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Bio11 Lab Manual W11

1. Bilirubin Ketones Blood pH Protein Phosphates Using the table on page 2 evaluate the health of Huey Duey and Luey based on your analysis of their urine samples Discuss the results with your lab partners and answer the remaining questions on the worksheet 55 Lab Worksheet Urinalysis lab Name Lab day Tu or Th 1 Which way does water move across the dialysis membrane in the osmosis demonstration into the colored solution or out to the large beaker Why 2 Does sucrose move across the dialysis membrane Why or why not 3 Why did the level of one colored sucrose solution rise higher than the other 4 Are the specific gravity values of the urines of Huey Duey and Luey within the normal range Explain whether this makes sense based on how much water they drank with the past 12 hours 5 The specific gravity of two urine samples is determined Sample 1 has a specific gravity of 1 003 Sample 2 has a specific gravity of 1 025 a Which sample is dilute b Which sample is concentrated c Sample 1 was produced by someone who drank a cup of coffee in the morning and sample 2 by a person who drank a cup of water Explain the difference in specific gravity between the two samples 56 If Huey Duey and Luey s urine samples represented actual patients which one should have further tests for diabetes Why Which of the 3 simulated urine samples could represent real
2. Expiratory reserve volume Inspiratory reserve 40 Why can you hold your breath for less time after breathing from the paper bag Include a discussion of carbon dioxide and oxygen in your answer Transfer the numbers for your pulse rate by two different methods to here e Pulse rate by touch at wrist e Pulse rate by stethoscope Are the numbers the same If not explain Why is blood pressure higher in the standing position than when lying down How did the subject s pulse rate change during the two minutes of exercise Compare their resting pulse rate to the first post exercise rate you measured After the subject stopped exercising how did the pulse rate change over the next three minutes Use your graph to help answer Muscles produce carbon dioxide when they are working In an effort to return to the normal resting concentration of carbon dioxide several organ systems work together to excrete the excess carbon dioxide Describe how both increased pulse rate and increased respiration rate help to rid the body of carbon dioxide 4 10 Trace the flow of blood through the heart In the box below enter the names of the structures listed in their correct order to trace the pathway of blood Vena Cava Aortic Valve Left Ventricle Purkinje Fibers Vena Cava His Bundle Tracing blood flow through the heart Oxygen poor blood Oxygen rich blood 8
3. 4 Follow the steps of viewing a slide page 3 to look at the cotton threads first at scanning power then at low power and finally at high power Use the fine adjustment knob to look at threads in the bottom middle and top layers of your wet mount At scanning power do all the threads seem to be in focus at once How about at high power Observe a single Paramecium swimming among the threads Look for a slipper shaped organism that moves in a fairly straight line most of the time e Does the organism always move with the same end forward Do you see any evidence that the Paramecium spins on its long axis like a paper towel roller as it moves forward e What happens when a Paramecium bumps into something To see details of Paramecium structure you will have to find a Paramecium that is not moving You may be lucky and find one that is trapped in the cotton threads e Try a slide of Paramecia with methyl cellulose Proto slow a very thick liquid that slows down their swimming e Make ring of methyl cellulose about 1 cm diameter and place a drop of culture within the ring Place a coverslip over the preparation and look for Paramecia under low power e When you find a Paramecium that is slowed down focus on it with your high power objective You may need to make several slides before you are successful Keep all your slides because you may find that after some time some very active Paramecia slow down as the
4. 5 1 25 etc You will be able to see some nutrition facts below When you are satisfied with your choice click on Save changes Add your second item in our example milk 2 Once you have added all your foods to your database print the page with your food list Make sure the Calories tab is highlighted see the box below the food list Click on Printer Friendly at the upper right Now highlight the Nutrition tab and print the table that gives the RDA values for vitamins and minerals Click on Printer Friendly and print Write your name on the following print outs and attach them to your report 1 Food list 2 Calories table and pie chart 3 Nutrition table with RDA values 44 Nutrition Facts Thanks to Kathleen Duncan and members of the Biology Dept Foothill College Nutrients Nutrients are the components of our diet necessary to life Some nutrients provide energy or fuel for cellular respiration and the production of ATP other nutrients do not provide energy but are necessary for the proper functioning of our bodies The categories of nutrients that do NOT contain energy are vitamins minerals water and fiber Calories The three main categories of energy providing nutrients are fats carbohydrates and proteins The amount of energy each provides is measured in Calories The Calories used in nutrition is capitalized to distinguish this measurement from the related energy m
5. 9 10 11 12 13 N N Aa A ol N r 14 Structures chambers valves and vessels Pulmonary arteries Aortic arteries Right atrium Right AV valve Right ventricle Pulmonary veins Aorta Pulmonary trunk Left atrium Left AV valve Left ventricle Vena cavae Aortic semilunar valve Pulmonary semilunar valve 42 Lab 6 Diet Analysis Are you eating right This assignment will help you understand what it means to eat a healthy balanced diet Part 1 Assess your diet Keep a record of everything you eat and drink in one 24 hour period Record the TYPE and AMOUNT of food or beverage It s important that this is a typical day and represents how you commonly eat 1 Write down EVERYTHING you eat including the amounts e If you can be precise by using measuring cups food labels food scales by all means do so e Otherwise estimate your intake as best as you can For some guidelines of what certain measurements look like 1 2 cup serving of canned fruit vegetables or potatoes looks like a half a tennis ball sitting on your plate o 3 ounces of meat fish or chicken is about the size of a deck of playing cards or the palm of your hand A 1 ounce serving of cheese is about the size of your thumb 1 cup serving of milk yogurt or fresh greens is about the size of your fist 1 teaspoon of oil is about the size of your thumb tip 2 Asample menu might look like this e Breakfast 2 c
6. as Daily Value for calculations Up to 1500 mg per day for adult women is recommended to help prevent osteoporosis Decrease in bone density bones are brittle and break easily Most common in elderly women but men can have it too menopause amp loss of estrogen make bone loss worse Peak bone density in middle age then decrease The more you build up early the better off you are Build bones with calcium intake weight bearing exercise Foods Dairy spinach shrimp soybeans 47 Iron RDAs 10 mg day for men 15 mg day for women monthly blood loss Component of hemoglobin protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen Deficiency can lead to anemia Different forms are more or less absorbable Vitamin C at the same time improves absorption Cooking in iron pots does add iron to foods but is least absorbable form Most absorbable from heme in lean red meat Foods Red meat liver shellfish egg yolk whole grains green leafy vegetables nuts dried fruit 48 Lab Worksheet Diet Analysis Name Lab Day Tu or Th Part 2 Diet Analysis 20 points NOTE will grade your Diet Analysis only if the Fitday com reports are attached Computer Analysis Carbohydrates Fat and Protein Answer the following questions using the information from your Fitday com analysis Attach your food list and the 2 Fitday com Food Reports 4 pts Use your Calories table and pie chart to complete the following 1 recommended heal
7. button on the microscope base to turn the light on turn the light off when not in use Label the following parts of the microscope on the figure above Eyepiece or ocular lens e where you can look into the microscope e magnifies objects ten times 10X e Some microscopes are monocular one eyepiece and some are binocular two eyepieces Does your microscope have one or two eyepieces Objective lenses Longer objectives have higher magnifying power e Scanning objective magnifies 4 times marked 4X e Low power objective magnifies 10 times marked 10X e High power objective marked 40X e Oil immersion objective 100X not used in this course Stage aplatform that holds a slide for you to look at Illuminator e Light from the illuminator passes through the condenser the slide the objective lens and the eyepiece and then enters your eye Iris diaphragm e controls how much light passes through the slide slide lever directly under the stage continuously varies the light passing through Feel free to adjust the amount of light to your own preference at any time Coarse adjustment knob outer ring e Used to bring the specimen into general focus e Moves the objective up and down quickly Turning the knobs away from you moves the objective down Turning the Knobs toward you moves the objective up Fine adjustment knob inner ring e Used to bring the specimen into focus e Should be turned very sl
8. chart below Solution pH Acidic basic or neutral 0 1M HCl 0 01M HCl Lemon juice Vinegar Water Alka Seltzer 29 0 01 M NaOH 0 1 M NaOH In living organisms pH plays an important role in the functioning of systems Many body fluids have a pH near neutrality For example the pH of blood is normally between 7 35 and 7 45 lymph has a pH of 6 8 as does saliva However gastric juice produced in the stomach has a pH of about 2 highly acidic So how does the stomach avoid digesting itself Experiment 3 CATALASE and pH Hydrogen peroxide H202 a toxic chemical breaks down slowly to water and oxygen 2 H202 gt 2 H20 gas This reaction can be speeded up by adding an enzyme called catalase which is found in many living cells Our source of catalase will be potatoes Step 1 First you will observe the effect of adding several different substances to hydrogen peroxide You should record your observations using the following scale No bubbling S Moderate bubbling Strong bubbling Very strong bubbling Get a fresh potato cutting board and razor or scalpel Cut two small cubes of potato about inch per side from the inside white part of the potato not the peel Chop one of the cubes into very tiny pieces Label four clean test tubes 1 2 3 and 4 Put about 1 inch 2 to 3 squirts of hydrogen peroxide into each tube Then add the
