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The Applix 1616 - Ericlindsay.com

1. Starting the Applix 1616 is easy Connect everything and turn on the power The operating system and almost everything explained in this manual can work perfectly well without a disk drive However we do suggest that the computer is much more pleasant to use when fitted with a disk drive Connecting everything At the rear of the 1616 are a large number of connectors and switches Looking at the rear and viewing from left to right these are Keyboard 5 pin DIN socket Loudspeakers 5 pin DIN socket Cassette 5 pin DIN socket Reset button Joystick Port 9 pin D socket Serial Port B 9 pin D plug Serial Port A 9 pin D plug Video Connector 9 pin D socket User Control Port 34 way plug Centronics Parallel Printer Port 26 way plug Power Switch Power Line Connector 3 pins in rectangular socket Plug an IBM XT compatible keyboard into the left hand 5 pin DIN socket If there is a switch on the underside of the keyboard it must be set to the XT position not the AT position before switching on the power to the computer First Steps User Tutorial Manual Page 13 If you have other optional peripherals such as mouse printer loudspeakers plug them in to the appropriate connectors Plug the lead from your monitor Apple style monochrome or IBM RGBI CGA colour or multisync into the rightmost 9 pin D socket and switch on the power to the monitor and any other peripherals such as printers but not
2. The FILEMODE command allows the setting and clearing of a file or directory s attribute bits These bits are displayed as part of the directory entry in the order DALRWXS Each disk file has 16 attribute bits in its directory entry Ten are currently defined Bit Mask Usage 0001 Backup bit the file is backed up 0002 Directory bit the directory entry refers to a directory 0004 Locked bit the file is locked read only 0008 Read permission open for users other than 0 0010 Write permission open to users other than 0 0020 Execute available to users other than 0 0040 Symbolic link multiple names for a file 0080 File with address in directory entry 0100 Hidden file not shown by dir 0200 Boring bit don t bother to back up Attribute bits are set using the FILEMODE 1 mask filenames command The first argument 1 specifies that attributes are to be set on The MASK is a bitmask of those attributes which are to be set this is obtained by logically ORing the desired bits together A list of the files to be altered follows the MASK Attribute bits are cleared using the FILEMODE 0 mask filenames command The BACKUP bit in a file s attribute field indicates that the file has been backed up somewhere The DIRECTORY bit indicates that the directory entry refers to a sub directory not to a file If the LOCKED bit is set the file cannot be altered until you unlock it For obvious reasons FILEMODE ignores any instr
3. or exec extension when typing their name This rule of leaving off the extension follows traditional practice in computer systems so you may as well get used to it it does save some typing For convenience in identifying files programmers often use names in which a lt is placed in the name and some agreed upon extension is used to end the name Some extensions you will encounter and must use correctly are exec and xrel which are programs Shell programs which you will learn about in this manual have shel1 as their extension Other common but not mandatory extensions are bas for Basic language source files c for C language source files doc for program documentation f for Forth language source files h for header files mac for macro definitions mus for music files s for assembler source files snd for sound files d text or doc for various types of text files Page 32 User Tutorial Manual Files and Directories Block devices As mentioned block devices store the contents of memory in blocks of 1024 bytes They include ram disk disk drives and hard disks The RAM disk The basic 1616 system does not have any floppy disk drives Instead a proportion of the 1616 s RAM memory is used as a disk data is written to memory as if it were being recorded onto a disk The simulation of a floppy disk using memory is referred to as a RAM disk The name of the ram disk is
4. ESC G0 ESC I ESC j ESC M ESC P ESC Q ESC q ESC r ESC R ESC S ESC t ESC T ESC W ESC Y ESC 0 ESC 1 ESC 2 ESC 3 ESC 4 ESC 0x03 nn Home cursor 30 row 32 col 32 Positions the cursor Start highlighting End highlighting Clear the screen or current window value 32 Sets the background colour to value Visible bell Insert a line at the current one value 32 Sets the foreground colour to value Sets subscript mode Sets superscript mode Sets bold mode Sets underline mode Sets italic mode Clears subscript superscript underline bold and italic modes Back tab Reverse scroll display from 32 to 32 Copies the contents of a line position 32 value 32 Writes value into the 1616 video pallette at position Character insert Enter insert mode End insert mode 1B 72 Delete the current line value 32 Sets the border colour to value Clears from cursor to the end of the line Clears from cursor to the end of the line Delete character Clears from cursor to the end of the screen Cursor off flashing cursor steady block cursor flashing underline steady underline Delay video by nn ticks Downloading S records SREC filename lt redirection The Motorola S record downloader in 1616 OS is available for transferring to the 1616 binary executable code which has been compiled or assembled on another computer system S records are
5. Ascii These commands fill the memory address range al through to a2 inclusive with the supplied value The byte word and long size commands interpret n1 as an appropriately sized number and write it into memory throughout the range in address increments of one two or four bytes The MFA command fills the memory address range with the supplied string The string must be surrounded by double quotes if it contains spaces or tabs The string is not null terminated If the length of the address range is not an even multiple of the length of the string then the extra characters are written to addresses beyond a2 Memory comparing MCMP al a2 a3 Mnemonic Memory CoMPare This command compares two blocks of memory bytes The memory block between addresses al through to a2 is compared to the block starting at address a3 Any differing bytes in the two blocks are printed out in the form addressl b1 address2 b2 where address1 is the address within the al a2 block where the difference was found address2 is the address within the a3 block b1 is the byte at address address1 and b is the byte at address address2 Large amounts of output from the MCMP command may be interrupted with the Alt C key sequence Memory searching MSEARCH al a2 nl n2 n3 The memory search command searches the given address range for the specified byte pattern The byte pattern
6. Common commands help Lists all commands Followed by command names it tells how to use those commands dirs Short list of files and directories copy Copies source to destination for files and devices type View contents of a file cd Change from one disk or directory to another mkdir Make a new directory delete Delete a file or multiple files or empty directories xpath Tells which directories to search for programs rename Changes the name of a file within a directory move Changes the name of a file within a disk cat Copies multiple files and device inputs to standard output m Monitor commands for debugging and manipulating memory Command line 1616 OS uses a command line similar to MS DOS and UNIX however floppy drives are named f0 f1 hard drives are h0 h1 You always have a ram drive rd whose size is usually set by the mrdrivers file in your boot disk Disks directories and subdirectories use the slash as a divider like UNIX unlike MS DOS slosh Input and output redirection is available using lt gt while gt gt appends to an existing file The standard error output can also be redirected using and Appendix A User Tutorial Manual Page 99 Extensive line editing facilities are available from the command line together with a history command that lets you re edit the last 10 commands Multiple commands can appear on a line which can be as long as 511 characters See Chapter 2 fo
7. RD There are many references to disks and disk files in this manual the term disk in this context does not actually refer to a physical floppy disk but rather to any mass storage device for which a software driver exists in the 1616 The RAM disk is one such device Others devices can include one or two 3 5 inch 9 cm or 5 25 inch 14 cm disk drives SCSI hard disks or SCSI cartridge tape drives To ensure file integrity the RAM disk data is checksummed under software as it is written in The checksum is verified when the data is read back if some software or hardware malfunction has caused the RAM disk contents to be corrupted then attempting to read the file whose contents were affected will result in an I O error being reported You may vary the amount of memory which 1616 08 allocates for the RAM disk using switches 0 and 1 of the quad switch on the 1616 s PCB as follows RAM disk Switch 1 Switch 0 RAM disk selection setting setting size 0 off off 24K l off on 104K 2 on off 200K 3 on on 304K It is suggested that you select RAM disk size 2 for the time being If you have disk drives then the settings in the MRDRIVERS file on your boot disk will override the switch settings as required The ram disk can occupy up to a megabyte of memory if you have this much to spare The major disadvantage of the RD device is that the contents are lost when the computer is switched off Why then use it at all The answer is speed
