file amp window types 11 general layout 10 generating phrase markers 8 how it can
39. documents Look In Resources x es Al Ea k C English lproj resources CiFrenchiproj C Samples C German iproj Cf xsb Ci help C Japanese proj Co java C oLDhelp C prolog_source File Name Files of Type Sentence documents v Include Cancel 3 Select the file of sentences to be included 4 Click Include or press Return SHORTCUT Click the Include icon in the Button bar amam 9i SAGA gr 428 Include Loading Sentences into TreeViewer A sentence window is loaded into Tree Viewer whenever The sentence window is saved as a file or The Load button in the sentence window is clicked Loading a sentence window causes its title to be displayed in Tree Viewer s active windows list This signifies that a link has been estab lished between the sentence window and TreeViewer This link is exploited with the Send S button 80 Tree Files The Send S Button Clicking the Send S button of the active sentence window sends the expression currently displayed in the sentence field from the active sentence window to the sentence field in TreeViewer This facility makes it easy to test a given file of sentences or other expressions against a set of rules or rules and lexicon that have been loaded For each sentence the user Selects a sentence Clicks the Send S button sending it to Tree Viewer Clicks the Build Tree button Send S makes it unneces
40. dow consists of three major parts a lexical item list which displays the words or morphemes in a file a lexical item template for entering words and their features a complement template for specifying complements and their fea tures Untitled 1 lex Lexical Item Template Lexical Items temid Cat Inaudible _ Add eatures Load Obligatory m o m Complements _ Complement Template Lexical Item List Features a i ia The Lexical Item List The lexical item list is a scrollable matrix in which lexical items are dis played 44 Entering Lexical Information The Lexical Item Template The lexical item template contains an item field a category field and a Features area It also contains a box marked Inaudible for specifying whether a word is silent unpronounced or overt pronounced There are buttons that allow you to add words to the list update them or remove them There is also a Load button for loading the lexicon into Tree Viewer Item Cat Inaudible _j Add eatures Update Remove Load The Complement Template The complement template contains three main fields each with its own Features area and each with its own box for indicating whether the com plement is obligatory or optional Obligatory jE E O Complements _ When you select a word in the lexical item list it is highlighted in the list and displayed in the lex
41. e Closing When you close an active tree window its title disappears from the active windows list This indicates that Syntactica no longer has any active tree window Grammars Syntactica allows rule and lexicon files to be saved together as grammars Files in a grammar have the extension rgr and gr What is a Grammar A grammar is a pair consisting of a single rule file and a single lexicon file Grammars have no special display window of their own When you open a grammar by choosing File gt Open File gt Grammar from the menu separate rule and lexicon windows are opened to display the two components of the grammar These rules and lexicon are also loaded into Tree Viewer and their titles are displayed in the active windows list Grammars are useful for keeping together rule sets and lexicons that have been created together Rather than storing them as separate entities whose 87 Chapter 7 Sentence Files Tree Files and Grammars 88 Edit Options Help Rules New Ct N Lexicon Open Ctrl O Sentences Sort Trees o Save Ctr s Save As Save To Ctrl T Save All Revert to Saved Print Ctr P Close Ctrl Exit Ctri Q connection may be forgotten the user may elect to store them as a single unit that can be loaded modified and saved as single unit Creating a Grammar Grammars are created by saving the rules and lexicon together To create a grammar first load
42. e Restrictions Inheritance of complement information plays a crucial role in enforcing co occurrence restrictions This is because of our final principle 5 The complement features of a lexical node are checked by the mother of that lexical node In order for complement information about a lexical item to restrict the trees in which it appears the information must be passed up the tree as shown above A useful way to summarize the situation is Syntactica checks for the presence of an item and its complements at the first node in the tree where both the item and its complements are present If V is specified as the head of VP then complement information about baked will be passed up and Syntactica will check for the presence of an NP and an optional benefactive PP under VP Notice that to satisfy this requirement the benef feature of for must also have been passed up cor rectly 125 Chapter 10 Heads Features and Complements VP __ NP PP benef y NP PP __ NP PP benef benef P NP benef baked r i for Common Errors in Specifying Complements The complex interaction of rules features and complements means that mistakes can easily occur when specifying complements Heads Not Specified Correctly for the Complement Configuration EXAMPLE Suppose the complements of baked are entered as shown below Obligatory i a J Complements _ NP PP benef Features Suppose further t
43. elements are declared with the Lexicon Inspector To declare a pleonastic make the lexicon window the key window and select Options gt Inspector The following panel appears 113 Chapter 9 Constraints on Transformations Enter the relevant item in the lower field of the Pleonastic Words area and press Return Then click Set Save the lexicon file Syntactica will now permit substitution to efface the designated element EXAMPLE With there declared as pleonastic the following substitution will succeed S A NP VP there V arose Det N a storm By contrast the Empty Node Constraint will block the following substitution 114 Constraints on Substitutions S ye Pe NP VP N CA Chris arose Det N a storm The Like Category Constraint The Like Category Constraint also requires that substitutions preserve information The category of a node cannot be effaced unless it is a spe cial declared variable category Variable categories are declared using the Rules Inspector To declare a variable category make the rule window the key window and select Options gt Inspector from the menu The following panel appears Inspector Root Node s Head Direction No Head v Transforms Bounding Nodes Variable Category ae an Ene ome 115 Chapter 9 Constraints on Transformations Syntactica s default variable category is XP Change this value if desired by clicking on XP in the uppe
44. elow it VP gt PP NP V Heads m ff ff iz i pp Np Add lindate Fal I nard The specifications for Japanese are essentially the inverse of English USER NOTE These conventions apply only when Syntactica is using both rules and lexicons to generate structures When rules alone are being used the conventions for head final and head initial languages are the same Creating a Head Final Lexicon Creating a Head Final Lexicon Syntactica handles head final lexicons differently from head initial lexi cons in two important ways A different lexicon window is accessed Complement information is entered differently The Head Final Lexicon Window The default lexicon window launched by Syntactica displays a head ini tial complement template This is the meaning of the notation o The lexical item whose complements are to be specified is viewed as appearing in the underline position Complements then follow the lexical item that they are the complements of Syntactica accommodates head final languages by means of an alternate lexicon window This alternate window is accessed using the Inspector panel Open a new lexicon window and choose Options gt Inspector The following panel appears SD Inspector Head Initial Head Final Pleonastic Words 131 Chapter 11 Head Final Languages Change the radio button to Head Final and click Set or press Return The lexicon window