9. of the field of view at this magnification e What is the diameter of the low power field of view in millimeters e What is it in micrometers marked with symbol to use this number later in calculations The divisions of the ruler are too large to measure the diameter of the field of view at high power so we ll use some math reasoning to figure it out To make the math simpler let s approximate the total magnification at the highest power as 400X Since the total magnification at low power is 100X high power magnification is four times greater As you have seen the field of view is smaller at higher magnifications In fact the field of view is inversely proportional to the magnification In other words twice that magnification gives 1 2 the field of view and ten times the magnification gives 1 10 the field of view e Since high power is four times the magnification of low power take the number above marked for the field of view at low power and divide by four e What is the high power field of view in micrometers Now that you Know the diameters of the fields of view of your microscope you can estimate the size of any object that you see First estimate how many times the object would fit across the field of view Then divide the field of view by that number For example if your field of view were one thousand micrometers and five of your object would fit across the object is about 200 micrometers across Now tr
10. the surface of the red cells Blood type A has the A antigen on the red cell surface type B has the B antigen type AB has both A and B antigens and type O has neither antigen Group A Group B Group AB Group O Red bloo ch P Anti A Anti A and Anti B Ai B antigen A and B No antigens antigens Note that the plasma in blood type A contains antibodies to B Look at blood type O which is mistakenly called the universal donor The type O red blood cell does not have either A or B antigens but the plasma contains both A and B antibodies This means that if you are type A you can t receive a whole blood transfusion of type O blood Why is this Early transfusions used whole blood but modern medical practice commonly uses only components of the blood What is the advantage of transfusions of red blood cells alone without the plasma 66 and Rh Blood Typing using simulated blood In addition to the ABO markers standard blood typing checks for the presence or absence of Rh factor proteins presence is and absence 15 1 Label each blood typing slide Slide 1 Mr Le Slide 2 Ms Nguyen Slide 3 Mr Perez Slide 4 Ms Brown Place 3 4 drops of Mr Le s blood in each of the A B and Rh wells of slide 1 Place 3 4 drops of Ms Nguyen s blood in each of the A B and Rh wells of slide 2 Place 3 4 drops of Mr Perez s blood in each of the A B and Rh wells of slide 3 Place 3 4 dr
11. worked perfectly If necessary observe the results of other lab groups 2 Does the rennin enzyme behave differently at different temperatures yes no Explain why the milk did not solidify under the cold conditions In your answer use the concept of shape changes in the enzyme active site Explain why the milk did not solidify when the enzyme was boiled Hint not identical to the answer above What happened to the enzyme protein Which experimental temperature used was most like the inside of a calf s stomach Which of the solutions that you tested is the most acidic See table p 3 Which of the solutions that you tested is the most basic Which is more acidic lemon juice or Alka Seltzer 33 9 What pH did you measure for Alka Seltzer How does Alka Seltzer work to alleviate the painful symptoms of heartburn reflux of acidic stomach contents into the esophagus 10 For the potato catalase experiment what gas is in the bubbles Hint refer to the chemical reaction shown on page 4 11 You tested 3 substances for ability to catalyze speed up the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide sand manganese oxide and potato Which of the substances demonstrated catalytic activity based on production of bubbles in any amount name all that did 12 Why is there more bubbling when you chop the potato in small pieces compared to just a potato cube 13 Does the catalase enzyme in the po
12. De Anza College Biology 11 Laboratory Manual Human Biology Winter 2011 Instructor Ann Reisenauer Biology 11 Laboratory Manual Human Biology Contents Lab 1 IMICKOSCOPY 2 e Sale oot ack as 5 Lab 2 Macromolecules 17 Lab 3 Cells and MITOSIS 3 Geet ws eee eee 23 Lab 4 LEE 27 Lab 5 Circulation and Respiration 35 Lab 6 Diet Analysis Are You Eating Right 43 Lab 7 Urinary System 53 Lab 8 Whe Senses re iui Oke ieee RE 59 Lab 9 lt x Ge ate SS ee OS we RE 65 Lab 1 Introduction to Microscopy With the invention of the microscope scientists were able to resolve much smaller objects and see the cells and parts of cells that make up living things The fields of science medicine and technology have all advanced greatly with knowledge gained from using microscopes This exercise is intended to get you familiar with our microscopes and the ways to use them so you can see things you cannot see with your eyes alone Parts of the light microscope Each student has an assigned microscope for his or her own use The microscopes are numbered and you should get the one that matches the number of the seat you are sitting in Be sure to return it to the proper numbered slot when you are done Carry the microscope to your seat with both hands you don t want to pay for a broken microscope Plug the cord into the socket in front of your table and push the
13. MENTS Chemists and biologists often measure a property of aqueous water based solutions called the pH The solutions are classified as having acidic basic alkaline or neutral pH depending on the concentrations of hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions OH that are present in the solution Just as temperature is measured in F acidity is measured in pH units If you have a swimming pool or fish tank at home you may have measured the pH of the water Like the Richter scale for earthquakes pH uses a logarithmic scale where each number represents a 10 fold change in the concentration of hydrogen ions For example a solution with a pH of 3 is 10 times more acidic than a solution with a pH of 4 100 times more acidic than a solution with a pH of 5 and 1000 times more acidic than a solution with a pH of 6 A pH of 7 is considered neutral distilled water is pH 7 Most tap water has a slightly acidic pH due to dissolved from the air Examine the scale below to see the pattern of pH with respect to acidic neutral and basic solutions pH O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 strong acid weak acid neutral weak base strong base Instructions pH test paper is an easy way to get a quick estimate of the pH of a solution Just dip the strip of paper in the solution to be tested then compare the colors to the color charts printed on the dispenser box e Measure the pH values of the solutions provided in lab and record your values in the
14. Normal man Normal woman Color blind man Color blind woman Woman carrier Now set up a Punnett square showing what happens when a normal man and a woman who is a carrier of the color blindness allele have children Man s genotype A Woman s genotype Man s gametes Woman s gametes What are the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the couples sons Their daughters Example 2 Hemophilia A far more harmful sex linked trait is hemophilia the inability to manufacture one of several proteins necessary in the normal clotting of blood Without treatment a hemophiliac could bleed to death from a very small cut or bruise Use upper case H for normal blood clotting and lower case h for hemophilia and set up a cross between a hemophiliac man and a normal homozygous woman Man s genotype A Woman s genotype Man s gametes Woman s gametes What are the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the couples sons Their daughters 69 Genetic crosses with two traits Gregor Mendel formulated his Law of Independent Assortment by looking at genetic crosses that involved two traits at the same time In peas yellow color is dominant over green and smoothness is dominant over wrinkles Use Y or y for color and S or s for texture e What is the genotype of a green wrinkled e When this pea grows into a plant what gametes can it produce e What is the genotype of a heterozygous yellow wrink
15. al measurement is your vital capacity This is the most air you can exhale after inhaling as much as your lungs can hold Take your deepest breath then exhale slowly and steadily into the spirometer Remember to take three measurements and choose the middle one transfer it to the diagram Total lung capacity Vital capacity Residual volume Tidal Inspiratory reserve volume Expiratory reserve This diagram shows the relationship among the lung volumes we have measured gray rectangles and some others that we cannot measure directly The sizes of the boxes are approximate but the way they are arranged is significant e vital capacity is the sum of inspiratory reserve tidal volume expiratory reserve e total lung capacity is the sum of vital capacity residual volume Use the diagram to calculate your inspiratory reserve volume and record it in the appropriate space The residual air volume stays in your lungs even after you have exhaled completely If it is not there the alveoli can collapse For males the residual volume is about 1500 ml for females about 1200 ml Write the value appropriate for you in the residual volume space of the diagram Use the diagram to calculate your total lung capacity from the numbers you have determined so far When you are satisfied with your answers transfer the numbers on the diagram to the worksheet Respiration and pulse rates Working with a pa
