Chapter-4 - NCERT BOOKS and CBSE BOOKS
Contents
1. The maps may also be drawn using a combination of computer hardware and the mapping software The computer assisted mapping essentially requires the creation of a spatial database alongwith its integration with attribute or non spatial data It further involves verification and structuring of the stored data What is most important in this context is that the data must be geometrically registered to a generally accepted and properly defined coordinate system and coded so that they can be stored in the internal data base structure within the computer Hence care must be taken while using the computer for mapping purposes Spatial Data The spatial data represent a geographical space They are characterised by the points lines and the polygons The point data represent positional characteristics of the some of the geographical features such as schools hospitals wells tube wells towns and villages etc on the map In other words if we want to present occurrence of the objects on a map in dimensionless scale but with reference to location we use points Similarly lines are used to depict linear features like roads railway lines canals rivers power and communication lines etc Polygons are made up of a number of inter connected lines bounding a certain area and are used to show area features such as administrative units countries districts states blocks land use types cultivated area forest lands degraded waste lands pastures2. exponents division multiplication addition and subtraction For example expression formula within a cell given as A8 A9 A4 will be solved using Excel as under It will first add the values entered in cells A9 and A4 and then will divide the value of A8 by the sum Further if you want to supplement your understanding on the percentage share of urban population to the total population in that case you have to calculate the percentage of urban population in various states of India To do so you will require the data on urban population and total population for each state of India The worksheet allows you to easily calculate the percentage of urban population in each state provided you adopt the following steps Step 1 Enter the name of the states in first column i e column A Step 2 In Column B corresponding to each state enter the size of urban population Step 3 In Column C corresponding to respective state enter the size of total population Step 4 In Column D and row 2 type followed by B2 C2 that is total urban population of Andhra Pradesh divided by the total population in the same State and 100 multiplied by 100 Thus the expression becomes B2 C2 100 Step 5 Press enter key This will give you solution of the expression that is the percentage of urban population in Andhra Pradesh Step 6 Nowyou need not to write the formula again for calculating percentage of urban popul
3. c Draw maps d None of the above 2 Answer the following questions in about 30 words i What are the functions of different parts of a computer ii What are the advantages of using computer over manual methods of data processing and representation iii What is a worksheet 3 Answer the following questions in about 125 words i What is difference between spatial and non spatial data Explain with examples ii What is the three forms of geographical data nN wO Surddovpy puv Busssarosg viog ust sainduoy fo asn N Q Practical Work in Geography Part II Activity 1 Carry out the following steps using the given data set a Enter the given data in a file and store in My Documents folder Name the file as rainfall b Calculate the standard deviation and mean for the given data set using Function Wizard in Excel spreadsheet c Compute coefficient of variation using the results derived in step b d Analyse the results han 2 Represent the data given below using a suitable technique with the help of a computer and analyse the graph Cropping Intensity in India 1980 81 1990 91 1981 82 1991 92 1982 83 1992 93 1983 84 1993 94 1984 85 1994 95 1985 86 1995 96 1986 87 1996 97 1987 88 1997 98 1988 89 1998 99 1989 90 1999 00
4. 114 2 1966 67 114 7 1976 77 120 1986 87 126 4 1996 97 P 113 1967 68 117 1 1977 78 121 3 1987 88 127 3 1997 98 P 115 1968 69 116 2 1978 79 122 3 1988 89 128 5 1998 99 P 115 1969 70 116 9 1979 80 122 1 1989 90 128 1 1999 00 P 113 06 115 43 119 97 125 89 Insert Function Search for a Function Type a brief description of what you want to do and then cick Go 3 Returns the average arithmetic mean of its arguments which can be mean Arganerts can berber aes so references tha numbers or names arrays or references that contain numbers contain numbers Help on this Function Cox ce f Heeon this function Lox ca Fig 4 5 Selection of Statistical Function Function Arguments Define your data range for which you have to calculate mean 4 111 1 111 6 111 5 113 06 Returns the average arithmetic mean of its arguments which can be numbers or names arrays or references that contain numbers Number 1 number1 number2 are 1 to 30 numeric arguments for which you want the average Formula result 113 06 Hoon the Lenten Lx _cona_ Fig 4 6 Defining Range in Function Arguments dialogue box nN w Surddvpy puv Butssav01g vivg ust sa nduon fo asp nN A Practical Work in Geography Part II The computation of mean for the given data reveals that there has been an impressive increase in mean decadal cropping intensity over different decades in general and 1980s onwards in particular In fact