8. SERIAL channel SERIAL channel baudrate rxbits txbits parity stopbits This command reprograms one of the 1616 s serial channel s operation modes If only the channel name A or B is used it displays the current setting of the channel in question The arguments are used as follows channel This must be the letter A or the letter B depending upon which serial channel you are reprogramming baudrate This is the desired transmit and receive baud rate It may be any of the standard rates up to 38 400 baud You may specify non standard baud rates if you wish however 38 400 is the suggested maximum and baud rate accuracy will suffer if you specify non standard rates which are above 2400 baud Remember to add the leading if specifying this in decimal Actually much faster baud rates can be obtained however above about 57k there is a problem entering the correct rates rxbits This number specifies the number of received bits It may be 5 6 7 or 8 txbits This number specifies the number of transmitted bits It may be 5 6 7 or 8 parity This number sets the transmit and receive parity 0 sets no parity 1 sets odd parity 2 sets even parity stopbits This sets the number of transmitted stop bits Specifying a 0 gives 1 stop bit a 1 gives 1 5 stop bits and a 2 gives 2 stop bits Example serial b 4800 7 7 2 0 Programs serial channel B for 4800 baud input and output 7 receive dat
9. See the xpath command help for details All these substitutions are performed by the command line interpreter The file system pathname parsing code also understands environment string substitution so you can use the name or name mechanisms wherever you use a normal pathname For example if you are within the editor and wish to write a marked block of text out to a file in your home directory you may type KW and enter Shome myfile when the editor prompts you for the output filename The envi ronment string substitution is done by the operating system not the editor The character is mandatory for pathname substitution Environment strings may be used for communicating information to programs which you run For example any program which wishes to know how wide your screen is can look up the screenwidth name in your environment Note that settings are associated with a shell type process so if you shell escape from a program such as the editor command line prompt contains two gt char acters then any new settings you make will be lost after you quit from that shell If you use sset under these circumstances then the desired setting will be recorded in Shome settings shell but another sset from a lower level shell will cause the loss of the new setting Use sset 1 to reload settings from Shome set tings shell Expect some more details of this command when I figure out all the neat uses of it Page 74 User
10. The commands trap and not rap enable and disable error trapping mode The com mands and enable and disable command echoing mode If no commands are specified then error trapping and echoing both default to the disabled state Error trapping mode If a shell program is executing in error trapping mode by placing a trap command early in the file and it executes an inbuilt or transient command which flags an error then the shell program will be terminated Errors are indicated by returning a negative number in the MC68000 s dO register as described in the Programmer s Manual Allinbuilt commands flag errors if something goes wrong Correctly written transient programs should return an error flag if they detect some form of failure The command trap 2 in a shell file causes it to exit if a command returns any non zero exit status This differs from the normal trap command which only traps a negative exit code The new addition to Version 4 is designed for programs ported from UNIX where error exit codes are anything non zero The HiTech C compiler passes normally return non negative exit codes so it is of use here Starting Programs User Tutorial Manual Page 41 In non error trapping mode errors are ignored but the rest of that line is not used and the next line from the she11 file is executed Echoing mode If echoing mode is enabled by placing a early in the file then each line from the she11 file is printe
11. input device and acts as if that is standard input This is handy for running some time consuming program in background mode while still feeding it commands formatting disks using blockdev while doing something else for example Some examples of commands which employ I O redirection follow dir gt myfile Page 26 User Tutorial Manual Command Handling The dir command displays the directory on standard output normally the video display When 1616 OS receives this particular command it creates a disk file called myfile and directs all the output from the dir command into the file If the file already exists this will overwrite and thus destroy the old contents of the file dir gt gt myfile This command differs from the previously described one in that the resultant directory is appended to the end of the file my file rather than being put into a fresh file cat con gt filename Any text you like cui This copies whatever is typed on the keyboard into a file stopping only when you type the End Of File EOF character The EOF character will not normally be set but can be changed to Ctrl D by using option 6 4 edit myfile lt edcommandfile This command uses the full screen editor upon the file my file The file edcommandfile would contain a sequence of char acters which are presented to the editor as if you had typed them in SSASM asmfile s 1 gt CENT errorlog SSASM is the M68000 assembler for
12. position Typing it once causes the most recent line to be inserted Typing it again causes the addition of the line before that and so on The line editor s control character commands are grouped as follows Cursor positioning commands Ctrl D or gt Go forward one character Ctrl F Go forward one word Ctrl S or lt Go backward one character Ctrl A Go backward one word Ctrl B or End If at start of line go to end otherwise go to start Text deletion commands Ctrl G Del Delete the character under the cursor Ctrl T Delete from the cursor to the start of the next word Ctrl Delete from the cursor to the end of the line Bs Ctrl H Delete the character before the cursor Ctrl V Delete from the start of the line up to the cursor Miscellaneous commands Ctrl W Recall previously typed lines insert most recent at cursor First Steps User Tutorial Manual Page 19 CE Ctrl M Enter CG ui Tab cu E or T C x or 4 Escape a control character after typing a Cu P you may enter any single control character into the line Use in Function Key definitions also The Enter key is pressed when you are satisfied with the line The cursor may be at any point on the line when Enter is pressed On some keyboards the Enter key is marked Return Match last word Last word of previous line then word before etc Complete a filename if possible Scroll backwards thro
13. 25 faster The slightly more advanced 68010 processor can also be used without any other alteration A 15 megahertz version is available as a 120 upgrade and any Applix 1616 can be modified to this speed e Computing speed is faster than an IBM PC XT but not as quick as an IBM AT e The keyboard is a full IBM style keyboard not a cut down version with no cursor keys Almost any IBM XT style keyboard can be used Introduction User Tutorial Manual Page 5 The bit mapped graphics provide the same definition as the IBM CGA standard but with more colours on screen The standard display is 320 by 200 in 16 colours or 640 by 200 in a choice of 4 colours out of a palette of 16 These can also be displayed as 16 grey scale levels on a suitable monochrome monitor IBM EGA standard graphics are also available if you have a suitable display screen This provides 640 by 350 displays in 4 colours or 320 by 350 displays in 16 colours a simple modification to the 1616 is required for use with some brands of EGA monitors 960 by 512 high resolution graphics are available after a 29 95 single chip modification Includes free Bellcore Mgr windowing package and mouse support written by Stephen Uhler Two standard RS232C serial ports are provided using the same components as in the Macintosh Two additional serial ports are also available on the disk drive controller A Televideo 950 terminal emulation program is inbuilt Full handshake contr