45. ence Chris walks in the sentence field and click the Build Tree button or press Return The following tree is displayed 65 Chapter 6 TreeViewer 66 S aa NP VP N V Chris walks Building Trees with Rules and a Lexicon Syntactica can also generate phrase markers using rules together with a lexicon To do this Load a set of rules Load a lexicon Enter an input expression in the sentence field Pe NM gt Click the Build Tree button or press Return EXAMPLE B Enter the following rules in a rule window and load them into TreeViewer either by clicking the Load button or by saving the rules as a file S gt NP VP NP DetN NP gt N VP gt V Enter the following lexical items in a lexicon window and load them into TreeViewer the Det Chris N man N walks V Enter the sentence Chris walks in the sentence field and click Build Tree or press Return The same tree is displayed Inputting Sentences amp Generating Phrase markers S aa NP VP N V Chris walks Capitalization in the Input Syntactica observes the following convention in its input Capitalization convention The first word in an input sentence may be capi talized even if the word has not been entered as such in the rules or lexicon In all other cases expressions must be input in exactly the same case form as they were entered in the rules or lexicon EXAMPLE Using the rules in EXAMPLE A above
46. end meisere ee 1 bendsl sengr E2melezrue ree 2 Tree 2 ae Build Tree Sentence Chris saw Jill bid Build Tree Sentence Chris saw Jill Chris saw Jill i 150 DTransforms 3 R Adjoin TRANSFORMING PHRASE MARKERS IN SYNTACTICA The user works with a tree that has already been built By clicking on nodes in the tree and a selected operation button in the Transforms panel the user instructs Syntactica to alter the tree in a specific way Syntactica displays the transformed tree which the user can then inspect Chapter 3 Syntactica Basics The General Layout of Syntactica 10 Syntactica contains a number of windows including a Tree Viewer window a Rule window a Lexicon Rule window a Sentence window a Tree window The Tree Viewer window is central The other windows can be viewed as arranged around and communicating with Tree Viewer O ax aut Upate remove oat genas Sentences Lexicon TreeViewer THE RELATIONS AMONG WINDOWS IN SYNTACTICA Information is entered in the arrowed windows loaded into TreeViewer and used to compute results Results of computations are displayed in the TreeViewer window Syntactica Windows and Files Syntactica Windows and Files Window Type File Type File extension Syntactica windows are used to create a
47. etween the characters in a string In fact the program will not allow spaces to be entered 33 Chapter 4 Working with Rules and Rule Files EXAMPLE The rule S gt NP VP would be entered like this a a In this rule you can type VP in the middle field but not V P Adding Editing Saving and Printing Rules Rules that have been entered in the rule template can be added to the rule list edited if necessary saved as a file and printed Adding Rules to the Rule List To add a rule to the rule list 1 Enter the rule in the rule template 2 Click the Add button or type Return Editing Rules in the Rule List To edit a rule in the rule list 1 Select the rule in the list 2 Make changes in the template with the usual text functions 3 Click the Update button or type Return Deleting Rules from the Rule List To delete a rule from the rule list 1 Select the rule in the list 2 Click the Remove button Saving Rules in the Rule List To save a list of rules as a file 34 Adding Editing Saving and Printing Rules 1 Make the rule window the key window by clicking on it 2 Choose File gt Save from the menu or enter control s If the file is a new one a Save Rule Documents panel appears asking you to name the file and give it a location SHORTCUT Click the Save button in the Button bar HOB pi SAGA se 4 amp 8 Save Printing the Rule List To print a list of rules
48. for illustrative purposes only They are not actually displayed in the Tree Viewer window EXAMPLE Suppose the rule for PPs is specified as follows where bold face indicates that the category is a head PP gt P NP Then according to the second principle any features of P will be inherited by PP In particular if the feature benef is present on P it will be inherited by PP PP benef P NP benef It follows from principles one and two that if for is specified as benef and if P is specified as a head in the rule PP gt P NP then the feature benef will be inherited by PP 122 Complement Feature and Rule Interactions PP benef P NP a benef for Complement Feature and Rule Interactions Complement feature rule relationships are governed by the constraints on features and rules stated above That is 1 The features of a lexical item are inherited by the lexical node that domi nates it 2 In arule the mother node inherits the features of any category specified as a head But complements also involve two new principles 3 Complement information is feature information 4 The complement features of a lexical node are checked by the mother of that lexical node Inheriting Complement Information The fact that complement information is feature information entails that it may be inherited upwards EXAMPLE Suppose the verb baked is entered with its complements spec if
49. g complement information apply to head initial languages like English Lexicons for head final lan guage like German or Japanese follow different conventions For more information see Chapter 11 Head Final Languages 49 Chapter 5 Working with Lexicons and Lexicon Files Adding Editing Saving and Printing Lexicons Lexical items that have been entered in the templates can be added to the item list edited if necessary saved as a file and printed Adding Lexical Items To add a lexical item to the lexical item list 1 Enter the item in the templates 2 Click the Add button Editing Lexical Items To edit a lexical item in the lexical item list 1 Select the item in the list 2 Make changes in the templates with the usual text functions 3 Click the Update button Deleting Lexical Items To delete a lexical item from the lexical item list 1 Select the item in the list 2 Click the Remove button Saving Lexical Items To save a list of lexical items as a file 1 Make the lexicon window the key window 2 Choose File gt Save from the menu or enter control s SHORTCUT Click the Save button in the Button bar OBR pE SHS se 428 Save 50 Adding Editing Saving and Printing Lexicons Printing Lexical Items To print a lexicon 1 Make the lexicon window the key window 2 Select Print from the menu or enter control p SHORTCUT Click the Print button in the Button bar OER 8 9 SHLAA
50. hat the following rule for VP is entered where no category is specified as a head VP gt V NP PP Result Syntactica will incorrectly generate trees containing baked and a complement PP that is not benef 126 Common Errors in Specifying Complements Reason V is not specified as a head in the rule so its complement fea tures are not inherited upward VP pa V __ NP PP benef Syntactica treats this situation as equivalent to baked placing no con straints on NP and PP in this structure Anything goes Lesson I Always specify heads correctly in the rule that generates the complement configuration Heads Not Specified Correctly in the Complement Categories EXAMPLE Suppose the complements of baked are entered as above and suppose for is entered as follows itemifor Cat P Inaudible J ad Update bener Suppose further that the following rules for VP and PP are given where boldface indicates a head VP gt V NP PP PP gt P NP Result Syntactica will fail to generate trees containing baked an NP and a complement PP containing for Reason P is not specified as a head in the PP rule so its complement features are not passed up to PP This means that when Syntactica checks for a complement PP with the feature benef it does not find one 127 Chapter 10 Heads Features and Complements VP __ NP PP benef V NP PP __ NP PP benef oa P NP a
51. ical item template In addition its complements and their features are displayed in the complement template Entering Lexical Information Information about lexical items is entered in the lexical item template and the complement template of a lexicon window 45 Chapter 5 Working with Lexicons and Lexicon Files The Lexical Item Template The lexical item template is used to enter the following information about a word its spelling its syntactic category whether it is inaudible its syntactic features if any Items and their category are entered and edited in the appropriate fields Features are entered and edited in the Features area To enter a feature type it in the lower field and type Return To edit a feature select it in the upper field edit it in the lower field and type Return Item 4_ __ Enter amp Edit Words ES Aradi Enter amp Edit Category eatures U Update p rl lt _ Features Listed Here Remove Load i lt _ _ Enter amp Edit Features EXAMPLE The past tense form of the English verb give might be entered as follows litem gave Cat 5 Inaudible _j eatures PAS 46 Entering Lexical Information USER NOTE Spelling and syntactic category must be entered for all lex ical items Otherwise Syntactica returns an error message F Couldn t Add Lexical tem Missing Information Check item and category The Complement Templ