5. all parts of the country has been chosen among other software to carry out the data processing Besides it is also compatible with map making software as one can easily feed data in MS Excel and attach it to the map making software to create maps MS Excel is also called a spreadsheet programme A spreadsheet is a rectangular table or grid to store information The spreadsheets are located in Workbooks or Excel files Most of the MS Excel screen is devoted to the display of the worksheet which consists of rows and columns The intersection of a row and column is a rectangular area which is called a cell In other words a worksheet is made up of cells A cell can contain a numerical value a formula which after calculation provides numerical value or text Texts are generally used for labelling numbers entered in the cells A value entry can either be a number entered directly or result of a formula The value of a formula will change when the components arguments of the formula change An Excel worksheet contains 16 384 rows numbered 1 through 1 6384 and 256 columns represented by default through letters A through Z AA through AZ BA through BZ and continuing to IA through IZ By default an Excel workbook consists of three worksheets If you require you can insert more up to 256 worksheets This means that in the same file workbook you can store a large number of data and charts Fig 4 1 shows how an excel workbook looks like X
6. Microzoft Excel Book Edt View Insert Format Tools Data Window Help SRY MAS O H Menu Icons Cell Address Column Cell Address Column Fig 4 1 MS Excel Workbook Data Entry and Storing Procedures in Excel The data entry and storing procedures are very simple in Excel You can enter copy and move any data from one cell to another and save them You may also delete incorrect or unwanted data entry or a complete file if it is not required for further use The elementary functions of Excel that you would require for entering data and storing them are described in Table 4 1 You can learn more on your own by exploring other menus and options by yourself Further you will find it easier to feed data if you use the number pad given on the right side of your keyboard For entering data column wise you need to press enter key or down arrow after typing a number While row wise pressing right arrow key after typing a number can enter data Data Processing and Computation Often raw data need to be processed for further use You can easily add subtract multiply and divide numbers using the keyboard signs of and respectively These signs are known as operators and they connect elements in a formula or expression For example if you want to solve the expression 5 6 8 5 then you can easily work it out in steps below Step 1 Click on any cell with the help of mouse Step 2 Type followed by th
7. 14 This will complete the Chart Wizard and your Bar Diagram as shown in Fig 4 15 will appear in Worksheet 5 Chart Location Place chart WE C As new sheet Charts As object in Fig 4 14 Choosing Location of Chart Comparison of Male Work Force Structure 1981 and 2001 India Per cent Cultivators Agricultural Household Others Labourers Labourers Workers Workforce categories fi 1981 2001 Fig 4 15 The Complete Bar Diagram You can change the pattern of bars from colours to shades or vice versa by clicking on the bars Similarly you can also change the fonts or gridlines if required The above diagram shows that the share of cultivators has declined significantly over the two decades and the share of other workers has appreciably risen and the shares of agricultural and household labourers have largely been the same Some Important Norms for Data Representation Afigure should have its figure number It should have a suitable title in which time and space it relates to should also be mentioned Within title or as sub title the unit in which the quantities are shown should be mentioned The title sub title title of axes legend and the main presentation should be shown with suitable font size and type so that they occupy space in a balanced manner nN N Surddopy puv Surssav01g viog us sainduoy fo asn an Oo Practical Work in Geography Part II Computer Assisted Mapping
8. Butssavo1g vivg ust sa nduon fo asp nN nN Practical Work in Geography Part II Step 6 Step 7 data table Chart Titles and axes name entry are shown in Fig 4 12 while options for legend placement are shown in Fig 4 13 Type the axes names as shown in Fig 4 13 and select the placement of legend as shown in Fig 4 14 Chart Wizard Step 3 of 4 Chart Options A X Chart title Comparison of Male Work For Comparison of Male Work Force Structure 1981 and 2001 India Category X axis workforce categories VYalue Y axis percent fa rd 3 2 Ll lt Cultivators workforce categories Titles Axes Gridines Legend Data Labels Data Table 7 Show legend K Comparison of Male Work Force Placement Structure 1981 and 2001 India G Bottoni Corner Cultivators Agricultural Household Other Labourers Labourers workers workforce categories Fig 4 13 Choosing Location of Legend When you have finished entering axes titles and legend options etc click on Next radio button Fig 4 13 This will lead you to step 4 of 4 of Chart Wizard which will let you choose the location of the constructed bar diagram for the data Fig 4 14 Choose As Object in and select the same sheet you have entered the data i e Sheet 5 optionally you can also place your Bar Diagram in a new sheet choosing as new sheet Press OK radio button in Fig 4