16. and draw a conclusion Hand in a copy of your experimental results the completed table above during next week s lab Note a colony is a clump of millions of individual cells Individual bacteria are too small to see without a microscope but when they multiply to a clump of millions they are easily visible 13 Lab Worksheet Microscope Lab Name Lab Day Tu or Th 1 What is the magnification of your high power objective What is the total magnification when you look through the eyepiece and your high power objective 2 Describe how to change the aperture settings on the iris diaphragm of your microscope in order to let the most light through to the slide 3 Sketch of letter e at low power write total magnification in box Remember that low power is NOT necessarily the shortest objective d 4 Sketch of letter e at high power write total magnification in box 14 5 Which sketch of the letter e shows the largest area the most e Which sketch of the letter e shows the smallest details such as paper fibers or ink spots 6 After working through the instructions on page 4 record your measurements of the various fields of view here in micrometers Diameter of scanning power field of view Diameter of low power field of view Diameter of high power field of view Don t guess READ 4 7 Sketch a Paramecium in the space provided Label the oral groove a vacuole and the plasma membr
17. ane Indicate the total magnification in the box It s OK to make your sketch larger than it appears in the field of view this will make labeling easier 8 How many Paramecia do you think would fit across your field of view Using your answer in Question 6 for the appropriate total magnification divide the diameter of the field of view by the number of Paramecia that fit across This gives your estimate of the length of one Paramecium which is 15 16 Lab 2 Macromolecules Introduction In lab today we will perform some simple chemical tests used to demonstrate the presence of three kinds of organic molecules fats carbohydrates and proteins These organic molecules are present in the foods we eat and are used by our bodies as fuel and raw materials for growth and repair Triglycerides fats contain three fatty acid chains bound together by glycerol molecule They can be saturated or unsaturated depending on whether double bonds are present in the fatty acid chains Fats that are liquid at room temperature are called oils e Carbohydrates contain simple sugars which have the formula CH20 The simple sugars monosaccharides can be joined together to form disaccharides or polysaccharides such as starch glycogen and cellulose e Proteins are long chains of amino acids which fold into higher level structures with widely varied functions For each test we will first try out positive and negative
18. by kidney stones White blood cells Lower urinary tract infection WBC gather at sites of infection Protein albumin Kidney damage strenuous exercise fever Glomerulus more porous lets larger molecules through than normal proteins enter filtrate Procedures for urinalysis 1 Measure specific gravity Specific gravity compares the weight of a given volume of liquid to the weight of an equal amount of distilled water Specific gravity is therefore a unitless measure and the specific gravity of distilled water is by definition 1 000 A liquid with a higher specific gravity than 1 000 due to dissolved particles is denser than distilled water and will therefore have more flotation power The specific gravity of urine is measured with a urinometer which is a sealed glass tube hydrometer that floats in a cylinder of liquid The surface level of the liquid is read on a calibrated scale that is accurate to 3 decimal places The instructor will demonstrate how to read a urinometer using a distilled water control 2 Measurements using a dipstick test strip You will need the dipstick container to read the results To test a urine sample dip the test strip in the urine and remove immediately For each reading wait the number of seconds noted on the container and then record the result based on the color comparison chart The colors may not match exactly use your best judgment to decide which result
19. centered around the Haversian canals The bone cells 23 themselves are small and appear spider like the rest of bone is formed from compounds secreted by the bone cells and is called matrix Make a sketch of one group of concentric rings on your worksheet and label as indicated Mitosis slides Get a prepared slide of whitefish blastula which shows cells in various stages of cell division Using the 4X objective scanning power focus on the cells Switch to the 10X objective low power focus again and find an area of the slide with cells that seem to be in different stages of cell division Choose one cell for each stage listed below and sketch it under high power magnification draw sketches on the worksheet 1 Prophase The chromosomes are condensed and the nuclear envelope begins to dissolve 2 Metaphase The chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell and attach to the mitotic spindle 3 Anaphase The sister chromatids separate and one copy moves to either end of the cell 4 Telophase The nuclear envelopes reform as the cell pinches in at the center and begins to divide in two 24 Lab Worksheet Cells amp Mitosis Lab Name Lab Day Tu Th 1 Sketch several stained cheek cells here Label one cell s nucleus and plasma membrane Note the total magnification in the box 2 What is your estimate of the size of one cheek cell Show your work 3 Neuron sketch Find a large blue stained ce
20. ch Example problem 2 A young unmarried woman had a baby and wishes to collect child support from the father Her blood type is A and the baby s is O There are two possible fathers Jim is group B and Michael is group AB Which one could be the father Sex linked genes In humans gender is determined not by simple pairs of genes but by the presence of absence of entire chromosomes The chromosomes that determine gender are called sex chromosomes normally each individual has two of them In addition to helping determine gender the X chromosome also carries unrelated genes The Y chromosome is very small and doesn t carry any genes that we will be concerned with Genes carried on the X chromosome are called sex linked genes Since women have a pair of X chromosomes they can be homozygous dominant heterozygous or homozygous recessive for a trait just like any autosomal trait A man has only one X chromosome and a gene on that chromosome will always be expressed In order to do genetics problems with sex linked genes you need to set them up correctly Use the letters X and Y to symbolize the sex chromosomes of the individuals Represent any gene carried on the X chromosome as a superscript on the X 68 Examples of sex linked traits colorblindness and hemophilia Example 1 Colorblindness Using upper case B for normal vision and lower case b for color blindness write the genotypes of the following individuals
21. controls A positive control is a sample that you know contains the molecule being tested A negative control is a sample that you know does not contain the molecule being tested We will use water as our negative control in all the tests Carefully observe the difference between the appearance of the positive and negative controls Later in the laboratory exercise you will be testing samples of food If the test looks like the positive control then you have a positive result If the test looks like the negative control then you have a negative result The chemical tests A Grease spot test for fat You have probably observed the results of this test many times To do the test apply a very small amount of the substances to be tested on labeled areas on a piece of brown paper bag Let the substances dry and observe the spots by holding the paper up to the light If you see a translucent spot lets light through fat is present Apply this test to a drop of vegetable oil and a drop of water After the spots are dry record your observations here Appearance of positive control Appearance of negative control 17 While you wait for the spots to dry you can continue with other parts of the laboratory exercise B Benedict s test for sugar Begin by putting approximately 1 ml of water in one test tube and 1 ml of maltose solution the positive control in another test tube 1 ml is about 20 drops Add a dropper full of Benedict s sol
22. e being slowly rotated The subjects will then attempt to stand up and walk away Think about what is happening to the semicircular canals of the inner ear during this demonstration and answer question 3 on the worksheet use space below for your notes during the demonstration 59 Activities to do with your lab partners Activity 1 Get three 250 ml beakers Fill one with room temperature tap water one with cold but not icy water and the third with warm but not painfully hot water Choose a subject from your group This person should hold one hand in the beaker of cold water and the other hand in the beaker of warm water After one minute the subject will move both hands into a beaker of room temperature water Write down what the subject says about the sensations he she is feeling during the demonstration Left Hand Right Hand 1 Beginning of trial 2 After 30 seconds 3 After 1 minute right after hands put in room temp beaker Activity 2 For this experiment you will use an instrument called a two point discriminator The instrument can be set to separate two prongs by a measured distance When the prongs are close together they feel like only one point As they are moved apart depending on the sensitivity of the sensory area being tested two points can be felt Choose one person to be the subject and one person to be the experimenter The subject should close his or her eyes and report whether one or two points ar
23. e end with the bell that collects sound Position the bell on the left center of your partner s chest over the heart Listen for two sounds in each heartbeat The first sound lub is low dull and lasts longer than the second sound It is caused by the closure of the valves between the atria and ventricles The second sound DUPP follows the first sound after a brief pause This sound has a snapping quality of higher pitch and shorter duration and is caused by the closure of the semilunar valves You or a partner should count the number of lub DUPP sounds your heart makes in 15 seconds and multiply by four Record your pulse rate here then answer Question 5 on the worksheet Blood pressure measurements The instructor will demonstrate how to use a blood pressure cuff sphygmo manometer Blood pressure is recorded as two numbers The top number is systolic pressure the maximum pressure of a heartbeat This is the reading of the pressure gauge when you first hear sounds through the stethoscope When the sound fades away the pressure measurement is the diastolic pressure which is the lower number of the blood pressure measurement e Caution Do not inflate the cuffs to pressures higher than 150 and do not leave an inflated cuff on a person s arm for more than a minute or two Have a partner determine your blood pressure in a seated position and record the value here 37 Experiment does body position affec