52. ied as shown below Obligatory yj fo a Complements _ NP PP benef Features 123 Chapter 10 Heads Features and Complements Recall from Chapter 5 that the checked box above NP signifies that baked must be followed obligatorily by a noun phrase object and the unchecked box above PP signifies that the NP object of baked may be followed optionally by a benefactive PP one containing for The principle that com plement information is feature information entails that this complement information of baked is inherited by the V node that dominates it V __ NP PP benef baked In this figure the parentheses around the PP indicate that it is optional and the benef below PP indicates that PP has the feature benef EXAMPLE Suppose the rule for VPs is specified as follows where bold face indicates a head VP gt V NP PP Then according to the second principle the features of V will be inherited by VP In particular if the feature __ NP PP benef is present on V it will be inherited by VP VP __ NP PP benef NP PP __ NP PP benef 124 Complement Feature and Rule Interactions It follows principles one and two that if baked is specified as above and if V is specified as the head of the rule VP gt V N PP then the comple ment feature will be inherited by VP VP __ NP PP benef V NP PP NP PP benef baked Enforcing Co occurrenc
53. inct entries even though they have identical pronunciation and meaning EXAMPLE The noun N ook and the verb V look would be assigned distinct entries even though they have identical spelling and closely related meanings Multiple Entries When the user tries to add a lexical item to a list that already contains a word of the same spelling and category Syntactica prompts the user to decide whether this is a new item EXAMPLE The verb give can appear with an object and a prepositional phrase complement as in Chris gives Fido to Jill Alternatively it can appear with two objects as in Chris gives Jill Fido Suppose an entry for gives with its __ NP PP complement frame is present in a lexicon Lexical Items ltemilgives Cat MV Inaudible Add eatures Update Load Obligatory fal Complements _ NP E PP l dat Features The user now attempts to add an entry for gives with its __ NP NP com plement frame 56 How Syntactica Distinguishes Lexical Items The following panel appears gives is already in your lexicon Add a new copy Tox cance If the user elects to add the new item appears in the lexicon list with a numerical index showing that it is one of several items of that spelling and category If the user does not elect to add the operation is canceled 57 Chapter 5 Working with Lexicons and Lexicon Files 58 Lexicons and Dict
54. ionary Entries The behavior of Syntactica in distinguishing lexical items accords fairly well with standard dictionary practice Dictionaries typically assign items of identical spelling but distinct category to separate lexical entries On the other hand differences of complement selection are usually treated as syntactic variation within a single lexical entry EXAMPLE Webster s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary assigns brand the noun n and brand the verb vt to two separate entries Thrand brandi r ME torch sword fr OE akin to OE b mon to bum bef 12c la a charred piece of wood b FIREBRAND 1 c something as lightning that resembles a firebrand 2 SWORD 3a 1 a mark made by buming with a hot iron to attest manufacture or quality or to designate ownership 2 a mark made with a stamp or stencil for similar purposes TRADEMARK b 1 a mark put on criminals with a hot iron 2 a mark of disgrace STIGMA the brand of poverty da a class of goods identified by name as the product of a single fiom or manufacturer MAKE b a characteristic or distinctive kind VARIETY a lively brand of theater 5 a tool used to produce a brand brand vz 15c 1 to mark with a brand 2 to mark with disapproval STIGMATIZE 3 to impress indelibly brend the lesson on his mind hander z By contrast the examples included for give vt give a doll to a child and the law gives citizens the right to vote show tha
55. its tree Note that the structure is the same as the one assigned by Example 1 rule The 24 Sample Session Transforming Phrase markers grammar consisting of Example1 rule alone is strongly equivalent to the grammar consisting of Example3 rule and Example1 ex together It suc ceeds in building trees for the same input sentences and assigns them the same tree structures Sample Session Transforming Phrase markers Structures generated by Syntactica can be transformed by various syntac tic operations including movement copying deletion and indexing These operations are performed using the Transforms panel To get the Transforms panel select Options gt Transforms or enter control T from the keyboard SDTransforms L Adjoin Status Cancel pe In the upper row are buttons for six syntactic operations In the lower row is a Cancel button which aborts an operation in progress an Undo button which undoes a completed operation and a status field which informs the user of where he she is in an operation SHORTCUT Click the Transforms icon in the Button bar amam 2i SHSA sR 428 Transforms 25 Chapter 3 Syntactica Basics Performing Operations To transform a tree the user clicks on a node or nodes in it and then clicks an operation button in the Transforms panel EXAMPLE Open Example2 rule Enter the sentence Chris saw Jill and click Build Tree Select Tree 2 Open the Transforms
56. les 43 The Lexicon Window sssrinin aa 43 Entering Lexical Information isrssissriiinreceeiseiieeseen 45 Adding Editing Saving and Printing Lexicons 50 STATA D 0 o E E A 52 Including Lexical Items From Other Lexicon Files 52 More on Feat Te Sissors aE 54 How Syntactica Distinguishes Lexical Items 56 T ecViewer idealised GEN EAAS EAEE E ERTE 61 The Tree V te wer Widow c0i25556ce0i ois icnbiecanpergsdautacdiawelaietn 61 Loading Rules and LexiComs i c ciciccscosctsi tote tedetoetenrada cs 63 Inputting Sentences amp Generating Phrase markers 65 Viewing Alternative StrUcCtUrES siiis ciat 68 Changing Tree Display Format 69 Displaying Triangles tm TrecS s sriiiscrsssiesiisussiesririsa 71 Printin a TICES sosire mew arenes 71 Saving Trees as EPS Images eeeererrererrerrsrsr 12 The PF Display saree a 72 Sending Sentences and Trees ecceavsictoscscnnanenvascomnstnnapniavness 13 CHAPTER 7 Dae Files Tree Files and Grammars 75 Sentence PTS ts oc arercsck ea on ecao excuse enii eE E 75 Tree Piles ip apc chy eaer aa EEEE EEE 81 Grammat Sieen idi ciated reiia terrin aeaiiai Ear wands 87 CHAPTER 8 ee Viel ai REEE EE E 91 The Transtorms Pane esssrsisesocseni seirer 91 Types Of Operation Sere sa csencacvsitngs eare EAEE EEEE E 92 SOS I scp cnet e nese 93 AEI ecen E desea aan 93 CODY E eee E E E epee 95 Left AdJUNGtON ssneininiioin iian aiaia aiaia 97 Tit AA GINO esye r
57. long the spine of the tree from the source node to the mother of the target node checking for BNs along the way Two BNs NP and S are encoun tered in the first tree shown above This violates Subjacency 110 General Constraints on Movement Operations CP an XP ie NP N Chris destroyed Det N who By contrast only one BN is encountered in the second tree so no viola tion of Subjacency occurs Subjacency with Adjunctions Adjunction operations attach expressions to nodes including nodes that may have been declared as BNs In these circumstances Syntactica calcu lates as follows Bounding Nodes for Adjunctions Nodes adjoined to do not count for Subja cency In effect attaching to a node does not count as crossing that node insofar as Subjacency is concerned EXAMPLE With S and NP declared as BNs the Subjacency Constraint will allow the adjunction shown below even though two BNs appear to have been crossed 111 Chapter 9 Constraints on Transformations NPA N NP VP Kate N V NP Chris destroyed Det N ras a N PP L wf picture P NP1 of t The Identical Source Node Constraint on ATB Movement Syntactica enforces the following general constraint on movements that involve more than a single source node i e movements that are across the board ATB Identical Source Node Constraint ATB movement is permitted only when the selected source nodes are identical