9. Either enter the cell range of data of the first decade CI_50s which shows year wise cropping intensity in 1950s in the Number 1 box on Function Argument dialogue box of data or drag cursor pressing the left button of mouse over the cell range of data Step 7 Press OK button on the Function Argument dialogue box This calculates mean cropping intensity for the decade 1950s in cell B12 where you had put your cursor in the beginning Step 8 Now calculate the mean for other decade either following Steps 1 7 given above or dragging cursor right handward in the same row selecting the small square from rectangle of cell B12 or you can copy the cell B12 and paste it on D12 F12 H12 and J12 This will give you mean value of cropping intensity for the decades 1960s 1970s 1980s and 1990s respectively These steps are further explained in Fig 4 4 through Fig 4 6 xj Microsoft Excel data file Edt View Insert Format Tools Data window Help COSHH SRY MB SF o c A Egl gio B 18 f JIOA I 8 J o E J FP F eO H E 1 dyr 50s CI 50s yr 60s CI 60s yr 70s Cl70s yr 80s CI 80s yr 90s CI 90s _2 1950 51 111 1 1960 61 114 7 1970 71 118 2 1980 81 123 3 1990 91 129 9 111 6 1961 62 115 4 1971 72 118 2 1981 82 124 5 1991 92 111 5 1962 63 115 1972 73 118 2 1982 83 123 2 1992 93 112 4 1963 64 115 1973 74 119 3 1983 84 125 7 1993 94 P 112 7 1964 65 115 3 1974 75 119 2 1984 85 125 2 1994 95 P 114 1 1965 66 114 1975 76 120 9 1985 86 126 7 1995 96 P
10. aracteristics depicted In other words graphs and diagrams make us to decipher the contents of data easily For example it would be difficult to make sense of the Cropping Intensity in India if the data for all Fifty years are presented in tabular form However through a line graph or bar diagram we can easily draw meaningful conclusions about the trend in Cropping Intensity in India Data Types and Some Suitable Graphical Methods of their Presentation Time series data are represented through line graphs or bar diagram Bar diagrams and histograms are generally used for showing shares or frequencies of various units Compound bar diagrams and pie charts are used for showing shares of various units Maps are used for location wise representation of data This helps in comprehending spatial patterns in the data The selection of a suitable graphical method is very important for the presentation of data In Chapter 3 you have learnt about graphs and diagrams and the kind of data suitable for Here you will learn how graphs and diagrams are constructed in Excel Suppose you want to represent changes in the share of workers in different industrial categories between 1981 and 2001 the most suitable graphical methods would be bar diagram as it shows changes over different years clearly The construction of bar diagram requires the following steps Step 1 Enter the data in worksheet as shown in Fig 4 9 Step 2 Select the cells dragg
11. ation for other states Simply click on the cell D2 This will copy the formula of the first state cell to all the downward cells you have dragged it over Note the formula B2 C2 100 that has been written in cell D2 and becomes B3 C3 100 in cell D3 and so on Fig 4 2 graphically shows steps 1 to 5 as given above while step 6 is shown in Fig 4 3 amp Microsoft Excel population statewise 2 File Edt Yiew Insert Format Tools Data Window Help AVERAGE v X V fe B2 C2 100 A B C D States Urban Populatio Total population Percent of urban population Andhra Pradesh 2050359 75727541 82 C2100 100 Arunachal Pradesh 222688 1091117 3389413 26638407 8679200 82876796 Chhattisgarh 4175329 20795956 18899377 50596992 6114139 21082989 NONA UN Fig 4 2 Cell Operation in MS Excel A B Cc D States Urban Populatioi Total population Percent of urban population Andhra Pradesh 20503597 75727541 Arunachal Pradesh 222688 3389413 8679200 4175329 18899377 6114139 594881 2505309 5986697 17919858 8267135 Fig 4 3 Copying through Dragging over in MS Excel nA m Surddvpy puv Butssavo1g vwqg ut sa nduon fo asp N Practical Work in Geography Part II You have already been introduced to some basic statistical methods such as measures of central tendency dispersion and correlation in Chapter 2 You must have understood the concept and rationale behind these techniques The use of wor
12. during 1980s the Green Revolution underwent a spatial spread and a tremendous increase in area under tube well irrigation took place which facilitated cultivation in the arid regions as well as during the dry seasons Using almost the same procedure used for calculating mean as outlined above you can calculate median standard deviation and correlation Some hints for this are provided in Fig 4 7 and Fig 4 8 Insert Function Ax Insert Function Search for a function Search for a function Type a brief description of what you want to do and then Go Tyee brief description of what you want to do and then xe Go cick Go Or select a category Statistical xj Or select a category Statistical xj Select a function CHIDIST CHIINV CHITEST STDEVP number 1 number2 CORREL array1 array2 Calculates standard deviation based on the entire population given as Returns the correlation coefficient between two data sets arguments ignores logical values and text Help on this Function Cancel Help on this Function Fig 4 7 Function for Standard Deviation Fig 4 8 Function for Correlation Construction of Graphs You know that the data in tabular form at times make it difficult to draw inferences about whatever is being presented On the other hand the representation of the data in graphical form enhances our capabilities to make meaningful comparisons between the phenomena represented and present a simplified view of the ch