14. 77 echo 82 echo in shells 42 edit 91 Edit quick reference 101 editor full screen 45 editor line 19 editor commands 47 EGA graphics 6 end of file character 88 entering text 47 environment setting 73 error pipe standard 60 87 error condition 57 error messages 24 error messages disk 88 error trapping in shells 41 errors 9 Esc 11 Esc line repeat 18 escape characters 20 escape codes 96 escape sequences 96 evaluate expression 91 examine memory 77 examples of commands 22 exception 103 exception warm start 89 exclusive or logical operator 92 execution path 29 71 exit 90 expr 91 failure of keyboard 16 fault 103 ff 36 file attributes 68 file commands 65 file commands editor 50 file creation mask 70 file creation mode 89 file numbers 35 file termination 81 file types 40 filemode 68 filemode default mask 89 filename 31 filenames 36 filenames lower case 89 fill memory 79 fixed disk 34 fkey 92 floppy disk 34 full pathnames 36 function keys 18 Index ii function keys define 92 go 84 hard disk 34 help 93 help command 64 hexadecimal 11 23 hierarchical files 35 history 8 18 I O E 59 86 TO buffering 105 I O redirection 25 ID number of user 89 input output pipes 87 input redirection 25 input syntax 22 Intel 7 internal settings 87 interpreter 8 25 interprocess communication 55 interprocess
15. A ram disk is faster than most physical disks A typical use is to copy your most often used programs into RD and run them from there Because you have a permanent copy of your programs on disk or tape it does not matter that the copy in the ram disk is lost when you switch off However when you create a new file or update the contents of a file you want it saved in some less transient form This will be on floppy disk or on hard disk Files and Directories User Tutorial Manual Page 33 Disk devices All the disk devices on the Applix 1616 run identically Thatis the same commands apply However there are some differences in their speed and capacity The ram disk rd is fastest however it has the least capacity typically 200k bytes or about AO pages of text and the great disadvantage of totally losing its contents when the power is switched off A 9cm floppy disk drive which accepts plastic encased diskettes is slowest but has a capacity of 800k bytes about 160 pages of text It also has the great advantage that the disks are removable so by changing disks its capacity is essentially unlimited The Applix 1616 will accept two floppy drives and these are known as f0 and f1 with modifications you can add up to 8 drives Generally you will need at least one such floppy or diskette drive to make any serious use of your Applix 1616 For one thing you can not really run 1616 0S v4 x satisfactorily without a disk drive alth
16. Hace venenauduadsaderceansdnanisvtoadts vesiednatnardenardsdndaes Loading memory from a file situ scersorenapacstagceiaes cies iosauasseawneceeinetene User Tutorial Manual 70 75 77 iii Command line redirection scssecisesescsceosssosessosnesesnesssvesssoonnsesnsssocses Moving characters about sseessssseesssersssesessssressrersseeresssrressereessseees Shell file commands sseossesssoessoossoesssesssossssossoesssesssossssossoosssesssosssoss Echo command line arguments sssssseessseseessseresseeesssreeesserssseressssee Pausin S reena a E E RERI System commands ssseseessssscscessssooccessssococessssscsecesssocecessssooecsssssssseeseo Setting the time and date 22 scccnsssessnedacvanetave acatannanedessneesdeanodencsatones Displaying the current time date sssssseeeeeseseessserssseseesssresssreesseeee Executing machine code iced as sd aavtaxackaseentadsaneiencnadeseeaneiaieerxcheartane Manually performing system Calls 0 c ce eecceceeneeeceeeneeceeeneeeeeenaes PROCESS Stag onirin ianei isie Kaaa Eet ARESE ENE EaR Kall a background process 026 50 cd encadeadosbodeassesccddeontoressasoentexececeieaetes Waitforapro ess to end soretes eeeyoccansunedetedse estes usiseweoatars NT ES AE P E E ck ee og aoe act ot ET Altering internal settings eesesessesesssseessseresssreesssersssereessseesssreesseree Quitting the command interpreter ssesseesseessseseessseresseresssreeessres Handy Utilities aesc
17. Page 87 option 4 1 option 5 0 option 6 N option 7 8192 option 8 0 option 9 1 8040 access address 8044 function code 8048 instruction register 804c status register 8050 program counter 8052 pointer to a string describing the exeption type If bit O is set 3 1 the screen is cleared the registers are dumped and a stack backtrace is displayed If bit 1 is set 3 2 exceptions cause the offending process to be killed rather than rebooting the machine This can be handy if you are doing something that may crash the system while important things like a huge download are happening in background If bit 2 is set 3 4 halt system until reset upon an exeption If bit 3 is also set 3 c or 3 d the first exeption only is recorded in memory at 8000 on default enables the printing of error messages from the floppy disk driver code If option 4 0 is in effect these messages do not come out default getmem returns a negative error code when out of memory Option 5 1 causes the system to generate an internal error when the memory allocation function getmem receives a request for more memory than is available Sets the end of file character for character devices The normal setting is 100 no EOF character Reads from character devices terminate when this character is read Setting N to a number greater than 255 effectively disables end of file checking Option 6 with no parameters prints out the cur
18. Sets subscript mode ESC G2 Sets superscript mode ESC G4 Sets bold mode ESC G8 Sets underline mode ESC G Sets italic mode ESC GO Clears subscript superscript underline bold and italic modes ESC S value 32 Sets the border colour to value Page 54 User Tutorial Manual Edit The Screen Editor 7 Multi Tasking The operating system includes pre emptive multitasking with pipes and signals for interprocess communication Programs can readily and automatically pass input and output among themselves even if they are all operating simultaneously Disks can be accessed by multiple programs at once without damage Multitasking is a highly desirable characteristic in an operating system It simply means that it is able to run more than one program at once It does this by sharing the central processor among the multiple programs If all goes correctly this sharing is sufficiently fast that everything appears to be running simultaneously There are of course some disadvantages Any individual program will run slower since it is sharing its time Also it is not appropriate for programs which demand keyboard input and produce rapid display updates such as games It tends to mean that programmers must think more carefully about exactly how their pro grams will produce output However there are many tasks where you will be happy to start a program and then do something else until the results are obtained For exam
19. This is essentially a more limited version of cat included for MS DOS compatibility Deleting files DELETE pathname pathname2 pathname3 All of the named files and directories are deleted making the disk space which they previously used available for reuse Wildcards are useful but dangerous with this command Directories may be deleted in this manner A directory can only be deleted if it is empty contains no files or sub directories and is not in the path of your current directory Renaming files RENAME pathname filename The RENAME command changes the name of the file or directory identified by pathname to filename All other file attributes are preserved RENAME cannot move a file from a particular directory so the command RENAME rd mydir myfile newname will rename the file to RD MYDIR NEWNAME regardless of the current directory Essentially a more limited safer version of move 1616 0S Commands User Tutorial Manual Page 67 Refreshing a file s date TOUCH pathname pathname The TOUCH command changes the modification time date in one or more files or directories directory entries to the current system time and date This can be very handy when arranging backup copies of current files or for programmers who need to keep file dates consistent Changing file attributes FILEMODE 0 mask file file2 Clear attribute bits FILEMODE 1 mask file file2 Set attribute bits
20. Tutorial Manual 1616 0S Commands Cassette tape commands The 1616 cassette storage system is a classic example of late twentieth century technological development As you can see from the copious attention given it both pages we figure most users aren t exactly heavily into cassettes even at 3000 baud However if you haven t got disk drives you can still make a very fair go at working with the Applix 1616 using either cassettes or another computer over the serial ports for permanent storage Set up a large ram disk and remember when the power goes off so does the disk Just don t switch off the power very often Incidently you can use the syscall mechanism to do raw cassette reads and writes for test purposes Here goes Saving files on tape TSAVE pathnamel pathname2 pathname3 This command saves the named disk files on tape Before entering this command first rewind the tape put the player into record mode and allow the tape to move forwards until the leader is no longer over the tape head Use the Al T command to toggle the cassette relay during this operation Type in this command when all is ready the 1616 OS cassette drivers will turn the motor on and off as required The cassette stop start relay must be connected for cassette I O to work success fully Archiving files on tape TARCHIVE pathname pathname2 pathname3 1616 OS keeps track of those files which have been altered since they were l