58. ls Ticks Sessions Empty Symbol e Trace Symbol t em Se The default symbol for the empty string is e The default symbol for trace is t To change these defaults edit the relevant fields and click Save Any contiguous string of characters that can be typed from the keyboard can be used as the empty symbol or the trace symbol USER NOTE Syntactica always requires an empty symbol to be declared The trace symbol may be left undeclared If no trace symbol is declared Syntactica uses the empty symbol as its trace symbol 105 Chapter 8 Transformations 106 cuaptens Constraints on Transformations Some transforms performed by Syntactica are subject to special con straints These restrict movements of various kinds and also certain kinds of copyings General Constraints on Movement Operations All movement operations performed by Syntactica i e left adjunctions right adjunctions and substitutions respect two constraints the Subjacency Constraint the Identical Source Node Constraint on ATB Movement The Subjacency Constraint The Subjacency Constraint restricts the possible distance that may inter vene between source node and target node in a movement operation The constraint is the following Subjacency In any movement operation the moved item may cross at most one of a designated set of bounding nodes If Subjacency is violated in a derivation Syntactica returns an error mes sage
59. nary entries 58 complements entering 47 inheritance of complement information 123 obligatoriness of 47 deleting from lexical item list 50 editing 50 entering in complement template 47 in lexical item template 46 entering in head final languages 131 features values of 55 how they are distinguished 56 including 52 printing 51 saving 50 sorting 52 Lexicon window 43 active 17 for head final languages 131 Inspector panel head initial head final setting 131 pleonastic words 113 parts of complement template 45 lexical item list 44 lexical item template 45 Lexicons creating with head final languages 131 editing 50 including 52 loading 63 136 opening 43 saving 50 sorting 52 Like category Constraint 115 Loading 16 and closing 65 grammars 89 lexicons 63 tules 63 sentences 79 O Opening files 11 grammars 87 lexicon files 43 rule files 19 31 sentence files 75 tree files 81 P PF display declaring items as inaudible 72 in TreeViewer window 63 inherently inaudible items 72 Phrase markers transforming see Transforming phrase markers Pleonastic words and copying 119 and substitution 113 defined 113 setting 113 Printing lexicons 51 rules 35 sentences 77 trees 84 R Root node setting 40 Rule files defaults general 40 head direction 41 root node 40 editing 34 including 37 loading 63 opening 19 31 printing 35 saving 34 sorting 37 Rule window 31 active 17 Inspector panel boun
60. nd display Syntactica files For all window types there is a corresponding file type identified by its own extension Rule Window Lexical Window Sentence Window Tree Window rule file lexicon file sentence file tree file rule lex sent tree The same core operations are performed in all Syntactica windows Those operations are opening files creating files editing files saving files loading files Opening Files Existing files are opened in Syntactica using the application menu To open a Syntactica file choose File gt Open File in the menu Select an appropriate file type from the Open File submenu A corresponding Open panel will appear Files open in the appropriate type of window An alter native way to open with menus uses the Key window Whenever a win dow of a given type is the Key window choosing File gt Open from the menu brings up an Open panel of that type 11 Chapter 3 Syntactica Basics SHORTCUT Click the Open icon in the Button bar z aS i Open EXAMPLE Choose File gt Open File gt Rules An Open Rule documents panel appears Locate the Samples folder that was installed with Syntac tica 12 Creating Files AOO Open Rule documents Look In C Resources x E E k C English lproj resources CiFrenchiproj C Samples C German iproj 1 xsb Cf help CJ Japanese lproj C Java C OLDhelp C prolog_source File Name Files of Type
61. ndow and enter the following rule infor mation in its template Heads E JE m E Add Undate Ramnve I nad Click the Add button at the bottom of the window The rule S gt NP VP appears in the list which now looks like this fel UntitledO rule Rules NP VP When the Add button is clicked information disappears from the template To display an item select it in the list its contents reappear in the template Each type of file requires its own kind of information to be entered For more on the particular kind of information that is associated with each window consult the individual chapters of this manual 15 Chapter 3 Syntactica Basics Editing Windows and Files The contents of a window are edited using its buttons and standard text functions Items in a list are deleted by selecting them in the list and clicking the Remove button Items in a list are edited by selecting them in the list editing their contents in the templates and clicking the Update button EXAMPLE Click on the rule S gt NP VP created in the previous exam ple Edit it in the rule template to look like this Click the Update button at the bottom of the window The rule S gt NP V now appears in the list Saving Files To save the contents of a Syntactica window as a file make that window the Key window and select File gt Save from the menu or enter control s If the file is a new one
62. ness to S V Ramanan for taking on the job of porting Syntactica to Java for executing the port with care impressive speed and unfailing good humor for suggesting and implementing many improvements to the original NeXTSTEP applica tion and for making himself available for bug fixes and rebuilds all the way across the world in Chennai India I am profoundly grateful 11 12 cuapten1 Welcome to Syntactica What is Syntactica Syntactica is a software application tool designed to let you study natural language structure in a fun interactive way The program provides a sim ple interface for creating grammars for viewing the structures that they assign to natural language expressions and for transforming those struc tures by syntactic operations In Syntactica a grammar consists of a set of context free phrase structure rules and typically a lexicon The application provides a window inter face for creating sets of phrase structure rules and for creating sets of lex ical items lexicons Rules and lexicons are loaded into the TreeViewer window where they are used to generate phrase markers or tree diagrams The user enters a sen tence or other expression and Syntactica tries to generate a phrase marker for it using the rules and lexicon that have been loaded When more than one structure is available Syntactica displays the range Multiple rule and lexicon windows can be open at any one time making it easy t
63. o add a tree to a tree window 1 Load the tree window into TreeViewer see below making it the active tree window 2 Build the desired tree in Tree Viewer 3 Click the Send T button in Tree Viewer Sending a tree from TreeViewer adds it to the tree list of the active tree window 83 Chapter 7 84 Sentence Files Tree Files and Grammars Deleting Trees from Tree List To delete a tree from the tree list 1 Select the tree in the list 2 Click the Remove button Saving Trees in Tree Window as a File To save a tree window as a file 1 Make the tree window the key window by clicking on it 2 Choose File gt Save from the main menu or enter control s If the file is a new one the Save Tree Documents panel appears asking you to name the file and give it a location Printing Trees To print the tree currently shown in the Tree Display of a tree window make the latter the key window and select File gt Print SHORTCUT Click the Print button in the Button bar HOE 8 9 SsHSGA Se 28 Print Saving a Folder of Tree Images The trees in a tree window can be saved as a folder of Encapsulated Post script EPS images for use in homeworks papers and presentations To do so 1 Choose File gt Save To from the main menu A panel appears asking you to locate the folder where the tree images are to be saved or to create a new folder by appending its name to the directory path indicated Tree Files 6 0