13. e expression Thus the expression becomes 5 6 8 5 Step 3 Press enter key and you will get the result in the same cell that you had chosen in Step 1 Note The numerical operations can only be performed in excel by first typing sign Ur O Surddopy puv Surssav01g viog ust sainduoy fo asn nN Q Practical Work in Geography Part II Table 4 1 Important Functions for Entering and Storing Data S Function Instructions Menu Secondary Keyboard No Menu from Shortcuts For opening a new file For opening File Open Ctrl O an existing file 2 Save a file Give a file name and File Save Ctrl S define where you want to store it by default it is c my documents 3 Copy move Select the set of data Edit Copy Ctrl C and paste a by pressing the left set of data mouse button and dragging it over the set of the data you want to select dropdown list Cut move Select the set of data and paste a by pressing the left set of data mouse button and dragging it over the set of the data you want to select Paste a set Take the cursor to of data the cell where you want to paste it For undoing the last action For redoing the last action Note You cannot undo or redo any action if you have saved the file after the last action These operators that connect elements in a formula are solved in an order The expressions enclosed in brackets are solved first and are followed by the
14. etc and features like ponds lakes etc Non Spatial Data The data describing the information about spatial data are called as non spatial or attribute data For example if you have a map showing positional location of your school you can attach the information such as the name of the school subject stream it offers number of students in each class schedule of admissions teaching and examinations available facilities like library labs equipments etc In other words you will be defining the attributes of the spatial data Thus non spatial data are also known as attribute data Sources of Geographical Data The geographical data are available in analogue map and aerial photographs or digital form scanned images The procedure of creating spatial data in the computer has been discussed in Chapter 6 Mapping Software and their Functions There are a number of commercially available mapping softwares such as ArcGIS ArcView Geomedia GRAM Idrisi Geometica etc There are also a few freely downloadable softwares that can be downloaded with the help of Internet However it would be difficult to discuss the capabilities of each one of these softwares under the constraints of time and space We will therefore describe the procedure in general used in choropleth mapping using a mapping software A mapping software provides functions for spatial and attribute data input through onscreen digitisation of scanned maps corrections o
15. eveloped in the field of computer graphics Some of the common capabilities that the present day softwares provide are Ur N Suiddopy puv Surssav01g viog ust sainduoy fo asn Nn Co Practical Work in Geography Part II Zooming Windowing to display of selected areas and scale change operation Colour assignment change operation e Three dimensional and perspective display Selective display of various themes Polygon shading line styling and point markers display e Output device interface commands for interfacing with plotter devices printers Graphic User Interface GUI based menu organisation for an easy interface Computer Software for Your Use In the preceding paragraphs a number of data processing softwares have been referred However it would be difficult to discuss the capabilities and functions of each one of these softwares under the constraints of time and space We will therefore describe the procedure that is followed in data processing and the preparation of graphs and diagrams using MS Excel or Spreadsheet program The spreadsheet enables us to feed data compute various statistics and represent the raw data or computed statistics through graphical methods MS Excel or Spreadsheet As mentioned earlier MS Excel Lotus 1 2 3 and d base are some of the important softwares used for data processing and drawing graphs and diagrams MS Excel being most widely used and commonly available software program in