24. e felt for each trial For each skin area begin with 0 mm setting on the test instrument and progress to larger separations until the subject reports feeling a sensation of two separate points Record the distance at which the subject first noticed two separate points in the results table below Next repeat the experiment with a different person as the subject of the experiment Then answer the questions on the worksheet Subject 1 Subject 2 Index finger Back of neck Inside wrist Back of hand 60 Activity 3 Get some sterile tongue swabs and sterile solutions of salt NaCl and sugar Choose one person to be the experimental subject The subject should close his her eyes and stick out his her tongue The experimenter should randomly choose sugar or salt solution dip in a swab and touch the swab gently on the back of the subject s tongue The subject will report what he she tastes if anything and then rinse out the mouth before the next trial Do four trials on the back of the tongue and then four trials on the front of the tongue Test each solution twice in each area but in random order When you are finished answer the worksheet questions Solution used Taste sensation reported Back of tongue 1 2 3 4 Front of tongue 1 2 3 4 Activities to do on your own Activity 4 With the help of the Snellen eye chart posted on the wall you can test your own visual acuity Stand exactly 20 feet away from the char
25. e four sets of post exercise readings Time since Pulse rate Respiration rate subject stopped beats per breaths per exercising minute minute O minutes 1 minute 2 minutes 3 minutes 38 In the space below make a graph of the pulse and respiration rate data Use different symbols or colors for each set of data and connect the points with a series of short straight lines Label the x and y axis You will not hand in your graph but you should check your results with the instructor since a similar exercise may be on the next exam Think about and discuss your results then answer the final questions on the worksheet 39 Lab Worksheet Circulation amp Respiration Name Lab Day Tu or Th 1 Which has a higher carbon dioxide content the room air or your exhaled breath Why did lime water turn cloudy more quickly in your flask than in the demonstration flask 2 Sketch the blood tissue at high power and label a red blood cell a white blood cell and the plasma liquid that surrounds them NOT the same as cytoplasm For this slide it will be easiest to sketch everything you see in the field of view without enlarging it mentally Note the total magnification 3 in a value for each square of the diagram based on your own data Follow the instructions on page 2 to calculate the numbers correctly Total lung capacity Vital capacity Residual volume Tidal
26. easurement calories which is used in physics 1 Calorie 1 000 calories Fats are the most energy packed molecules they contain 9 Calories per gram Carbohydrates and proteins contain 4 Calories per gram Fats Triglycerides Although too much fat is well publicized as being harmful we all need a small amount of fat in our diet minimum 3 polyunsaturated provides the essential fatty acid linoleic acid Benefits of fats include Cell membrane components Insulation and cushioning Carry fat soluble vitamins Soften skin Synthesis of hormones Saturated animal products amp unsaturated double bonds plant products Risks of high fat diets include obesity cancer atherosclerosis Cholesterol More of it found in LDL than HDL LDL takes cholesterol to body cells Excess deposited on artery walls HDL brings cholesterol back to liver eliminated with bile High cholesterol foods Meat eggs seafood but not fish Carbohydrates Sugars starch fiber Starch complex carbohydrates A comes packaged with other high quality nutrients Fiber soluble and insoluble Insoluble fiber from skins amp tough parts of fruits and vegetables Adds bulk to material in intestine which speeds up peristalsis 45 Contact with carcinogens reduced Less risk of constipation Soluble fiber from oat bran apples beans Holds water in material in intestine similar effects to insoluble fiber Observed to have value in preventing colon cancer Amer
27. ee lecture notes or text 21 8 Define a negative control and a positive control 9 Why did we first do each test with water 10 Imagine that you are given a mystery food to test for macromolecule content The food is a solid white cube with a texture a bit softer than cheese The food is liquefied and then tested with some reagents Drops of Biuret reagent appear violet when mixed with the food Drops of iodine reagent appear blue black when mixed with the food e Does the food contain protein e Does it contain starch 22 Lab 3 Cells and Mitosis In this laboratory exercise we will look at several types of cells from the human body which are eukaryotic contain nuclei Also we will look at cells that are in the process of dividing their genetic material between two daughter nuclei and make sketches of the major steps in mitosis Human cheek cells Although animal cells contain many different kinds of membrane bound organelles the only one that can be seen with a light microscope is the nucleus You can also infer the position of the plasma membrane around the edge of the cell although it is too thin to observe directly We will stain cheek cells with the dye methylene blue which makes these structures easy to see e Gently scrape the inside of your mouth with a toothpick Smear the cells on a clean slide and stain them with a drop of methylene blue being careful not to stain your fingers Carefully lower a cover sli
28. ers who are heterozygous for the allele are shown with a box or circle that is half solid Complete the pedigree chart below by adding the following offspring to the couple in the chart 1 daughter 2 sons one color blind and one with normal vision Is the mother or the father the source of the color blindness gene Darken in half the box for the appropriate parent What is the probability that the daughter is a carrier 73
29. f the protein markers on the red cells 2 Analysis of ABO and Rh Blood Typing experiment Did the simulated blood sample agglutinate form a precipitate when the antibody was added anti A serum anti B serum anti Rh serum Blood type Slide 1 Mr Le Slide 2 Ms Nguyen Slide 3 Mr Perez Slide 4 Ms Brown 3 The two children of a family are AB and O What must be the genotypes of the parents of these children 4 A paternity suit is filed by a woman with Type O blood The man accused of being the father has Type A blood The child in question is type O Could the man be the father If he is what must be his genotype 72 5 If a woman is color blind is her father normal or color blind Explain why 6 In the early years of the 20 century Russian history was profoundly affected by the fact that the heir to the throne Prince Alexis was a hemophiliac Did Alexis inherit the defective allele from his father Czar Nicholas II or his mother Alexandra Explain your reasoning 7 A person with the genotype FfRr mates with someone whose genotype is ffRr What fraction of their children will neither have freckles nor be able to roll their tongues 8 Use a pedigree chart to determine patterns of inheritance By convention boxes designate males and circles designate females rows indicate each generation A solid box or circle designates a person with the phenotype in question Carri
30. following to each tube Tube 1 Using a clean spatula add a small amount of sand Tube 2 Using a spatula add a small amount of manganese oxide MnOz Tube 3 Add the cube of potato Tube 4 Add the chopped potato 30 Using the bubbling scale above record your observations in the table below Tube Bubbling 1 2 3 4 Why did you add sand to one tube Where do the bubbles come from Step 2 Cut three cubes of fresh potato the same size as before and chop them up keep them in three separate piles Label three test tubes acid neutral and base Put one chopped potato cube in each tube Add the following Acid tube Add one squirt about inch of 0 01 M HCI Neutral tube Add one squirt of water Base tube Add one squirt of 0 01 M NaOH Wait two minutes for the solutions to soak into the potato pieces Then add about 1 inch 2 3 squirts of hydrogen peroxide to each tube Observe any bubbling and record your results in the table below Fill in the pH column by referring to your previous tests with the pH strips Tube pH Bubbling Acid Neutral Base 31 32 Lab Worksheet Enzymes Lab Name Lab circle Tu Th 1 Did your rennin milk experiment work the way it was supposed to If not what are some possible reasons that your results were different For the following questions assume that the rennin experiment
31. hat is on the slide When you go to higher magnification less of the slide will be visible e Center the letter e in your field of view Rotate the objective ring until the low power objective 10X clicks into place Look through the eyepiece to see how the image has changed If necessary rotate the fine adjustment knob until you are satisfied with the focus e Sketch what you observe on the worksheet labeling your sketch with the total magnification 100X You may see a pointer or dark line through your eyepiece ocular It is not necessary to sketch it it can be used to indicate a part of the slide you would like to discuss with your partner or the instructor Next rotate the high power objective into place Carefully change the focus with the fine adjustment knob until the image is sharp Make a sketch on the worksheet of what you see and label your sketch with the total magnification of this view In review the steps for looking at a slide are 1 Use the scanning objective first 2 Turn the coarse adjustment all the way forward and then rotate slowly backward to focus 3 Turn the fine adjustment to sharpen the focus further 4 Center the object of interest 5 Change to the low power objective and refocus using the fine adjustment 6 Repeat Step 5 with the high power objective if desired 7 When you are through leave the microscope with the shortest objective in place C Estimating the si