21. User Tutorial Manual Page 83 System commands Setting the time and date SETDATE year month day hour minute second SETDATE is used to inform the system of the current time and date When the time and date is correctly entered with this command it is echoed in the standard format All six numeric arguments must be given The format is year 0 99 month 1 12 day 1 31 hour 0 23 minute 0 59 second 0 59 Remember to include the leading when specifying a decimal number Example SETDATE 92 4 1 12 30 0 is half past twelve on April fools day Disk users can buy a 50 package of plug in real time battery backed SmartWatch and routines for setting and forgetting it and showing the time in a corner of the display Users of 1616 OS V4 2e may note that on a certain date of the year a special message will appear on reset this indicates Andrew was programming eproms on his birthday Incidently I haven t a clue where in the eproms he hid the text of the message but look for his name with high bit set Displaying the current time date DATE This command causes 1616 OS to print out the current system time and date If the time and date have not been set up then the output will contain many zeroes and the month field will appear as question marks Executing machine code GO al The GO command causes 1616 0S to perform an MC68000 JSR instruction to the program at address al presumably the start addre
22. an ASCII representation of executable machine code see Appendix B If the filename is given the binary code is transferred to a file of that name If the name is omitted then the code is loaded directly into the 1616 s memory 1616 0S Commands User Tutorial Manual Page 97 You must use input redirection with the lt symbol to specify the device from which S records are to be loaded By obtaining input from a file one can convert S record files into binary ones within the 1616 The SREC command simply prints out any characters which are received from the input until a start record S1 S2 or S3 is received Bytes are loaded in and the checksum is verified Loading terminates on an S7 S8 or S9 record Example srec myfile lt sa loads S records from serial channel A putting the binary code into myfile Page 98 User Tutorial Manual 1616 0S Commands 9 Appendix A For MS DOS users This short appendix is intended for readers who are already familiar with one or more computer systems If you are familiar with some other computer system you may prefer to leap in without looking through the manual Experienced MS DOS and UNIX users should have little difficulty although many commands are different Please remember however that you will not be able to make fully effective use of this system until you know the facilities available This manual contains a complete list of all commands with their syntax and examples
23. and w S7ffff sr option 14 0 disables PC and register output If bit O 15 1 is set do not create bak files in edit and Dr Doc Bit 1 Alt C interrupt broken If bit 2 is set 15 4 the 5 key on the numeric keypad generates Ctrl Q in non numeric mode Set file creation mode the default ilemode mask You are setting a bit pattern here The normal default ensures all files have RWX permissions for all users This can be altered for greater security when there are multiple users Probably not available this time round Enable lower case pathnames in directories Set output video mode If bit 0 is set 1 all escape code sequences are ignored Characters are simply printed out Remember we are setting bits not giving a value If bit 1 is set 2 all control characters remove their special meaning even carriage return line feed etc Obviously if you set both bits O and 1 3 the display goes into a monitor mode and displays all characters sent to it showing their ASCII equivalent where required A L clears the screen if bit 2 is clear and tabs overwrite characters If bit 2 is set 4 the terminal emulation is closer to Televideo 950 standard L moves cursor forward while tabs are non destructive and move cursor to the next tab stop User Tutorial Manual Page 89 option 19 1 Enable automatic re read of xpath directories in the event of a filename error Bit 0 set enables re reading of e
24. being flexible and relatively easy to use It has some style and elegance lacking in many such chips This makes Motorola based computers especially suitable for many educational needs Although other computers like the Apple Macintosh use the 68000 they are still not always easy to program In attempting to make them simple for the user the Macintosh forces a certain method of working on the programmer The Macintosh and similar graphic interfaces generally require extensive knowledge and experience before satisfactory programs can be written It is sometimes said by programmers that the Macintosh manuals contain numerous chapters all of which are perfectly clear provided you already understand the rest of the book In contrast the Applix 1616 is designed to make things easy for the new pro grammer Like most micro computers the Applix has a variety of inbuilt com mands that can be typed and which cause the computer to do certain common tasks Unlike most other computers these commands can usually be reached from within other programs with great ease Programs in the Applix are designed to work together The resultis highly similar on a smaller scale to the UNIX operating system in approach Each inbuilt command is made up of a number of smaller less comprehensive or less flexible operations These operations are known as system calls and many can be used almost as easily as commands These syscalls are like regular in
25. does not type anything or types the wrong thing make the following checks Check that the small switch if available underneath the keyboard is set to XT mode The Applix does not use IBM AT or IBM PS 2 style keyboards Power down the entire system for about 20 seconds after moving the switch to allow the keyboard to reset correctly There is a small set of two pins labelled KB at the front left hand side of the Applix motherboard These can be used to adjust the Applix to some of the known different styles of XT keyboard Switch off the Applix and remove the cover If a small plastic jumper block is in place shorting out the two pins remove it If there is no jumper block install one or short out the two KB pins with wire Try the keyboard again Try a different keyboard if you have one readily available or can easily borrow one This tests that the Applix 1616 keyboard circuit is working If you are still having keyboard problems contact Applix direct for additional help Note that you will not be able to use an IBM AT only keyboard you do need an older style IBM XT keyboard A keyboard with an automatic AT XT switch is also not likely to work they are designed for specific IBM clone systems Applix can always supply a keyboard that is guaranteed to work if you can not easily locate one yourself Cursor keys and numeric keypad The keypad on the far right hand side of your keyboard has two modes One is as a cursor control
26. else for a while and then jump back to your original place You may place up to 10 markers within a file the markers are lost when you quit from the editor they are not actually part of the file Moves the current position to the marker corresponding to that digit see Ctrl K 0 Ctrl K 9 above used by typing Ctl Q followed by a single digit number An error message is displayed if the place marker has never been set Find text or search You are prompted to enter a pattern which the editor is to find in the file The editor also asks for the number of repetitions of the search if you ask for 10 repetitions then the cursor will be moved to the tenth occurrence of the pattern within your file If you simply press the Enter key when asked for the number of repetitions the editor will find the next occurrence of the pattern The search starts from the current position and proceeds forwards The number of occurrences actually found is displayed on the status line the cursor is left on the last found occurrence Last search repeat Finds the next occurrence of the pattern which was searched for in the most recent Ctrl Q F pattern search com mand Replace substitute text The editor asks for a pattern for which to search when this has been entered the editor asks for the characters which must replace the original pattern it then asks for the number of times which the replacement must be performed If you press the