64. o load alternate grammars and to test and compare their results Phrase markers can be saved for later viewing and printing either as files or individual images Sentence and Tree windows allow you to conve niently collect the sentences and trees generated by a grammar or to work with an assigned set Chapter 1 Welcome to Syntactica Syntactica permits many aspects of syntactic theory to be explored The rule and lexicon windows allow you to assign and control the percolation of syntactic features The Tree Viewer window lets you to perform a vari ety of formal operations on trees by simply pointing clicking and using the Transforms panel Syntactica also allows you to control various con straints on operations including an elementary version of Subjacency The Grammar as Science Project Syntactica was produced as part of the National Science Foundation project Grammar As Science GAS conducted at the State University of New York at Stony Brook from 1991 1995 This project was a joint ven ture by the Stony Brook Departments of Linguistics and Computer Sci ence The leading idea of GAS was and remains that linguistics provides a uniquely effective medium for introducing students from a wide variety of academic backgrounds to the principles of scientific reasoning and method The GAS emphasis on developing scientific reasoning skills has strongly guided the design of Syntactica Our chief goal has been to produce an applicati
65. of this kind is called across the board ATB movement A phrase is moved simultaneously from two or more source positions to a single target position Syntactica enforces certain constraints on ATB movements For more information see Chapter 9 Constraints on Transformations 99 Chapter 8 Transformations Right Adjunction Right adjunction is performed identically to left adjunction obeys the same constraints and has essentially the same effects except that it adjoins the source node on the right of the target node EXAMPLE If the highlighted PP node is moved and right adjoined to the VP node the result is as shown S a pE Target NP VP 4 Node ee a N V PP PP a Chris talks A p P NP to N about N R Adjoin Source Phil Kate Node S ee NP VP ei N VP PP1 Chris V PP1 PP P NP I NY talks t P NP to N about N Phil Kate 100 Substitution Substitution To perform a substitution operation 1 Select a source node in a tree 2 Click the Substitute button in the Transforms panel 3 Select a target node in the tree The indexing panel appears B00 Indexing Please enter a positive number ndex a Cancel 4 Enter any positive integer in the index field and click OK or press Return The substitution operation does the following things substitutes the source node for the target node leaves a trace in the original position of the source node coinde
66. ois Sy tacti eisernen anna ENET 5 System R g ire Ments saan tsa pie e ienei ennak 5 Installation Procedure for Microsoft Windows 5 Installation Procedure for Apple Mac OS ee 5 CHAPTER 3 See BASICS aerisite enna seneone dienian 7 The Two Core Functions of Syntactica eicisssssscccssescesssenceen 7 The General Layout of Syntactica scccc cccsnceetncienincioee 10 Syntactica Windows and Files vsccsisecesaacestivatssvsceenctordieasendee 11 Opening sc scse eres ecc atc ca eteacs rse seisne ieai Esas 11 Creatine FileSs sceraor Era E E cen eae 13 Editing Windows and Files cic cc0ctscedectaces caecvscechopatenicatageiss 16 Saving POS 555 psd pte yolige hd iraa aaa EEE 16 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6 Loading Pes aac s5cc io stigstbecacatoxg nice esnai aoin 16 Sample Session Building Phrase Markers eee 19 Sample Session Transforming Phrase markers 25 Working with Rules and Rule Files 31 The R le WINdOW ets Saree tease aac aenieeates stetouasincs iai 31 Entering TR UG So cece acek cries das wcentieece mice EEEE RE EEA 33 Adding Editing Saving and Printing Rules 34 Sorting RULES cs cacslesiuevacd sinpenctatebbenantnads cast ueeled reniei a eiiiai 37 Including Rules From Other Rule Piles 0 2 ccsccsccssccsssansce 37 Setting and Changing ICAIS eis cota cence caizteatedptcateossaemiaciageanss 39 Setting Ie Ube Everall Sx sisseoste 40 Working with Lexicons and Lexicon Fi
67. on tool that while lifting some of the calculative burden from the student leaves fundamental decisions about how to analyze a given expression squarely in the hands of the user For example headedness does not follow automatically from phrase structure configuration in Syn tactica but rather must be explicitly declared Students learn what head edness amounts to by explicitly manipulating this aspect of structure Likewise Bounding Nodes for movement are not fixed antecedently as some specific set IP NP but rather are explicitly declared by the user By being able to vary Bounding Nodes the user can thus explore modern parametric theory in a very direct way How Can Syntactica Be Used Syntactica is designed for use in introductory syntax courses in linguis tics or in any linguistics or language structure courses with a basic syntax component Conventions Employed in This Manual The application can be used as a stand alone tool for individual self study or as a study aid in a conventional lecture format course It can also be used as the basis for a laboratory component in syntax Although designed primarily as a teaching tool for students Syntactica also has features that will appeal to professionals The application can be employed as a useful derivation calculator in following out complex syntactic derivations involving many steps and operations Furthermore Syntactica can be used to create high quality came
68. orting alters the contents of a window just like adding or deleting items so remember to save after sorting Including Lexical Items From Other Lexicon Files Lexical items from other lexicon files can be added to those in any open lexicon window using the Include command To do so 1 Make the window to be added to the key window by clicking on it 2 Choose File gt Include from the menu or enter control i A panel will appear asking you to select the lexicon file whose contents are to be included 52 Including Lexical Items From Other Lexicon Files B 0 0 Include Lexicon documents Look In J Resources x rs le E E E Cl English lproj CJ resources Ci French iproj C Samples J German iproj CI xsb Cf help CJ Japanese proj java C oLDhelp Ci prolog_source File Name Files of Type Lexicon documents v Include Cancel 3 Select the lexicon file to be included 4 Click Include or press Return SHORTCUT Click the Include icon in the Button bar HBHER 2 19 SHS gr dw Include Include imports all lexical items from the selected file into the current file Include also adds certain information specified in the Lexicon Inspector panel Specifically Pleonastic words from the included file are added to those of the current win dow The Include command does not add information about head direction as this would potentially involve changing the
69. ose File gt Open File gt Rules from the menu Locate Example1 rule in the Samples folder and open it Click in the sentence field of Tree Viewer and enter the sentence Chris walks Click the Build Tree button or press Return Syntactica generates the tree shown below 19 Chapter 3 Syntactica Basics 20 Chris walks Note that Example1 rule is listed in the Active Windows list This is the tree assigned to the sentence Chris walks by the rules in Example rule Sample Session Building Phrase Markers You can enter any sentence you like as input But Syntactica will succeed in building a tree only if the input sentence is within the scope of the rules and lexicon that have been loaded EXAMPLE With Example1 rule loaded edit your input sentence to The man walks Click Build Tree or press Return Syntactica gives an error message BOO Tree Viewer Cannot build tree Recheck grammar and input sentence The sentence The man walks cannot be generated because rules for the man are not present in Example1 rule Changing Files In the process of analyzing a given sentence the user can open and load alternative files to see what phrase markers they yield EXAMPLE Leaving The man walks as input sentence open the rule file Example2 rule Confirm that it is loaded into TreeViewer by inspecting the Active Windows list Click the Build Tree button or press Return Syn tactica now succeeds in generating a