32. he compatibility of the people s blood types The right blood type can save lives the wrong one can cause severe illness or even death An incompatible transfusion leads to a huge immune reaction that causes the red cells to clump together This mass of congealed blood could kill the person by lodging in the arteries of the heart or brain To understand the differences among blood types you ll need to learn some new vocabulary Antigen The surface of your red blood cells has proteins called self proteins which allow your immune system to identify these cells as self or belonging to you Red blood cells from other blood types contain foreign surface proteins called antigens which allow the immune system to identify them as foreign cells There are different antigens depending on blood type Antibody Blood plasma contains Y shpaed proteins called antibodies that attack cells identified as foreign There are many different antibodies each specialized to recognize and inactivate a particular antigen Antigen antibody complex Once an antigen has been identified the antibodies attack the foreign cells or chemical substances by binding to the antigen and forming an antigen antibody complex Incompatible transfusions lead to the formation of antigen antibody complexes An example of an antigen antibody complex Pathogen Antigen Anti K www science aid net 65 The ABO blood types are based on the antigens on
33. he white blood cells have nuclei which stain purple Make a sketch on the worksheet and add labels as directed Measure lung capacity The instructor will demonstrate the use of a spirometer to measure volumes of air When you use the spirometer be sure to put on a fresh sterile mouthpiece For each measurement try three times and use the middle value discard the largest and smallest measurements You can write all three values in this lab report and then cross out the two you will not be using The first measurement is your tidal volume This is the volume of air that you breathe out in a normal breath without thinking about it or making any extra effort It will be a small measurement probably under 500 ml If you get larger readings relax and try again taking normal quiet breaths Write the readings from your three trials here Cross out the largest and smallest leaving the middle value Write this value in the appropriate space of the lung volumes diagram on the next page The next measurement is your expiratory reserve This is the amount you can breathe out with extra effort after you have exhaled a normal breath Do not inhale extra air at this point just do a normal breath and then force as much 35 remaining air out into the spirometer as you can Try hard this volume should be about a liter 1000 ml Record three trials and cross out the largest and smallest Transfer the middle number to the diagram The fin
34. ican Cancer Society recommends up to 35 g for every 2 000 Calories but not more The current U S RDA is 25 g for every 2 000 Calories Protein Can be energy source but typically used as amino acid building blocks Amino acids not stored need essential ones at every meal Animal proteins complete but plant protein not Vegetarians need to think about complementing Alcohol Although alcohol is not a carbohydrate fat or protein it does provide Calories Specifically 7 Calories for each gram of alcohol Some drinks have sugar or cream as well and these add to more Calories in the usual categories The web site will list grams of alcohol in many typical drinks and sugar etc as well wine and beer do not carry nutrition labels Recommended Diet Carbohydrates 50 80 of calories Fats 30 of calories tops unsaturated better Protein 10 15 of calories Nutrition Labels Check serving size Total fat saturated unsaturated Total carbohydrate Sugars Fiber Starch Obesity When calorie intake exceeds energy usage you gain weight Eat less OR burn more calories Rapid weight loss is self defeating because valuable water amp lean muscle lost Body fights calorie reduction set point Appetite increases Metabolic rate slows Vitamins amp Minerals Needed in tiny amounts if lacking deficiency diseases Vitamins are organic carbon containing grouped as water soluble amp fat soluble Minerals are inorganic often
35. ike If the test is positive the molecule is present then add a plus sign in that space of the table If the test is negative the molecule is not present then add a minus sign Have the instructor check your table before you fill out the worksheet Food Paper Benedict s lodine Biuret lipid Sugar starch protein Milk Banana Avocado Potato 20 Lab Worksheet Macromolecules Lab Name Lab Day Tuor Th 1 You and your lab partner should each build a model of an amino acid using the model kits Some diagrams are shown the lid of the kit Sometime during the lab show me the models tell me which amino acids they represent and show me how to link the two amino acids together with dehydration synthesis When you are successful will initial the space below for credit on this question 2 Which foods tested positive for lipid List all that you found Be aware that the test is not very sensitive and some foods with a bit of fat such as milk may not reach detectable levels 3 Name one cell structure organelle that contains lipids 4 Which foods tested positive for sugar List all that you found 5 Which foods tested positive for protein List all that you found 6 Name two cell structures organelles that contain protein Refer to Ch 4 or lecture notes 7 Which foods tested positive for starch Are these foods products of plants What is the function of starch in a plant s
36. in In order to cover all possibilities it would be necessary to use more than one specific test for proteins We will just use one test that should identify most proteins the Biuret test Add 4 ml of albumin protein solution to one test tube and 4 ml of water to another To each tube add 10 drops of Biuret reagent Do not mix contents of the test tubes If a violet streak is not observed in the tube of albumin add 18 drop by drop more of the reagent and note how many drops were added in total A violet color is a positive test for the presence of protein Blue is not Record your observations regarding the Biuret test for protein Appearance of positive control Appearance of negative control Testing foods for fats carbohydrates and proteins You will test a variety of foods for the various macromolecules using the chemical tests you have just practiced If the food is not a liquid modify the tests as follows For the grease spot test for fat simply rub a small piece of the food on the brown paper and let dry For the other tests prepare a test tube of liquefied food by mincing a small amount with a razor blade and adding it to a test tube with 6 ml of distilled water Shake the test tube until the food particles are well mixed Take the liquid part leaving the solids behind and do the tests as usual In the table below record the appearance of each test Next refer to your notes on what a positive and negative result look l
37. ir young including calves the source of this lab s rennin Rennin curdles solidifies milk in the stomach so that the milk remains in the stomach longer and can be digested more efficiently Instructions 1 Dissolve the rennin provided as a tablet Open the rennin tablet s foil package and place the tablet a porcelain mortar Crush the tablet with a pestle Using a graduated cylinder measure 15 ml distilled water in carboy and pour it into a small beaker Scrape the rennin powder into the beaker of water and swirl to mix The solution will be cloudy 2 Label three test tubes with your initials everyone will use the same water baths and the words cold warm or boiled 3 Pour the rennin solution out of the beaker into the three tubes in approximately equal amounts one third to each tube If they come out very uneven use a clean squeeze bulb to adjust the amounts 27 4 Pre treat the enzyme rennin at different temperatures Put the cold tube in the ice water bath the warm tube in the 37 C water bath and the boiled tube in boiling water for 5 minutes then in the 37 C water bath 5 Pre treat the substrate milk at different temperatures a Label three more test tubes with your initials and the words warm or boiled Into each tube place about 1 inch of milk or three squirts 1 squirt the amount of liquid pulled into a plastic squeeze bulb with one go
38. is closest 3 Test for protein or phosphates Transfer a few ml of the urine sample to a test tube Put on a pair of safety goggles a face shield Using a test tube holder heat in a flame until the liquid just begins to boil Direct the flame at the top half of the sample not the bottom of the test tube When the 54 liquid boils remove the flame and note any cloudiness that may have appeared in the sample Cloudiness is due to precipitation falling out of solution of either protein or phosphates To distinguish between these possibilities add 2 drops of acetic acid to any sample that is cloudy after heating The acetic acid will dissolve phosphates making the liquid clear again but will have no effect on precipitated proteins Analysis of simulated urine samples Three different samples will be provided labeled Huey Duey and Luey Important information concerning these 3 individuals is the amount of water they drank before collecting their urine Huey 8 glasses of water Duey 2 glasses Luey 6 glasses Working with your lab partners label 3 small beakers and put about 10 ml of each urine sample in the appropriate beaker Determine the specific gravity of each sample and test each one with the dipstick Complete the analysis by testing the samples for phosphates Enter you results in the table below Urinalysis results Huey Duey Luey Color Odor or turbidity if any Specific gravity Glucose
39. izers and as decomposers The first step in a scientific investigation is to ask a question Some examples of questions for the class to study include 1 Are there more microbes in the environment than on the human body 2 Are dogs mouths really cleaner than human mouths Do they harbor fewer microbes 3 Or propose another question The lab class will decide on a question to study pose the hypothesis and design an experiment to test their hypothesis You will incubate your Petri plates and tabulate the results and make a conclusion next week in lab 2 Fill in the following table Question Hypothesis Experiment Results Conclusion 12 Supplies team 2 Petri plates 2 strips of parafilm 2 sterile swabs TODAY Plates Expose the agar the nutrient substance in the Petri plate to the sites environments decided by the class Then close the Petri plates and seal the lids with a strip of parafilm Stretch the parafilm slowly and gently it should go all the way around the Petri plate to seal it closed Write your name and exposure site on the plate using a marker or felt pen Incubate the plates at room temperature in the lab Place both Petri plates with the agar UP the plate will seem upside down in the warm safe spot selected by your instructor NEXT WEEK We ll see what you ve got growing You ll count the number of colonies on each plate tabulate the results