16. f errors transformation of scale and projection data integration map design presentation and analysis A digitised map consists of three files The extensions of these files are shp shx and dbf The dbf file is dbase file that contains attribute data and is linked to shx and shp files The shx and shp files on the other hand contain spatial map information The dbf file can be edited in MS Excel You can construct a choropleth map using any of the mapping software available to you provided you follow the steps given in the user manual of the given software If you experiment with the different options available in the software you would be able to construct several types of maps using different methods Excercises 1 Choose the correct option for the alternatives given below i ii iii iv What type of graph would you use to represent the following data Share of Production of Iron Ore in Madhya Pradesh Goa Karnataka Bihar Orissa Andhra Pradesh Maharashtra a Line b Multiple bar graph c Pie diagram d None of the above Districts within a state would be represented in which type of spatial data a Points b Lines c Polygons d None of the above Which is the operator that is calculated first in a formula given in a cell of a worksheet a b c d Function Wizard in Excel enables you to a Construct graphs b Carry out mathematical statistical operations
17. ging from A3 to AO size Computer Software Computer software is a written program that is stored in memory It performs specific functions as per the instructions given by the user A data processing and mapping software requires the following modules e Data Entry and Editing Modules e Coordinate Transformation and Manipulation Modules e Data Display and Output Modules The Data Entry and Editing Modules These inbuilt modules in the data processing and mapping software facilitate the data entry system interface database creation error removal scale and projection manipulations their organisation and maintenance of the data Any of these and other related data entry editing and management capabilities might be performed using displayed menus and icons on the screen The present day commercial packages such as MS Excel Spread sheet Lotus 1 2 3 and d base provide capabilities for data processing and generation of graphs On the other hand Arc View Arc GIS Geomedia possess modules for mapping and analysis Coordinate Transformation and Manipulation Modules The present day softwares provide a wide range of capabilities used to create layers of spatial data coordinate transformation editing and linking the spatial data sets with the related non spatial attributes of data Data Display and Output Modules The data display and output operations vary over a range of functions and are very much dependent on the skills d
18. ily There are many other advantages that a computer offers that you will observe yourselves while carrying out your practical work using a computer Hardware Configuration and Software Requirements A computer as an aid to data processing and mapping comprises of hardware and software The hardware configurations comprise of the storage display and input and output sub systems whereas software are the programs that are made up of electronic codes The computer aided data processing and mapping hence requires both hardware components and related application software Hardware The hardware components of a computer include a A Central Processing Unit CPU and Storage System b A Graphic Display Sub system c Input Devices d Output Devices A Central Processing Unit and Storage System The core of modern computers consists of a central processing unit CPU which facilitates the execution of program instructions for processing data and controlling peripheral equipments All data together with the operating system and the application programs occupy space in disk storage unit which functions as working memory The total storage capacity depends upon the types of activity for which the computer is to be used The hardware storage capacity for data processing and mapping should be in the range of 1 GB to 4 GB or more and the Random Access Memory RAM 32 MB or more Besides the disk storage the secondary storage such as floppy disk
19. ing mouse right button pressed over the cells 8 Microsoft Excel data W Eile gdt View Insert Format Tools Data Window Help DEAA BAY 4B a S 4 3 Gs 100 AA X f A B Cc D F G Chart Wizard Cultivators Agricultural Household Other Labourers Labourers workers 43 66 19 84 3 17 33 33 31 34 20 82 3 02 44 82 Fig 4 9 Entering data and selecting cells for Construction of Bar Diagram Step 3 Click on Chart Wizard Fig 4 9 This will open Step 1 of 4 of Chart Wizard Fig 4 10 Step 4 Doubleclick on the simple bar diagram in the box Chart Sub type Fig 4 10 This will lead you to Step 2 of 4 of Chart Wizard Fig 4 11 in which worksheet number and selected data range and a preview of bar diagram appear As categories in data are arranged row wise therefore it is row wise chart construction Chart Type Chart Wizard Step 1 of 4 Chart Type LEJ Chart Wizard Step 2 of 4 Chart Source Data al 48 Clustered Column Compares values across categories Press and Hold to View Sample Einish Row wise chart construction Fig 4 10 Step 1 to 4 of Chart Wizard Fig 4 11 Step 2 of 4 of Chart Wizard Step 5 Click on the Next radio button and this will lead you to Step 3 of 4 of Chart Wizard Fig 4 12 Here you will find various options for entering title name of axes options for grid lines data labels and nN wn Surddvpy puv