70. panel In the Tree Viewer window click on the NP node above Jill Chris saw Jill The node is highlighted showing that it has been selected Now click the Delete button in the Transforms panel The structure below NP is deleted and replaced by the empty string e 26 Sample Session Transforming Phrase markers E Chris saw Jill In a deletion a target node is selected np y Jill and an operation is per formed on it 27 Chapter 3 Syntactica Basics EXAMPLE Take the tree just created by deletion and click on the NP node npn Chris The node is highlighted Click the Copy button in the Trans forms panel Now click on the node np The contents of np n Chris are copied into yp The result is a tree with the terminal string Chris saw Chris E Chris saw Jill In a copying a source node npln Chris is selected in addition to a tar get node np The operation is performed on the pair the first node is copied to the second 28 Sample Session Transforming Phrase markers Undoing a Transformation The Undo button in the Transforms panel allows you to undo the last transformation performed Thus if Undo is clicked after the delete opera tion the deleted item is restored If Undo is clicked after the copying operation the pre copy tree is restored USER NOTE If you have performed a number of operations on a tree and wish to restore the original
71. panel with the Button bar HOB pio SEGA se 428 Inspector Panel The Root Node The Root Node is the symbol that Syntactica places at the top of the tree that it builds The initial default root node symbol in Syntactica is S the 40 Setting Rule Defaults usual category of sentences However the root symbol can be reset to any category To reset the root node 1 Edit the root node field using the usual text editing functions 2 Click Set or press Return 3 Save the rules or load them into Tree Viewer EXAMPLE Open and load Example1 rules Open the Inspector and reset the root node as VP Save the file Now enter walks in the sentence field of TreeViewer and click Build Tree Syntactica generates a tree consisting of VP node dominating a V node dominating the lexical item walks USER NOTE Being able to generate trees with root nodes other than S is handy for debugging When a build fails one way to locate the problem is to attempt to build sub constituents of the input expression To do this the user must change the root symbol to the category of the sub constituents NP VP PP etc Head Direction The Rule Inspector allows you to set a default head choice for a file so that whenever rules are created in that file they are automatically speci fied as being Head Initial Head Final or as having No Head No Head is the initial default for Syntactica To set or alter default head direction 1 Click the
72. r arenar RESE EEr EERE 100 SUMO SEU COS o PO E casoeseemniag 101 Canceling and Undoing Operations sssesseessessseeseee 104 Setting the Empty Symbol amp Trace Symbol 105 CHAPTER 9 Cane on Transformations 006 107 General Constraints on Movement Operations 107 Constraints On Substitutions ccccccccccccceseeeeeeeeeeeeeees 113 Constr i ts on Copying veescisxsoscelaieactoenstoadsiarqosedsasenleaialons 117 CHAPTER 10 Haas Features and Complements 121 Feature and Rule Interactions 0ccccccccccceceseeeeeeeeeeeees 121 Complement Feature and Rule Interactions 123 Common Errors in Specifying Complements 126 CHAPTER 11 a WAM WARES ic sicencetinietontiiumeninnnis 129 Entering Head Final Rules 129 Creating a Head Final Lexicon iccsiesateudnasmeseseessndeasaniice 131 Index genpor Apan i eee aiie 135 10 Acknowledgments We are grateful to all those involved with the original Syntactica for NeXTSTEP application and to the National Science Foundation for fund ing its development under NSF grant USE 915041 We thank Amy Brand and Ada Brunstein at MIT Press for supporting the Grammar as Science project at all stages Thanks also to Hiroko Yamak ido for initial editorial assistance with the Syntactica for JAVA manual and to Jessica Bechard for much appreciated final bug testing RKL I wish to express my particular indebted
73. r field of the Variable Category area edit ing this element in the lower field and pressing Return Then click Set Save or load the rule file Syntactica will now permit substitution to cover the designated category EXAMPLE With XP declared as a variable category the substitution shown below will succeed CP A XP S ae S e NP VP N V Chris walked P NP By contrast the Like Category Constraint will block the following substitu tion 116 Constraints on Copying a e NP VP CO Chris walked P NP Constraints on Copying The copying operation respects the Empty Target Node Constraint and the Like Category Constraint discussed above When either constraint is vio lated in a derivation Syntactica returns an error message BO Transforms 6 fl Incorrect Operation EXAMPLE The requirement that the target of copying be empty will block the derivation shown below 117 Chapter 9 Constraints on Transformations S ee a S and S too a NP NP VP N V N V Chris walks Kate runs EXAMPLE The requirement that the target of copying be of identical cate gory will block the derivation shown below S S and S too A aN NP VP NP VP L es N v N V PP Chris is A Kate is e tall 118 Constraints on Copying Constraints on Copying versus Substitution The empty target and like category constraints on copying and substitu tion are similar The difference
74. ra ready EPS tree images that can be scaled and edited and incorporated into professional publications and presentations All tree diagrams appearing in this man ual were created by Syntactica Conventions Employed in This Manual This manual employs the following typographic and naming conventions that the user should be aware of Keyboard instructions in this manual are indicated in Courier type face and follow normal conventions For example an instruction to press the o key while holding down the control key would appear as enter control o Instructions to select a menu or submenu choice are indicated using boldface and the character gt For example the Transforms panel in Syntactica is accessed by clicking on the Options menu item in the Main menu and selecting the Transforms submenu item within it An instruction to select the Transforms panel would thus be abbreviated as Options gt Transforms Chapter 1 Welcome to Syntactica CHAPTER 2 Installing Syntactica This chapter describes what kind of operating system you must have to run Syntactica how to install it and how to register for support System Requirements Syntactica Version 1 0 for Java currently runs under the Microsoft Win dows and Mac OSX Installation Procedure for Microsoft Windows To install Syntactica on machines running Microsoft Windows versions 98 ME XP Vista or WIN 7 1 Download JnstallSynt EX
75. res Jill Chris gives Fido to Jill Jill glarfs Click on the sentence Jill glarfs in the sentence list Click the Remove but ton Jill glarfs disappears from the sentence list Click on the sentence John walks Change John to Chris in the sentence field e g by dragging across it and typing Chris Click Update John walks changes to Chris walks in the sentence list Make the sentence window the key window and select File gt Save or enter command s Save the sentences just entered as MySentences Sentence Files Sorting Sentences Lists of sentences can be sorted alphabetically To do so 1 Make the window to be sorted the key window 2 Choose Edit gt Sort from the application menu Edit Options H New File gt Open File Ctr N Ctrl O SHORTCUT Click the Sort icon in the Button bar HOB 58 SEGA sR 4 amp 8 Sort Sorting alters the contents of a window just like adding or deleting sen tences so remember to save after sorting Including Sentences from Other Sentence Files Sentences from other sentence files can be added to those in any open sentence window using the Include command To do so 1 Make the window to be added to the key window by clicking on it 2 Choose Files gt Include from the Main menu or enter control i A panel appears asking you to select the sentence file whose content is to be included 79 Chapter 7 Sentence Files Tree Files and Grammars QO Include Sentence