27. error please contact me at Applix preferably by sending sufficient material for the suspected error to be reproduced Enhancements changes I have attempted to make the ROM code as flexible as possible allowing your programs to control anything which they could possibly want to without having to directly manipulate the 1616 s hardware or the operating system s data areas If you encounter limitations in the existing software or if you simply wish to see new features added please write down your thoughts and send them along to me Standards A problem which is seen time and again with computers of all sizes is that of data compatibility Trying to transfer a file which was created under company XYZ s database program over to company ABC s word processor and then patching in a picture created under company BPL s paint package can be relatively painless as long as standards exist for the representation of the data files Applix has not attempted to define a standard representation for a word processor file a picture file a compressed file a sound file a spreadsheet file etc What we propose is that you contact Applix before embarking upon an implementation of one of these things If we know of or have defined a suitable data structure we will provide you with a description of it otherwise we will use your proposed format or a generalisation of it as the future standard Upgrades At Applix we wish to keep you up
28. following things 1 Type in a new value to be written at this address 2 Press Enter to go on to the next address 3 Type r followed by Enter to go back to the previous address 4 Type followed by Enter to quit from prompted input mode Putting ASCII strings in memory MWA al string MWAZ al string Mnemonic Memory Write Ascii Zero These commands write an ASCII string into memory starting at address al The MWAZ command appends a null zero byte to the end of the string If the optional string is supplied then the string is simply written into memory If the string is omitted then the user enters a prompted mode of input where the current address is displayed and strings are typed in In this mode the following things may be done 1 Type in a new string to go at this address 2 Press Enter to go on to the next address 3 Type r followed by Enter to go back to the previous address 4 Type followed by Enter to quit from prompted ASCII input mode In both forms of these commands only a single string may be entered at a time If your strings have spaces or tabs they must be surrounded by double quotes For example the command MWAZ 8000 Test string writes that string null terminated into memory at address 8000 Page 78 User Tutorial Manual 1616 0S Commands Memory filling MFE al a2 nl MFW al a2 nl MFL al a2 nl MFA al a2 string Mnemonic Memory Fill Byte Word Long
29. handler 57 signals 55 57 sigsend syscall 57 sleep syscall 56 sleeping 56 sort dir alphabetically 87 sort dir by date 87 SP 59 86 spawn process 56 speed time a command 92 spreadsheet 2 srec 97 SSASM in Eprom 91 stack 59 86 stack backtrace 87 standard error 25 26 standards 9 start editor 91 starting 14 status 59 85 status of process ps 85 stop disable 89 stop output 18 stopbits 95 stopping 82 sub directories 35 subscript 96 substitute in editor 52 substituting pathnames 72 superscript 96 switch settings 104 switches 33 synchronise programs 60 synchronise with process 86 synchronous process 56 syscall 85 syscalls 7 system blocks option 88 Index iv system calls 7 85 system commands 84 tape commands 75 tarchive 75 terma 96 termb 96 terminal 96 terminal escape codes 96 termination character 81 88 text delete 49 text entry 47 throw away output 26 time 92 time display 84 time setting 84 time a command 92 tload 76 touch 68 trace option 89 transient command 25 trap in shells 41 tsave 75 TTY pseudo device 26 tverify 76 txbits 95 type 67 types of files 40 underline text 96 undo buffers 49 undo commands in edit 49 upgrades 9 user ID number 89 verbose mode 87 verify tape 76 video 104 video output mode 89 wait 60 wait for process to end 86 warm start on exception 89 warn
30. is made to recover from minor errors however this often usually causes problems in the program in later use In the 1616 the emphasis is placed upon ensuring that information about the exception is made available to the programmer rather than trying to recover from the exception Programmers generally find this helpful as a user you may not When an exception is detected the exception type and a full register dump are displayed whereupon the 1616 grinds to a halt You must press reset to regain control The option command may be used to vary the form of output when an exception occurs making it possible to obtain a stack backtrace Once you learn 68000 assembler you will find all this of great use See option 3 and option 13 Using reset If the 1616 is doing something and you wish to regain control of the system first try the Alt Ctrl C key sequence The running program should detect your interrupt and should stop whatever it is doing awaiting further input If this fails the next approach is to try the Alt Ctrl R sequence At a software level this is equivalent to pressing the 1616 s reset switch at the rear If this fails to regain control then the 1616 is very hung up and you must press the reset switch Using the reset switch or the Al Ctrl R sequence causes a level 2 reset This regains 1616 OS control but performs some reinitialisation of data areas within 1616 0S In short a reset tries to restore
31. line to separate multiple commands so you can write a lengthy command sequence easily echo abc dir base 40 On some occasions such as when defining a function key with the fkey command you will wish the system to consider a group of characters which includes spaces and tabs to be a single argument This is done by quoting the group of characters For example the command fkey 2 spaces gt lt here preserves the spaces in the string of characters for use in the definition of function key 2 This technique allows you to define function keys from within shell files rather than doing it from the keyboard with the Alt Ct function key method Error messages produced by 1616 0S 1616 OS produces error messages which should be self explanatory in the context of the command which was being executed Refer to the documentation for the particular command if the error message is not sufficient Occasionally the system may emit obscure looking error messages from a lower level These error messages which result from errors and inconsistencies in user programs file systems or possibly 1616 OS itself are described in an appendix to the 1616 0S Programmer s Manual Command execution There are three basic types of command available e executable memory resident drivers e inbuilt commands e transient commands When a command is typed in and the Return or Enter key is pressed 1616 OS compares the command name with the
32. multitasking etc Assembler Users Manual Brief overview of using 68000 assembler assembler directives structured programming macro and conditional assembly linker errors Shareware Manuals An expanding set of manuals on disk produced by the Applix Users Group These explain how to use a number of programs available on the first 30 shareware disks from Applix all of which include source code A number of additional programs are available at extra cost together with manuals These include BASIC Interpreter Lists all commands and functions available in SSBASIC with additional information on calling machine code and using files Con verted by Andrew Morton of Applix 69 Hi Tech C Compiler Using C features standard libraries style pointers C reference linker libraries A standard K amp R C from a well known Aus tralian company at 250 C Tutorial A simple introduction to the C language with over 50 programs on disk Many can be used with the shareware Superscript mini C interpreter Forth fully extended version of the one made famous in Dr Dobbs ported to Applix by Peter Fletcher Documented on disk plus reprinted manual including full source code 89 CP M ZCPR3 and ZRDOS ported by Conal Walsh to run on the 8 MHz Z80 CPU on the Applix disk controller card Very fast version with full colour display Includes disk controller upgrade to 64k Short manual and disks and now includes hard disk support R
33. name or by PID number The ps command will list both name and PID number of all processes Killing by name is usually easier however if you have several processes with the same name using the PID number ensures the correct one is killed Kill emits a PID terminated message via the appropriate output device The following options are available a kill all children processes k unconditionally kill nn specify which signal to send in decimal rather than the default sigterm which is 15 See the Programmer s Manual for details of signals available which generally follow UNIX conventions Wait for a process to end WAIT command action amp The wait command returns when the selected PID number has terminated It may be used to synchronise an asynchronous process by letting you or another pro gram know when it has ended Page 86 User Tutorial Manual 1616 0S Commands For example suppose there is a background process called download running We wish to know when this has completed The command to do this is wait download echo cwi c cm G cfc gt con amp This command will suspend until the completion of download and then emit some beeps Pipes command command A pipe is created by typing vertical bars between two or more commands The operating system starts each command asynchronously An interprocess pipe connects the output of each command with the input of the next Ifthe last command in