40. led pea e When this pea grows into a plant what gametes can it produce e What is the genotype of a pea heterozygous for both traits e When this pea grows into a plant what gametes can it produce Using a Punnett square illustrate the cross of two heterozygous smooth yellow peas YySs x YySs e What fraction of the offspring are wrinkled green peas e What fraction of the offspring are wrinkled yellow peas e What fraction of the offspring are smooth green peas e What fraction of the offspring are smooth yellow peas 70 Now let s try a cross with two traits in humans Freckles F and the ability to roll your tongue R are both dominant traits What is the genotype of a person without freckles who cannot roll her tongue What is the genotype of a person with freckles who can roll her tongue If aman homozygous dominant for freckles and heterozygous for tongue rolling has children with a woman heterozygous for freckles but who cannot roll her tongue what are the possible phenotypes of their children Man s genotype A Woman s genotype Man s gametes Woman s gametes Draw a Punnet square below and use it to determine the possible genotypes and phenotypes of their children 71 Lab Worksheet Genetics Lab Name Lab Day Tu or Th 1 What would you expect to happen if a person with Type B blood received a transfusion of whole blood from a Type AB donor Explain why including a description o
41. ll with several dendritic extensions Label the cell body nucleus and plasma membrane Note the total magnification 4 Bone sketch Label a bone cell the Haversian canal and some matrix Note the total magnification 25 5 Using your text as well as the posters in the lab give the functions of the following organelles Nucleus Mitochondria Cell membrane Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Ribosome Sketches of the stages of mitosis 6 Prophase 7 Metaphase 8 Anaphase 9 Telophase 26 Lab 4 ENZYMES In this lab you ll investigate some of the properties of enzymes So what are enzymes Enzymes are large protein molecules macromolecules They catalyze or speed up chemical reactions But they are not altered in the reaction Substrate Active 7 Site 7S Proteins can be just about any size or shape which is useful since it s the shape of an enzyme that determines the reactions it can catalyze However proteins are sensitive to changes in temperature and pH which alter their shapes and can even destroy catalytic activity An enzyme whose shape is changed and is no longer active is called denatured Proteins have evolved to work most efficiently at the temperature and pH found in the part of the body where they are needed Experiment 1 RENNIN and TEMPERATURE Rennin is an enzyme found in the stomach lining of mammals we re mammals so are any animals that feed milk to the
42. nd discussing osmosis with your lab partners answer questions 1 4 on your worksheet Part 2 Urinalysis In this part of the lab your lab group will perform a urinalysis on 3 simulated urine samples from Huey Duey and Luey The chemical and physical analysis of urine is important medically because the end products of many of your body s chemical reactions are excreted in the urine When something goes wrong with body chemistry changes are often seen in urine composition The following tables summarize the tests that are part of a standard urinalysis and interpret possible results Physical properties of urine Color Normally light yellow Odor Abnormal fishy or ammonia smell Turbidity cloudiness Normally clear Specific gravity Normal range is 1 001 1 035 at 25 pH Normal range is 4 8 7 5 Volume Normally 1 2 liters per 24 hours Phosphates Can be present or absent depending on diet dairy products meat and bran are high in phosphorous 53 Abnormal constituents of urine Medical indication Explanation Glucose Diabetes Glucose not taken up by body tissues accumulates in blood Bilirubin Liver damage clogged bile Bile products not properly duct excreted build up in blood Ketones Diabetes fasting Body using fat as an energy source ketones are fat breakdown products Red blood cells Kidney stones damage to glomeruli Glomerular damage or urine ducts cut
43. od squeeze of the bulb it will not fill completely Put the cold tube of milk in the ice water bath the warm and boiled tubes in the 37 C water bath Wait 5 minutes Don t boil the milk 6 Mix the rennin and milk to start the enzyme reactions a With a clean squeeze bulb put 3 drops of rennin solution from the tube of rennin into the cold milk Leave both tubes in the ice water bath With a clean squeeze bulb put 3 drops of the rennin solution from the tube into the warm milk Leave both tubes in the 37 C water bath With a clean squeeze bulb put 3 drops of the rennin solution from the boiled tube into the boiled tube of milk Leave both tubes in the 37 C water bath Do not boil a second time 7 Incubate each test tube for 30 minutes Write down the time that you finished adding the rennin to all the tubes Time 8 After 30 minutes record your observations in the table below Tube Observations 30 min after adding rennin to milk Has the milk curdled or not Is the enzyme active Cold Warm Boiled During the 30 minute incubation period do Experiment 2 pH measurements and Experiment 3 catalase and pH 28 Extra credit Try a follow up experiment After finishing the initial experiment put the cold tube of milk with added enzyme into the 37 C water bath for 20 minutes and record what happens Experiment 2 pH MEASURE
44. ops of Ms Brown s blood in each of the A B and Rh wells of slide 4 Place 3 4 drops of simulated anti A antibody in each A well on the 4 slides Place 3 4 drops of simulated anti B antibody in each B well on the 4 slides Place 3 4 drops of simulated anti Rh antibody in each Rh well on the 4 slides oN N Carefully stir each well with a separate clean toothpick for 30 sec Observe each slide to determine if you have a positive agglutination reaction and record your observations in the table on the lab worksheet Blood type is determined by your genes Blood types are controlled by multiple alleles three different alleles are involved The I allele makes the A protein on the surface of the red blood cell the allele makes allele makes neither The I and alleles are co dominant vi liis 66599 1 the B protein and the SES 66599 to the recessive 1 allele Even though there are three alleles a person can still only have two of them in his her genome one from each parent There are four possible phenotypes and six possible genotypes Phenotype Genotype Type A TATA or 14 Type B Type AB 1AB Type O ii 67 Example problem 1 A man has Type O blood and a woman Type AB What blood type s could they expect in their children Man s genotype A Woman s genotype Man s gametes Woman s gametes Genotypes Numbers Phenotypes expected of ea
45. our explanation with lab partners or the instructor Card color Afterimage color 62 Lab Worksheet Senses Lab Name Lab Day Tu or Th 1 In Demo 1 by what mechanism is the subject hearing sound since the normal pathway of air vibrating the eardrum is closed off 2 In Demo 2 why can the subject localize sound better with two ears than with one ear 3 For Demo 3 explain why the subjects could not walk well after spinning around in the chair 4 For Activity 1 how can you explain the difference in sensation from the very beginning of the trial and 30 seconds later 5 After 1 minute of Activity 1 different sensations are felt by the left hand and right hand in the same room temperature beaker of water Explain why 6 For Activity 2 which skin areas were most and least sensitive Did the two subjects differ in their sensitivity 63 10 11 For Activity 3 which area of the tongue front or back had more taste buds that respond to sugar To salt What is your visual acuity in your right eye What is your visual acuity in your left eye Describe any astigmatisms in either eye Do you wear corrective lenses What is the anatomical explanation of the blind spot See Activity 5 Why do you see two pencils in Activity 6 Explain the colors of the afterimages in Activity 7 using the concept of cone receptors in the retina 64 Lab 9 Genetics Human Blood Types Blood transfusions depend on t
46. owly to avoid breaking the slide Calculating total magnification e multiply the eyepiece and objective magnification numbers e Examples When you look through the low power 10X eyepiece and the scanning 4X objective the total magnification is 40X When you look through the eyepiece 10X and the low power 10X objective the total magnification is 100X You can now answer the first worksheet question see page 7 on total magnification Using the microscope e It is a good idea to wipe the eyepiece and objectives with lens paper to clean off any grease or dust Do not use cleaning tissues or paper towels they will scratch the lenses Learning to focus using the letter e e Place the slide on the stage with the label facing you e Make sure that the scanning objective the shortest one 4X is clicked into place above the slide e Turn the coarse adjustment knob carefully away from you until the objective is in the lowest position e Look through the eyepiece ocular and move the slide around until you see something e If the object is fuzzy turn the coarse adjustment knob toward you until the object is in better focus e Then turn the fine adjustment knob a little bit in each direction to find the best focus e If you would like more or less light adjust the aperture and or the illuminator dial We always begin with the lowest magnification available because focusing is easier and it gives the widest overview of w
47. oxygen runs out in the drop of water that they are living in Getting a look at Paramecium isn t easy but it s worth the effort because these organisms are fascinating It is hard to believe that this creature is just one cell Paramecium structure Look for the oral groove a twisted indentation on the side of the Paramecium e The various structures inside the organism are largely vacuoles sometimes one or two nuclei are visible and you may see a structure called the contractile vacuole that squeezes out excess water periodically At high power turn the fine focus back and forth and look for the blurry motion caused by movement of the fine hairs called cilia that cover the surface of the Paramecium e You will need to label these features in your sketch on the worksheet Sketch a Paramecium on the worksheet and work out an estimated size as explained on the worksheet question 8 11 Think like a scientist Design an experiment This part of the lab is designed to give you a chance to practice the scientific method You will plan a simple experiment using microbes found in the environment collect and analyze data and draw a conclusion P d Microbes are microscopic organisms that come in a wide variety of shapes They include viruses bacteria and fungi Microbes are big players in the environment they function as food and predators for other organisms as pathogens as V photosynthes