76. rmation see Chapter 9 Constraints on Transformations 103 Chapter 8 Transformations Canceling and Undoing Operations 104 Operations performed by Syntactica can be canceled or undone using the Transforms panel gt Transforms L Adjoin Rasion suet Copy Delete Index Status Cancel D A The Cancel button is used to stop an operation that is in progress and has not yet been completed The Undo button is used to undo an operation that has already been completed Undo undoes the last operation per formed The status field informs the user of whether an operation is in progress Typically An empty status field means that no operation is in progress Only Undo can be used A filled status field means that an operation is in progress Either Cancel or Undo can be used An exception is when an incorrect or illegal operation has been attempted In this case the message Last Operation Incorrect appears in the status field even though no operation is in progress D Transforms L Adjoin rasion cut Copy Delete Index Cancel ast operation incorrect Setting the Empty Symbol amp Trace Symbol Setting the Empty Symbol amp Trace Symbol The user can set the symbols that Syntactica employs to denote the empty string and the trace of movement using the Preferences panel Select Options gt Preferences from the menu The following panel appears Preferences Symbo
77. ructure and indicates the presence of others in the Tree List For example if two structures are available the Tree List will look like this S Tree Viewer Trees Tree 1 Sends ree 2 ik Changing Tree Display Format Tree 2 is highlighted indicating that it is the tree currently shown in the Tree Display Other structures can be viewed simply by clicking on their entries in the Tree List USER NOTE Clicking back and forth between entries in the tree list will allow you to rapidly inspect structural differences in phrase markers Changing Tree Display Format Trees can be displayed in Tree Viewer in several formats Nodes and words can be displayed in sans serif Helvetica or serif Times typeface and in regular or bold weight Trees can be displayed in a full or compressed layout To set display parameters make Tree Viewer the key window and select Options gt Inspector The Tree Viewer Inspector panel appears D Inspector ef K Layout Font Full Sans Serif O Compressed Serif Weight Regular Bold SHORTCUT Open the Inspector panel with the Button bar amam 2i SEGA sR 428 Inspector Panel 69 Chapter 6 TreeViewer Click the appropriate radio buttons and click Set The tree redisplays in the selected format Here are trees in regular vs bold weight S S A S a NP VP NP VP Chris V NP Chris Vv NP saw Jill saw Jill Here are trees in sans
78. rules and a lexicon into Tree Viewer Then make the TreeViewer window the key window and select File gt Save or enter control s The Save Grammar Documents panel appears ask ing you to specify a name and location for the grammar When you save a grammar under a name for example File Syntactica makes a copy of the rule and lexicon files The component rule file is saved as File rgr The component lexicon is saved as File lgr Editing Saving and Loading Grammars Grammars are not a separate file type in Syntactica Editing saving and loading them is similar to what occurs with rules and lexicons Grammars Editing a Grammar To edit a grammar simply edit its component rule and lexicon files as you normally would Saving an Existing Grammar To save changes to a grammar that has already been created simply save changes to its component rule and lexicon files in the normal way Loading a Grammar A grammar is loaded whenever it is opened A grammar can also be loaded by loading its component rule and lexicon files separately in the usual way 89 Chapter 7 Sentence Files Tree Files and Grammars 90 cnaptens Transformations Trees generated by Syntactica can be transformed by various syntactic operations including movement copying deletion and indexing These operations are performed using the Transforms panel The Transforms Panel To open the Transforms panel by choose Options gt Transforms from
79. s Generating trees from syntactic rules and lexicons Transforming trees The user follows the same general sequence of steps in both cases he she Enters information in Syntactica windows Loads window information into Syntactica Instructs Syntactica to perform a computation Pe Ny gt Inspects the results Chapter 3 Syntactica Basics Here is a typical sequence of steps in generating a tree 1 Enter rules in a 3 Instruct Syntactica to Rule Window build a phrase marker by clicking Build Tree Seras send 2 Load rules into Syntactica and enter a sentence Eos ees Phonetic Form Chris walks Chris walks Form Chris walks GENERATING PHRASE MARKERS IN SYNTACTICA The user enters phrase structure rules This information is loaded into Syntactica together with a sentence Clicking the Build Tree button instructs Syntactica to build a tree for the sentence using the rules that have been loaded Syntactica displays the results which the user then inspects and evaluates The Two Core Functions of Syntactica The same general sequence of steps occurs with transforming a tree Again here is a typical session 1 Select nodes in a tree 3 Inspect Results of S Tree Viewer Ca Active Windows Active Windows Trees Tree 1 sends S
80. s are the following Copying over a pleonastic is not permitted whereas substitution over a pleonastic is permitted Copying into a variable category is not permitted whereas substitu tion into a variable category is permitted We might summarize by saying that copying obeys the empty target and like category constraints in a stronger way one allowing for no excep tions 119 Chapter 9 Constraints on Transformations 120 CHAPTER 10 Heads Features and Complements Syntactica enforces certain relationships among three types of informa tion headedness in rules features of lexical items features of complements These interact in a complex way in Syntactica It is useful to distinguish feature rule interactions and complement feature rule interactions Feature and Rule Interactions The main principles governing feature rule relationships are 1 The features of a lexical item are inherited by the lexical node that domi nates it 2 Inarule the mother node inherits the features of any category specified as a head EXAMPLE Suppose that for is entered in the lexical item template as shown below 121 Chapter 10 Heads Features and Complements g Cat Inaudible oad a Update bener Then according to the first principle the feature benef assigned to for is inherited by the P node that dominates it P a benef lt for NB the features shown here and below are
81. s in a Rules window and save them as a file They are loaded into Syntactica and the window becomes the active Rule window EXAMPLE Suppose you create a new set of rules in a Rules window and click its Load button The rules are loaded into Syntactica and the window becomes the active Rule window But the rules are not saved as a file EXAMPLE Suppose you open an existing rule file Its contents are loaded into Syntactica and it becomes the active Rule window Titles of all active windows are registered in the Active Windows list located in the upper right hand corner of Tree Viewer 17 Chapter 3 Syntactica Basics 18 EXAMPLE Suppose Example rule is opened It is loaded and becomes the active Rules window Example 1 rule appears in the list Since multiple windows of a given type may be open at the same time the active windows list is helpful in keeping track of what rules and lexicons are being used to build phrase markers or what sentences and tree win dows are linked to Tree Viewer Sample Session Building Phrase Markers Sample Session Building Phrase Markers Launch Syntactica Your screen should look something like this e008 Syntactica File Edit Options Help HOS gt SESSA s jpe H Untitled0 rule Build Tre In the upper left corner is the application menu Below it is a Button bar with shortcuts On the screen there is a Tree Viewer window a Rule window Cho
82. sary to copy and paste expressions into Tree Viewer s sentence field Closing When you close an active sentence window its title disappears from the active windows list This indicates that Syntactica no longer has any active sentence window Tree Files A tree file contains a set of trees Tree Files have the extension tree Tree files are created and displayed in tree windows A tree window appears whenever you open an existing tree file or create a new one To 81 Chapter 7 Sentence Files Tree Files and Grammars open an existing tree file choose File gt Open File gt Trees from the menu To create a new tree file choose File gt New File gt Trees SHORTCUT Open new tree windows with the Button bar E Baye New Tree The Parts of a Tree Window A tree window consist of a Tree List which lists the trees in a file by their terminal strings a Tree Display for exhibiting trees Under the Tree Display are buttons allowing the user to remove trees to resize them to send them to Tree Viewer or to load the window making it the active tree window 82 Tree Files Fr Untitled1 tre Tree List Tree Display Foo Whenever you select a tree in the Tree List it is highlighted in the list and displayed in the Tree Display Adding Editing Saving and Printing Trees Trees generated in TreeViewer are collected in tree windows and saved as files Adding Trees to Tree Window T