34. pad Num Lock light off and the other is as a numeric keypad Num Lock light on You may switch between the two modes by pressing the Num Lock key When the keyboard s numeric pad is in its cursor control mode the 1616 0S key board driver produces the appropriate control codes for the line and screen editors In short you can move the cursor about the display Page 16 User Tutorial Manual First Steps The state of the _ Num Lock key is temporarily reversed when a Shift key is pressed if the numeric keypad is in cursor control mode then holding down a Shift key will place it in numeric mode and vice versa Control and Alt keys Typing a key while the Ct key is depressed will generate the ASCII code of that key minus 64 thus providing a Control code between 0 and 31 for programmers bits 5 6 and 7 are zero Many Cu key combinations are used by the line editor and the full screen editor A control key combination such as Ctl C is often shown as C in manuals and books that can not show the actual key We show it that way in many manuals for reasons of space You don t really need to know for the purposes of this chapter what each key produces For example Cul the shifted 6 generates ASCII code 30 while ctrl the shifted 2 generates ASCII code 0 Later when you learn programming you will want to know these sorts of key equivalents the Applix will produce a list of equivalents for you when you t
35. pipe 87 isinteractive syscall 61 italic text 96 itload 76 join file 65 keyboard 10 13 15 keyboard failure 16 kill 56 58 59 kill syscall 56 last line recall 18 line editor 19 literal attrib 58 load 59 86 load memory 80 load tape file 76 locked files 68 locked in process 56 lockin 56 logical operators 91 lower case filenames 89 machine code 84 Macintosh 7 make directory 71 manipulate memory 77 manuals 3 marker in editor 46 mask for filemode 89 match any character 28 mcemp 79 mdb 77 User Tutorial Manual memory allocation errors 88 memory manipulation 77 memory resident driver 24 mfb 79 mkdir 35 71 mload 80 mmove 80 monitor commands 77 Motorola 7 Motorola S Records 97 move 66 move file 65 66 move in memory 80 MRD 24 mrdb 77 msave 80 msearch 79 multiple commands 24 multiple programs 55 multiple user ID 89 multitasking 55 mwa 78 mwaz 78 mwb 78 nesting shells 42 new directory 35 71 nice level 56 null 26 num lock 16 number base conversion 91 numbers 23 numeric commands 23 numeric keypad 16 option 87 option 16 70 or logical operator 92 output redirection 25 output video mode 89 overwrite mode 47 parallel processes 56 parameters command line 21 parent process 56 parity 95 pathname alias 72 pathnames 36 pause 82 pausing 82 PC 59 86 PID 57 59 85 pipe 57 pi
36. programs more permanently is required This method is unfortunately almost always on some magnetic media and thus relatively slow by comparison with the electronics in the computer The magnetic media the 1616 can handle includes cassette tapes floppy disks Small Computer Systems Interface SCSI hard disks and other SCSI devices SCSI is one of several standard styles of interfaces connections to magnetic storage devices for computers Others you may encounter not used by Applix include ST506 SMD ESDI and IDE Each file or program that is stored needs to have aname by whichit can be identified by the user and this is known as its filename On the Applix the filename can be up to 31 letters long so you should use descriptive names Upper and lower case letters are treated as if they were the same while spaces and control characters are removed You are not allowed to use the f character within a filename Files and Directories User Tutorial Manual Page 31 File types You can have many different types of files however for the moment you can consider them to fall into three general groups You can have programs text or data files and shell files If a file doesn t contain a program it can be considered as either text or data Sometimes it will be simply text for example if a letter were produced using the edit command Sometimes it may contain data that isn t particularly readable to humans as in a file containing mu
37. reset switch This is used if the 1616 fails to respond due to a program failure and you can not regain control in any other manner First Steps User Tutorial Manual Page 17 an s The Alt S command stops and starts video output only This may be used to slow output to a readable rate assuming your reflexes are excellent The flashing video cursor changes to an underline to indicate that output is suspended Alt Ctrl C This is a powerful way to abort or escape from a program in foreground It will escape from or abort the vast majority of programs Use Alt Cul R to reset if this fails Alt Del Toggles the end of file EOF character Default is 100 that is no end of file character and the alternate value is 04 or Ctrl D See the opt ion command to set EOF to any desired value This EOF character is often used to indicate the end of input from devices such as the keyboard or from other com puters Function keys The 1616 keyboard s ten function keys F1 to F10 may be used to produce up to 63 characters of input from a single keystroke The fkey command may be used to define a function key from within a she1l1 program as explained in a later section There is a manual capture mode on function keys You hold down the Alt and Ct and press the function key From this point all characters typed are invisibly captured into the definition for that function key The definition may be terminated by pressing t
38. showing how you can avoid typing full details of filenames and instead let the computer work them out General command format The general format for the entry of commands is commandname arguments lt inputsource gt outputdestination errordestination Commandname is the name of the command see the full list later in this manual whichis being used We show names of commands and names of files ina courier typeface to make it easier to identify them in the manual Arguments refers to any additional instructions or data which the specific command needs The special redirection operators lt gt and are explained later They make it possible to use computer files or devices other than the keyboard for entering material They also allow the results of the command to be displayed somewhere other than the normal display screen such as on the printer or on another computer via a Serial port Command Handling User Tutorial Manual Page 21 Command input syntax 1616 OS scans the line that you type responding to various characters as appropriate For example if you use one of the line editor control codes see Section 2 then the line is edited However when you press the Enter key the operating system then tries to carry out the commands entered Spaces and tabs separate the commands and all the arguments from each other This means that you can not leave spaces in filenames or it will appear that ther
39. subtraction modulo remainder amp bitwise AND bitwise OR A bitwise exclusive OR The X is used for multiplication because the character is expanded out into the names of all the files on your disk before the command line is processed You can however use the symbol provided you escape it with Examples EXPR 100 x 200 Calculate decimal 100 200 EXPR 1101 10000 Set a bit EXPR 12345 63 How many 63 s in 12345 EXPR 12345 63 With how many remainder EXPR 195 x 63 60 Check it Printing the ASCII character set ASCII dl h D1H This command produces a printout of a table of 128 ASCII characters The command ASCII b results in a hexadecimal ASCII table while the ASCII qd command gives a decimal ASCII table of the first 128 characters Using upper case parameters as in ASCII H or ASCII D produces a table of the second 128 mostly graphics characters Timing a command TIME command Putting the command TIME at the start of any 1616 OS inbuilt or transient com mand causes the command to be executed in the normal manner after which the elapsed time is displayed in minutes and seconds For example TIME ssasm f 0 srce myfile causes f0 srce myfile s to be assembled after which the assembly time is dis played Defining function keys FKEY n1 string Page 92 User Tutorial Manual 1616 0S Commands This command programs funct
40. such as the Ct G or Ctrl B beeps Note that you can alter the volume and sound of a beep using the oscontrol system call Pausing PAUSE nl The PAUSE command causes 1616 OS to cease processing commands for a duration of nl twenty millisecond system timer ticks In otherwords the pause length is nl 50 seconds long An mG interrupts a pause PAUSE is designed for inclusion in shell program files to allow users time to read the contents of the screen before new commands from within the she11 file are executed Remember that the default form of numeric input is hexadecimal Put a full stop in front of decimal pause lengths For example consider the following she11 program called memex ECHO To observe memory alteration ECHO ECHO Memory before executing 3 MDL 1 2 PAUSE 100 2 seconds Page 82 User Tutorial Manual 1616 0S Commands 3 4 5 6 ECHO Memory after executing 3 MDL 1 2 We may use this program to observe how a range of memory changes before and after a transient or inbuilt command is executed For example the command MEMEX 10000 12000 mfb 10000 12000 12 will cause the following 1 2 3 4 The messages and memory contents are printed out The system pauses for 2 seconds allowing time to observe the output or to type Ai s for more time The command mfb 10000 12000 12 is executed The memory range is printed out again 1616 0S Commands