20. ise l Computer in Dala Processing and Mapping You have learnt various methods of data processing and representation that you can use to analyse the geographical phenomena in the preceding chapters You must have observed that these methods are time consuming and tedious Have you ever thought of a method of data processing and their graphical presentation that can save time and improve efficiency If you have used a computer for word processing then you must have noticed that the computer is more versatile as it facilitates the onscreen editing of the text copy and move it from one place to another or even delete the unwanted text Similarly the computer may also be used for data processing preparation of diagrams graphs and the drawing of maps provided you have an access to the related application software In other words a computer can be used for a wide range of applications It must however be clearly understood that a computer carries out the instructions it receives from the users In other words it cannot perform any function on its own In the present chapter we will discuss the use of computers in data processing and mapping What can a Computer do A computer is an electronic device It consists of various sub systems like memory micro processor input system and output system All these sub systems work together to make it an integrated system It is an extremely powerful device which is apt to have an important effect on
21. ksheet functions to compute these statistics will be discussed in the subsequent paragraphs In MS Excel there are numerous inbuilt statistical and mathematical functions These functions are located in Insert menu To use the function click on the Insert menu and choose f Function from the dropdown list Note that your cursor should be located in the cell where you want the formula to appear Some examples of application of statistical functions are given below Central Tendencies Central tendencies are represented by mean median and mode Arithmetic mean also called as average is a commonly used method for calculating the central tendency In MS Excel it is denoted by its popular name average As an example we shall calculate mean cropping intensity in India during various decades using the average function in Excel The following steps are to be undertaken Step 1 Enter year wise cropping intensity data in a worksheet as shown in Fig 4 4 Step 2 Click on cell B12 using mouse Step 3 Click on Insert Menu and choose f Function from dropdown list this will open Insert Function dialogue box Step 4 Select Statistical from select a category menu on the dialogue box This will bring forth the statistical functions available in Excel in the box below in the same dialogue box Step 5 Inthe box Select a Function click on Average and press OK button This will open another dialogue box called Function Argument Step 6
22. s CD pen drives and magnetic tapes are also used to store permanently large quantities of data that is not actively being processed The operating system is a basic program which administers the internal data processing in a computer The operating systems like MS DOS Windows and UNIX are in general use with the Windows being the most preferred one A Graphic Display System or Monitor A graphic display system or monitor serves as the user s prime visual communication medium in all computers A high resolution display system with a greater range of possible display colours and Look up Tables LUT for rapid alteration of colour patterns is generally preferred in graphic and mapping applications Input Devices The instruction and the statistical data are entered into the computer using the keyboard functions The keyboard is an important input device that resembles with a typewriter It has various keys for different purposes While working on a PC you will notice a flash point on the screen This is known as cursor When you press a key on the keyboard a character is displayed at the point where the cursor is flashing and the cursor moves one position forward Besides scanners and digitisers of different size and capabilities are also used for spatial data entry Output Devices The output devices include a variety of printers such as ink jet laser and colour laser printers and the plotters that are available in different sizes ran
23. the systems of data processing mapping and analysis A computer is a fast and versatile machine that can perform simple arithmetic operations such as addition subtraction multiplication and division and can also solve complex mathematical formulae It also performs simple logical operations distinguishing zero from non zero and plus from minus and discharge the results In short a computer is a data processor that can perform substantial computation including numerous arithmetic or logical operations without intervention by a human operator during the run wm nN Practical Work in Geography Part II Provided that you have the basic conceptual clarity computer can be used very effectively to represent data through maps and diagrams It makes your job extremely fast The following advantages of a computer make it distinct from the manual methods 1 It substantially increases the speed of the computation and data processing 2 It can handle huge volume of the data which is normally not possible manually 3 It facilitates copy edit save and retrieve the data at will iN It further enables validation checking and correction of data easily 5 Aggregation and analysis of data becomes extremely simple Computer makes it very easy to perform comparative analysis whether by drawing maps or graphs 6 The type of graph or map i e bar pie or types of shades heading indexing and other formats can be changed very eas
Download Pdf Manuals
Related Search