83. serif vs serif font OA TOAN Chris V NP Chris V NP saw Jill saw Jill And here are trees in full vs compressed layout S S Se aw NP vp l yet NS NP VP Chris V NP l FN saw Jill Chris V NP saw Jill 70 Displaying Triangles in Trees Displaying Triangles in Trees Syntactica can display trees containing triangles To generate a node X dominating a triangle over items A B C enter a rule of the form X _ABC_ Then use the expression _A_B_C_ as part of the input for which Syn tactic builds a tree EXAMPLE The following rules generate the tree shown below them for the input sentence _the_man_ gave Fido _to_Jill_ S NP VP VP gt V NP PP V gave NP _the_man_ NP Fido PP _to_Jill_ S A NP VP aS the man V NP PP A gave Fido to Jill Printing Trees To print the tree currently shown in the Tree Display make Tree Viewer the key window and select File gt Print SHORTCUT Click the Print button in the Button bar HOR 8 9 SHS Se 28 Print 71 Chapter 6 TreeViewer USER NOTE Trees are printed in the size and format font weight and layout shown in the Tree Display Saving Trees as EPS Images Trees can be saved as individual Encapsulated Postscript EPS images for use in homeworks papers and presentations To do so 1 Choose File gt Save To from the main menu 2 Save the tree as an EPS in the desired location SHOR
84. t the latter is considered a single entry despite having two different complement frames leive givvb gave g v gien giv ani giving ME given of Scand origin akin to OSw give to give akin to OE giefon gifor to give L habe to have hold ve 13c 1 to make a present of give a doll to a child 2a to grant or bestow by formal action the law gives citizens the right to vote How Syntactica Distinguishes Lexical Items Indexed items in a Syntactica lexicon such as the two give s in the pre ceding example can be viewed as corresponding to subentries of a single entry whereas separate unindexed items correspond to distinct lexical entries duck 59 Chapter 5 Working with Lexicons and Lexicon Files 60 CHAPTER 6 Tree Viewer TreeViewer displays syntactic trees generated by Syntactica Generating trees requires the user to 1 Load rules and typically a lexicon 2 Input a sentence or other expression 3 Instruct Syntactica to build a tree for the sentence The TreeViewer window is also used to transform trees by means of the Transforms panel The TreeViewer Window A TreeViewer window appears when Syntactica is launched and stays open while Syntactica is in use It can be miniaturized but it cannot be closed The Parts of the Tree Viewer Window The Tree Viewer window consists of several elements a Trees List a Tree Display a PF Phonetic Form Display Zoom buttons a Senten
85. the menu or enter control T D Transforms L Adjoin Status Cancel _ In the upper row are six buttons used to perform syntactic operations In the lower row is a Cancel button which aborts an operation in progress an Undo button which undoes a completed operation and a status field which reports where the user is in an operation 91 Chapter 8 Transformations SHORTCUT Click the Transforms icon in the Button bar HOR 8 9 SHLAA Se 28 Transforms Types of Operations To transform trees in Syntactica the user selects nodes in a tree by click ing on them and clicks an operation button in the Transforms panel Syn tactica performs unary operations and binary operations Unary Operations In a unary operation the user selects a node or set of nodes in a tree and clicks an operation button in the Transforms panel The selected nodes are the target nodes The unary operations are deletion indexing Binary Operations In a binary operation the user selects a node or set of nodes in the tree clicks an operation button in the Transforms panel then selects another node in the tree The nodes initially selected are the source nodes The second node selected is the target node The binary operations are copying left adjunction right adjunction substitution The last three are also referred to as movement operations 92 Deletion Deletion To perform a deletion
86. tree for The man walks 21 Chapter 3 Syntactica Basics The build succeeds because Example2 rule unlike Example1 rule con tains the resources to accommodate the man Viewing Alternative Structures A given expression may have several different possible trees under a given set of rules and lexicon In this circumstance Syntactica builds all possible trees and allows the user to view them sequentially EXAMPLE With Example2 rule loaded into TreeViewer enter the input sentence Chris saw Jill and build its tree 22 Sample Session Building Phrase Markers ac aaa i Chris saw Jill TreeViewer displays one structure and indicates another in the Tree list in the upper left hand corner Tree 1 is highlighted in the list showing that it is the one currently displayed Click Tree 2 in the Tree list 23 Chapter 3 Syntactica Basics The entry is highlighted and a new tree is displayed This is Tree 2 for Chris saw Jill as generated by Example2 rule jacks fal Chris saw Jill Clicking back and forth in the tree list allows you to rapidly view and evaluate structural differences in parses Using Rules and a Lexicon Together The example trees above were generated using rules alone The procedure for building trees with rules and a lexicon is similar EXAMPLE Open Example3 rule and Example1 lex The Active Window list displays the titles of both files Enter Chris walks and build
87. xes the trace and the moved phrase using the index that the user has entered EXAMPLE If the highlighted NP node is moved and substituted for the empty NP node in subject position the result is as shown 101 Chapter 8 Transformations ee ae e V NP PP are N P NP men in Det N Target Source Node Node the garden S i oe Substitution NP1 VP V NP1 PP men are P NP in Det N the garden Syntactica enforces certain general constraints on movement operations including substitution Syntactica also enforces specific constraints on substitutions For more information see Chapter 9 Constraints on Trans formations Multiple Selection Multiple source node selection using Ctrl click allows the user to substi tute a number of phrases simultaneously 102 Substitution EXAMPLE If the two highlighted NP nodes are simultaneously moved and substituted for the empty NP node in subject position the result is as shown Target Node gt PA l me Se A are P NP are N U NP A men in Det N A men at 7 i Source the garden Source the door Node Node s Substitution a es NP1 VP m E VP and VP A AA al V NA PP V NM PP a P NP il P NP in Det N Det N l de ii J Movement of this kind is called across the board ATB movement A phrase is moved simultaneously from two or more source positions to a single target position Syntactica enforces certain constraints on ATB movements For more info
88. y an NP object Obligatory izi m o Complements _INP This yields the distribution where the asterix indicates an ill formed sen tence Jill devoured Jill devoured yp a pizza EXAMPLE The complement template below for ate specifies that this verb may be followed optionally by an NP object but no other category of com plement may appear Obligatory ff m a Complements _ NP This yields the distribution Jill ate Jill ate yp a pizza Entering Lexical Information EXAMPLE The complement template below for dined specifies that the verb takes no complements at all Obligatory a E Ej Complements _ This yields the distribution Jill dined Jill dined np a pizza Multiple Complements These conventions interact in the expected way when more than one com plement is declared EXAMPLE The complement template below for baked specifies that the verb must have an NP object and may take a following PP with the feature benef No other kind of complement may follow the NP however Obligatory vj fa i Complements _ NP PP benef Features Assuming PPs headed by for bear the feature benef this yields the distri bution Chris baked Chris baked np a cake Chris baked np a cake pp for Jill Chris baked pp for Jill yp a cake Chris baked yp a cake pp tall Chris baked yp a cake pp to Jill USER NOTE These conventions for enterin

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