41. term for another term or terms It can be used to change the names you use for commands SET Deletes all current settings SET namel Deletes the current setting for the environment string with name namel SET name1 setting1 name2 setting 2 SET namel setting1 with spaces in it Sets the environment string with name name to setting setting1 If the desired setting or name has special characters such as space tab 1 gt lt then the argument to set should be wrapped in double quotes as shown SET e name1 setting 1 Sets the environment string with name namel to setting setting1 making namel suitable for command aliasing so the command interpreter will repace namel with setting when namel appears as the first part of a command For example set del delete for MSDOS types Now you can type del and the delete command will be executed If an environment string does not have the e flag it can still be used as a command alias by preceding it with a character SET a namel setting 1 Sets the environment string with name namel to setting setting making namel suitable for aliasing anywhere in the command line so the command interpreter will repace namel with setting when namel appears ANY WHERE in a command line For example set a work Shome mydir allows you to abbreviate pathnames to work myfile witho
42. the Applix system Copyright 1986 Applix Pty Limited All Rights Reserved Revised material Copyright 1992 Eric Lindsay ISBN 0 947341 005 MC68000 is a trademark of Motorola Inc 1 Introduction This manual is an introduction to the inbuilt operating system 1616 0S for the Applix 1616 computer Many commands described in this manual including multitasking are available on every Applix 1616 the moment you apply power because they are built into the eproms on the Applix motherboard Unlike other computers you do not need disk drives to use an Applix The Applix 1616 will start whether a disk drive is supplied or not however some activities are rather restricted We recommend that all experienced users obtain floppy disk drives and possibly hard drives as well to fully enjoy using the system This manual does not specifically cover the setting up of Applix disk drives This chapter briefly describes the many manuals and programs available for the Applix 1616 It indicates the intended audience for the computer the uses to which it might be put and the facilities available The operating system is briefly described together with suggestions about standards plus how to enhance and upgrade the system Finally the typographic and keyboard conventions used throughout these manuals are described The Applix 1616 is designed to be helpful and easy to use for programmers rather than neccessarily easier for end users of progr
43. things to what they were before they got out of control The contents of your RAM disk usually remain intact through this reset If some critical areas of memory have been destroyed by a runaway program then a level 1 reset is necessary The level 1 reset is invoked by performing two resets by either method within three seconds of each other This fixes most major problems by initialising many extra data areas Appendix A User Tutorial Manual Page 103 The level 0 reset usually occurs only at power on time It may occasionally occur when you reset if a program has gone berserk and overwritten reserved memory locations A level 0 reset reinitialises everything This includes the RAM disk the contents of which will be lost and the character set including any specially changed display characters you have produced Switch selection colour boot etc Prior to Version 3 le EPROMS switch 2 numbering 0 1 2 3 of the quad DIL switch on the motherboard was used to inform the 1616 0S about the type of video monitor you are using so that the appropriate colours or grey scales are used for your display If you have EPROMS prior to Version 3 le set switch 2 offif using a colour monitor Set switch 2 on if using a monochrome monitor This monitor selection is not required on Version 3 le and later and switch 2 is now used to select an external serial terminal as the console for test purposes If the switch is open off seria
44. thrashing on floppies is decreased The number of directory entries to be cached can be altered in your mrdrivers file Directory listings DIR pathname1 pathname2 DIRS pathname1 pathname Both of these commands print out the names of some or all of the files in directories If none of the optional pathnames are supplied then directory listings of all of the files and directories in the current directory are presented If some filenames are given then directory listings are given only for those files whose names appear in the filename list The DIRS command is a short form listing which prints out file names only the DIR command gives a long form listing DIRS is readable even on displays narrower than the usual 80 characters The command also summarises the bytes and the disk blocks used in that directory the number of files in that directory and the total blocks used and free on the entire device If there is only one file it says 1 file not 1 files unlike certain well known operating systems The long form directory listing of a file gives its attribute bits the user ID number length in bytes load address if any time and date of the file and its name The attributes may be D a directory A backed up file L locked file R read W write or X eXecute All except the D bits may be set or cleared using the filemode command The read write and execute attribu
45. working Setting video frequencies VMODE hfreq vfreq hoffset voffset This is provided for those running USA video monitors and enables you to tweak the 6545 CRTC registers to produce a stable picture on your particular display Don t fiddle until you know what you are doing with it read the Hardware and Construction Manual Helpful reminders HELP cmdname cmdname The command HELP with no arguments causes a sorted list of all of 1616 0S s inbuilt commands to be printed out The HELP command may be used to obtain more detailed help concerning one or more particular inbuilt commands by using the name of the inbuilt command as an argument to HELP For example HELP mdl filemode 1616 0S Commands User Tutorial Manual Page 93 When this form of the HELP command prints out these usage messages the fol lowing conventions apply number Compulsory numeric input string Compulsory input often a filename number Optional numeric input string Optional input These usage messages tell you what input formats are acceptable to 1616 OS s command parser Typing in commands which comply with this format will not cause a syntax error message however they may still be rejected by 1616 OS More detailed help messages are given from Version 3 2c on and this includes a full list of option parameters Page 94 User Tutorial Manual 1616 0S Commands Communication commands Reprogramming the serial ports
46. working directory is RD BIN SUBDIR Relative pathname Full pathname ee rd bin myfile rd bin myfile rd bin subdir test s rd test s sub2 myfile rd bin subdir sub2 myfile textfile rd bin subdir textfile Typical file commands e The names of all your files are held in a directory and you can see a very detailed list of the names of your files by typing dir A directory listing includes various file attributes detailed later as well as the size of files and the date they were created Each file takes a line of the display You can use wildcards the symbol used as dir to include sub directories or restrict the range of the directory command by doing something like dir bi which would show all files and directories starting with bi Page 36 User Tutorial Manual Files and Directories If you want a shorter list use dirs which stands for directory short This lists the filenames only in multiple columns across the screen As with the normal directory files are normally listed in alphabetical order although you can alter this using the inbuilt opt ion command Directories are listed first with a preceding them to indicate they are directories Files can be deleted which means they are removed from the directory Directories can also be deleted provided they contain no files Wildcards can be used or multiple filenames specified For example delete letter junkmail stuff xrel would delete the thre