48. p onto the slide trying not to catch any air bubbles underneath e Beginning low power 4X locate some cheek cells Center them in the field of view and increase the magnification You should be able to see some flat cells with a tiny dark speck inside the cell this is the nucleus Are we prokaryotic or eukaryotic organisms Discard the toothpick and slide in the biohazard container e Make a sketch of a relatively isolated spread out cheek cell on the worksheet Label the plasma membrane and nucleus e Estimate how many unfolded cheek cells would fit across the field of view at high power Assuming that the width across the field of view at high power is about 400 micrometers 400 x 1056 m what is the approximate size of a cheek cell in micrometers Enter your answer on the worksheet Nerve cells Get a prepared slide of neurons these have been stained with methylene blue like your cheek cells After the usual steps of focusing and increasing magnification make a sketch of one neuron on the worksheet You will probably see dendrites and axons coming off of the main cell body the blob where the darker stained nucleus is seen but it is difficult to tell which is which when the cell is isolated from its normal environment Bone cells Get a prepared slide of bone It has been thinly sliced and stained with black India ink to make certain features stand out more You should see sets of concentric rings that are
49. part of enzymes cofactors 46 RDA Recommended Dietary Allowance The RDA is the recommended amount of a nutrient in the daily diet to meet the needs of nearly all healthy people The RDAs have been determined by Government scientists and are used to plan school lunches hospital meals etc Vitamin A Example of fat soluble vitamin possible to overdose since not washed out in urine RDA is 5 000 IU 50 000 IU is a toxic overdose Deficiency leads to night blindness dry skin amp hair etc Component of rhodopsin a protein in the retina that works in rod receptors black and white vision in dim light Can be synthesized in body from carotene Foods Liver egg yolk non skim dairy orange and dark green leafy vegetables Vitamin C Water soluble RDA minimum is 60 mg but more probably has benefits up to maximum recommended 1 000 mg per day more can contribute to kidney stones impaired immune function etc Deficiency is scurvy Bleeding gums poor wound healing loose teeth painful joints British sailors in 1700 s citrus fruits limeys Now known required for collagen synthesis Foods Citrus cantaloupe strawberries tomatoes broccoli cabbage green pepper Sodium Need a minimum of 500 mg per day salt balance in blood nerve impulses etc Maximum of 3300 mg more can contribute to hypertension high blood pressure Calcium Age 14 18 1300 mg per day Age 19 50 1000 mg Age 50 1200 mg Use 1300
50. rtner determine your resting respiration rate Count the number of breathing cycles in one minute a breathing cycle includes breathing in and breathing out Count each person s respiration rate twice and average the two numbers Record the numbers for yourself here 36 Have your partner time how long you can hold your breath and record the time here Breathe normally for at least three minutes before continuing Now put a paper bag over your mouth and nose and breathe in and out at a normal rate ten times STOP IF YOU FEEL DIZZY Without removing the paper bag inhale deeply and immediately begin holding your breath Have your partner time how long you can hold your breath now and record the time here You should find the time is shorter than when you first held your breath Think about your explanation and answer Question 4 on the worksheet Working with a partner determine your resting pulse rate Put the fingers of one hand not the thumb on your partner s wrist over the large artery near the thumb side of the arm If you cannot feel a pulse here try the carotid artery in the neck Count the number of heart beats in fifteen seconds and multiply by four to get the beats per minute Count each person s pulse rate twice and average the two numbers Record your resting pulse rate here Listen to the heartbeat Get a stethoscope With the earpieces pointing forward gently hook the stethoscope into your ears and hold th
51. t and have your partner stand near the chart to check your accuracy If you wear glasses take them off but do not remove contact lenses With a hand over one eye read the letters on successive lines until the letters are too small for you to read accurately Your visual acuity V is equal to the distance d you are standing from the chart divided by the maximum distance D at which the letters can be read by a person with normal vision V d D A person with normal vision will be able to read the 20 20 line from 20 feet away Record your visual acuity for right and left eyes on the worksheet If you look at the astigmatism chart posted on the wall you will see something that looks like a wheel with spokes As you look at the center of it with one eye closed some of the spokes may seem to be darker than the rest The lines appear darker when they are unfocused If one spoke of the wheel appears darker then you have an astigmatism or distortion of one sector of the 360 cornea The astigmatism prevents you from focusing all spokes of the wheel at the same time Do you have astigmatism in your right eye your left eye At what angle does the distortion appear 3 o clock 4 o clock 9 o clock etc Record your astigmatism results on the worksheet 61 Sie Activity 5 Hold this page about one foot away from you Close your right eye and stare at the cross with your left eye You should be able to see the circle in
52. tato behave differently at different pH s yes or no 14 Which tested pH acid neutral or basic is the best for breakdown of hydrogen peroxide by potato catalase Bonus question After finishing the first rennin experiment you put the cold tube of milk into the 37 C water bath for 20 minutes Does it solidify Explain including a description of active site changes 34 Lab 5 Circulation and Respiration Carbon dioxide content of expired air Get a flask and pour in some lime water until the liquid level is about an inch 2 5 cm deep Take a straw and return to your seat With the help of a partner time how long you need to bubble air into the lime water through the straw until a chemical reaction occurs that turns the lime water cloudy Record the time here Lime water is calcium hydroxide which reacts with carbon dioxide to form calcium carbonate an insoluble white compound that precipitates out of solution Ca OH F CO gt CaCO F At the front of the lab is demonstration flask of lime water with room air being pumped through Record the time it takes for the demonstration flask to turn cloudy Answer question 1 on the worksheet Distinguish between red and white blood cells Using the microscope techniques you have learned in previous weeks observe the prepared slide of blood at high power Be sure that you can distinguish the red and white blood cells They are both very small but only t
53. thy diet should get 10 30 of the Calories from fat 60 80 of the Calories from carbohydrate and 10 15 of the Calories from protein Did your diet on this day match these guidelines What general changes should you make in order to meet the recommendations 2 points 2 How many total Calories did you consume Most adults need 2000 2500 Calories each day Did you get enough calories How does the body use Calories from food 1 point 3 What percentage of your Calories came from saturated fat See Calories table The recommended upper limit for Calories from saturated fat is 10 If a person needed to lower their intake of saturated fat what foods should they eat less of Be specific but you can use foods other than the ones you ate 1 points 49 4 Calculate your protein needs Protein needs 0 8 grams of protein per kg body wt 0 8 X body wt in Ibs 2 2 2 points Protein needs gm Protein in diet gm Did you meet your protein needs What were the major sources of protein in your diet 5 The recommended daily amount of fiber is 25 grams for every 2 000 Calories in your diet Based on your Calories consumed this day how much fiber should you have eaten Was the amount you actually ate too little enough or too much Name two foods you ate OR would LIKE to eat that are high in fiber 1 points Cholesterol Vitamins and Minerals Look at your Nutrient as RDA report graph to answer the following q
54. tion is shown for an adult American of roughly average body weight 80 kg or 176 lbs Activity Energy required Writing 0 8 Cal min Walking 1 6 Cal min Jogging 5 6 Cal min 12 For the fast foods listed below calculate how many minutes it would take to use the calories in that food if you are writing walking or jogging 3 pts Minutes to use up the calories in one Activity Soft drink Hamburger Snack food 151 Cal serving 446 Cal serving Cal serving Writing Walking Jogging Fast foods 1 can 12 oz of a Cola type soft drink 151 Calories 1 McDonald s quarter pounder hamburger 446 Calories 51 52 Lab 7 Urinary System Part 1 Osmosis Demonstration Osmosis is the movement of water through membranes The net direction of water movement is from high concentrations of water dilute solutions to low concentrations of water concentrated solutions See your text for a more detailed discussion of osmosis Two demonstrations of osmosis have been set up in the lab The colored solutions in the glass tubes contain different amounts of dissolved sucrose The lower ends of the tubes are covered with a dialysis membrane a porous sheet of synthetic material that lets small molecules such as water pass through but excludes larger molecules such as sucrose The tubes and membranes are immersed in a large volume of distilled pure water After examining the demonstrations a
55. ts blood pressure e Working in groups of two or three choose a subject and a blood pressure technician for an experiment on how body position affects blood pressure Have the subject lie as comfortably as possible on the lab bench and relax for 3 4 minutes Now measure the subject s blood pressure Record the value here systolic over diastolic e Next have the subject stand up After 3 4 minutes of adjustment time measure the subject s blood pressure once more and record the value here The instructor will collect class data After discussing the results answer Question 6 on the worksheet Effect of exercise on pulse and respiration rate Work in a group of at least two but not more than four people Choose an experimental subject who is currently healthy and is willing to sweat a little The other people in the group should take turns doing various measurements on the subject and watching the clock First note the resting pulse and respiration rates of the subject from the previous exercises Subject s resting pulse Subject s resting respiration rate The measurers will count heartbeats or breaths for 15 seconds at a time and multiply by four to get the per minute rates After the subject exercises for two minutes vigorous exercise such as jumping jacks or running in place immediately take a pulse for 15 seconds then count breaths for 15 seconds You will repeat the measurements every minute until you hav
56. uestions 6 Did you exceed the recommended daily maximum for cholesterol of 300 mg Name two foods that are especially high in cholesterol 1 point 7 Did your diet include enough Vitamin A What is Vitamin A used for in the body 1 point 8 Did your diet include enough Vitamin C Name two foods you ate OR would LIKE to eat that are high in Vitamin C 1 point 9 Did your diet include too little enough or too much sodium What kinds of health problems are associated with excessive sodium intake 1 point 10 Did your diet include the recommended amount of calcium In addition to getting enough calcium what can a person do to help prevent osteoporosis Do only women get osteoporosis 1 point 50 11 Did your diet include too little enough or too much iron Name two foods you ate OR would LIKE to eat that are high in iron Do these foods come with undesirable nutrients such as saturated fat 1 point Nutrition and weight homeostasis 5 pts Since the nutrients in food are so important to our bodies for energy and building blocks our bodies store away any extra food we don t need to burn right away That means if we take in more Calories than we need we tend to gain weight Similarly if we don t eat enough to meet the needs of our body we will break down stored nutrients and lose weight The chart below shows the amount of energy Cal min used to do certain physical activities To simplify the process the informa
57. up Cheerios 1 cup 2 milk 1 slice of white bread with 1 tsp of butter e Lunch 2 slices whole wheat bread 2 oz ham 1 tablespoon mayo 1 oz cheese 5 tomato 2 leaves lettuce 1 120z can coke e Snacks 2 oz chips cup jellybeans 1 12 oz can Coke e Dinner burrito 1 large flour tortilla about 2 oz cup rice cup beans 2 oz cheese oz chicken 1 2 green pepper 2 onion 2 tablespoons cream 3 Go to http fitday com 1 Click Get Your Free Account to create an account 2 Fill out the form provided Enter a user name make one up Enter a password make one up Confirm your chosen password Enter your email address Enter your sex age height weight and activity level Click the box agreeing to FitDay s Terms of Service Click on Create My Account 3 In the box titled Food Search type your first item i e Cheerios 43 10 A list of all the possible foods that contain the word Cheerios will come up Choose the one you ate You may need to use your best guess The next screen will bring up serving sizes Click on the drop down list to see the types of servings available possible choices are by weight oz g Ib or by volume cups teaspoons etc Choose the type of serving that is closest to how you measured or estimated the amount of your food Then in the box to the left type in how many of those servings you had i e 2 cups Cheerios You can also use fractional amounts i e 0
58. urine from a person who just ran the Bay to Breakers marathon a 26 mile running race Why Which of the following substances could be found in the urine of a healthy person Sodium Urea White blood cells Phosphates Glucose Water Label the diagram of the urinary system Identify the kidneys renal artery and vein dorsal aorta vena cava ureters urinary bladder and urethra Why are blood vessels an important part of the urinary system 57 58 Lab 8 The Senses Demo 1 A volunteer subject will plug both ears with cotton making sure he or she cannot hear a struck tuning fork When the vibrating fork is touched to the bone that forms a lump behind the earlobe the subject can hear the tone Think about the structures of the middle ear and decide what is happening in this demonstration Answer the first question on the worksheet see page 6 use space below for your notes during the demonstration Demo 2 A volunteer subject with eyes closed will attempt to localize a tuning fork held at various positions by the instructor We will compare the accuracy of the subject with both ears open and the accuracy with one ear plugged with cotton Think about why two ears are more accurate than just one at localizing sound and answer question 2 on the worksheet use space below for your notes during the demonstration Demo 3 Volunteer subjects will sit in a chair with wheels and lean their heads on one shoulder whil
59. ution to each of the two test tubes Place the tubes in a boiling water bath for 2 3 min remove and allow to cool In addition to a color change you should have very fine particles suspended in your test tube of maltose These particles called a precipitate show up as dark specks when you hold your test tube up to the light Given time they may also settle to the bottom of the tube The color of the precipitate may vary with the kind of material tested It is the formation of the precipitate that is the most reliable indicator of the presence of sugar with the Benedict s test Record your observations here Appearance of positive control Appearance of negative control C Iodine test for starch We will compare a substance known to contain starch starch solution with water which we know does not contain starch These are the positive and negative controls Put several drops of starch solution in one of the depressions in porcelain or glass plate and several drops of water in another depression Add 1 or 2 drops of iodine solution to each of these liquids Appearance of positive control Appearance of negative control D Biuret test for protein Proteins produce many very striking color reactions when combined with certain reagents The compounds that produce these colors are not the result of the entire protein molecule reacting chemically but rather a reaction of the reagent with certain of the amino acid subunits present in the prote
60. y an example if the field of view is 500 micrometers and the object would fit across ten times how wide is the object e You can check your answer with other students or the instructor Similar questions may appear on the next quiz D Depth of focus using cotton balls and Paramecium Although an object mounted on a slide appears to be completely flat it is actually up to 10 micrometers thick At the highest magnifications it will not be possible to have the top and bottom parts of the object in focus all at once You can see this effect by making a wet mount of a few strands from a cotton ball A wet mount is a drop or two of liquid with objects of interest floating in it that you sandwich between a slide and a cover slip In this activity we will use a drop from a culture of the microorganism Paramecium as the liquid 1 Get a clean dry slide With forceps pull a few strands of cotton off a cotton ball and put them in the center of the slide 2 Put a drop or two of Paramecium culture onto the cotton The Paramecia are not equally distributed in their container they are usually found near the bottom so take liquid from there to have the most chance of seeing one 3 Carefully place the edge of a cover slip against the side of the liquid drop on your slide holding the cover slip at a 45 angle Smoothly lower the cover slip to a horizontal position This method minimizes air bubbles which can be distracting
61. your peripheral vision but do not look directly at it Slowly move the paper toward you until the circle disappears You have just demonstrated the existence of the blind spot on the retina See your textbook for a description of the blind spot You can repeat the demonstration for your other eye by closing the left eye and staring at the circle with your right eye Activity 6 To illustrate accommodation for distance by the lens of your eye close one eye and hold a pencil at arm s length between you and some distant object When you look sharply at the pencil is the distant object in focus When you look sharply at the distant object is the pencil in focus Now with the pencil in the same position look at the distant object with both eyes You should see two pencils neither one focused clearly Answer the question on the worksheet Activity 7 You will need one sheet each of black and white paper and some brightly colored cards with dots in the center the instructor will say what color cards are available on your lab day Place one of the colored cards on the black paper Stare fixedly without moving the eyes around at the dot on the colored card After 30 seconds immediately place the piece of white paper over the black paper and colored card Let your eyes gently unfocus and try to see the fuzzy afterimage What color is the afterimage Record the card color and afterimage color for at least three cards then discuss y
62. ze of objects under the microscope If you know the distance across the field of view an estimate of the fraction of the field of view an object takes up will give you an estimate of the object s size For example if the field of view is 500 micrometers across and a object takes up half of the field of view the object is 250 micrometers across e Measure the distance across the microscope field of view at three different total magnifications e Using the scanning objective place a small transparent plastic ruler on the stage and focus on the metric scale Move the slide so that the ruler is measuring the diameter of the circle of light your field of view The diameter is the distance from edge to edge of a circle on a line that passes through the center The lines marking millimeters on your ruler will appear quite thick so place the ruler so that the center of one thick line is on the left edge of the circle e You can write measurements and calculations on this page and transfer them to your worksheet after checking the numbers with the instructor e What is the diameter of the scanning objective field of view Use tenths of a millimeter in your answer for example 1 7 mm e Since there are 1000 micrometers in each millimeter multiply the number above by 1000 to get the diameter of the scanning objective field of view in micrometers The diameter is micrometers e Switch to the low power objective and measure the diameter

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