47. 35 Filenames and pathnames ssesssssesssseesssessssssesssresssesssesseesssresseessee 36 Typical file commands aipsccscse pacers cacorcdsesedeveartasdsccudveanesanaepeeansveneteas 36 5 Starting Programs ssssssssssococccecesssosoccoccccesosoceseeeesesssssseeess OF Starting a program sssesssssscccesssosoccessssoocecesosocccesesoococesssososesssssssessse OF Search pat eeoa ee ESES An E EENE AAE NESE E SEEEN TERNS 39 Types of executable files 2lncicraeceoconcontensuas enseneimvasearduocesdunercsvrenntenwans 40 Executing binary files seeseeeeessseosssseeseseeessssesesseeessoeessssressoeeesssoee 40 Executing shell program files sssseooessssosccecessoooecesessooeecsssseoseeessssee 41 Shell file error trapping and command echoing eeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 4 Error trapping mode sicie neee ae ca doadvand EE E EREN 41 Echoins MOJE sonene eiere eenia EE E EESO E EEE 42 Multiple or nested shell programs eesessesesesesseeesseesessseressereessseee 42 LEAO TO E E opcatied pertneat et theual lebapeuaersdatee 42 Shellile example rerien E e oi ETa EE EAEE 43 e e it e Screen Editor e SOSOHOHOHHSHHHHHSHHHHHHHOHHHOHHHOHHHHHHHHHHHOHHOHHOOHEOEEOE Usi dit 45 sing an e I or SOCOHSHSHSSHSOSHSHHSHSHSHSHSSHSOHSSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSSHSHSHSHSHSHSSHSHOHSHSHSSHHHSHSHSHSHSHHHSHHSHHHSHHSHOHHHHHHOHHOEOE BUG CULS O aE EE EE E pose wale caus cea iate eee oun snaans 45 Starine The editor oozes arant Sables seas ene sevpcvseseauveh e EEEa ia
48. 6 0S com mand processor It will usually produce no output unless it encounters an error condition PIDs Every process whether synchronous or asynchronous is assigned a unique identifying number its process ID or PID PIDs under 1616 0s range from 0 to 63 The PID and other process information can be listed by the inbuilt command ps Daemons A daemon is a system related program which runs in the background Usually it manages some aspect of the computer s behaviour or it supervises access to one of the system s resources A typical daemon is a line printer spooler which monitors a special directory looking for files to print out When one is found the daemon sends it to the printer and waits for another print job Sending all print jobs through the daemon prevents two print jobs from being printed simultaneously Look at the cron and at programs on the Utility Disks for typical examples Pipes A pipe is a first in first out buffer which is managed by the operating system A pipe has two ends the input and the output Characters written to the input of a pipe via a write system call appear at the output available via a read system call The typical use of a pipe is in communicating between two processes One process writes to the input of the pipe and the other reads the output Additional pipes may be created to provided bidirectional communication Internally a pipe is a 2 kbyte circular buffer Bytes written into th
49. CIO function is a general purpose 1616 function for moving characters about between devices and files between devices and devices and between files and files This command simply reads characters from standard input and writes them to standard output optionally terminating on the character whose ASCII code is nl Termination also occurs when the Alt Ctrl C key sequence is entered or when an end of file character as specified by option 6 is read from a character device If the terminating byte is specified it must appear on the command line before any I O redirections The power of this command comes from 1616 0S s I O redirection capabilities The input and or output of the CIO command is redirected to different devices to move character streams about For performing file transfers from other machines you may specify the optional termination character nl If for example you were downloading a file from a CP M machine to the 1616 you may select the CP M end of file character 1a hex as the terminating character CIO copies all characters up to but not including the termination character Use option 6 to set the end of file character When CIO gets its input from a file using the lt filename redirection it ends the transfer when the file is exhausted This is the program that underlies the cat and type commands Some examples CIO lt filename With this command we have left the output device at its defaul
50. E A E AT Seana Error messages produced by 1616 OS Command execution fase stnsencastosee sna stepaueesoerenssinatepndtannusucenesacterenameieestt User Tutorial Manual mememe me me e l O O OOO HAIMWDNN _ NNe eee oO p pi p pd pd p pi pd ph p po pd aah O o o0 N NADAANAN w 21 21 22 22 23 23 23 24 24 Input output Te CITECH ONS aoe sunscvoatastosasdsntaeausceamenta tnsecosae levees 25 Wildcard expansion essessssesesssseessseesssereesssresssreessseeessseessereessssresse 27 Command line processing Order e ssssesseseesssressseresserressseeesseresseee 29 4 Files and Directories e essscsoooseecscsosocccecesssssoccocecesesssosoeesee OL SACK Or OUMG ssiscosiscsisosssoisucosoiiossisessosnei saon osi aieo aeetas asias aoisean OL File ypes poe ieee nd Eie e A EE R AE EEEE 32 Filename extensions sseeeeessssseeoossssserressseeseesssssereeesssssrressssssrreeess 32 Block devices cscdossacesthsesstecaceeteectse saudeteteatastonsccstaeteshieameadauniaiassenaee DO The RAM disk caessnenswantotsnubecnsustusoecustusensnucin setewsnaeumasiensnacdedeuchuaneasert 33 Disk devices aa rrea basis EA EEEa A EEEE AEA beets EAA 34 Hierarchical file systems seosesssecsecsssssoccecssosococesssoococssssosocessesssseee JD TERS VOTING Sae enaa a AATE Eea A LE EE EREA EEEE IEE TTE
51. Enter key in response to the Repetitions question then the replacement is done only once Entering an impossibly large number Page 52 User Tutorial Manual Edit The Screen Editor in response to this question makes the replacement effective through to the end of the file The replacing is done from the current position forwards Cei N Next replacement Provides a single repetition of the previous ctrl Q A command The search is performed from the current position When entering the search and substitute character strings for the Ctrl Q F and Ctrl Q A commands the control N character Ctl N may be used to match with the new line character in a file If for example you wished to find the next line which started with the letter T then you would search for the pattern Ctl N T which represents a new line followed by a T this search would not match with T s which are not the first letter on the line The substitute command Ct Q A may be used to remove selected patterns from the file by immediately pressing Enter in response to the With question the selected pattern is searched for and is replaced with an empty character string effectively deleting it Editor hints If you are altering a file and find yourself typing a sequence of characters and or commands over and again escape to the 1616 OS she11 and program the characters and commands into a function key and use it in
52. IX may use the brief summary of some concepts and commands in Appendix A to get you started quickly We do however advise checking the contents page and index pages as some specialised programs are considerably different to those with which you may be familiar In particular 1616 OS is far more powerful and includes many more utilities than any normal home computer If you ignore the facilities described in these manuals you will cripple your operation of the system The audience We assume that one of your motives in buying an Applix 1616 is to learn more about computers or to accomplish some task for which normal business systems are unsuitable Application programs are not readily available for the Applix 1616 and so the 1616 is not an appropriate choice for someone wishing to run standard business applications such as a popular spreadsheet To use the Applix 1616 you must first learn to use its inbuilt commands These commands allow you to control the disk drive see the contents of files print out material and do all the computer housekeeping that is required by any computer You use these commands simply by typing their name followed by optional parameters which modify how they work All computer systems require you to use commands to control them and the sooner you learn these commands the more use the system will be In some systems particularly in business some of the commands are hidden by menus from which you se
53. Lolo User Tutorial Version 4 091 August 1993 Beginner s Tutorial Manual Applix 1616 microcomputer project Applix pty limited 1616 User Tutorial Manual Even though Applix has tested the software and reviewed the documentation Applix makes no warranty or representation either express or implied with respect to software its quality performance merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose Asaresult this software is sold as is and you the purchaser are assuming the entire risk as to its quality and performance In no event will Applix be liable for direct indirect special incidental or consequential damages resulting from any defect in the software or its docu mentation The original version of this manual was written by Andrew Morton Additional introductory and tutorial material by Eric Lindsay Editorial and design consultant Jean Hollis Weber Comments about this manual or the software it describes should be sent to Applix Pty Limited Lot 1 Kent Street Yerrinbool 2575 N S W Australia 048 839 372 Private Applix BBS numbers include Colin McCormack 02 543 8213 SSM 02 554 3114 Trantor 02 718 6996 and PPT 02 544 1060 on ringback let the phone ring twice then phone back within 30 seconds User Group meetings are generally held on the second Saturday of each month from about p m until evening All computer enthusiasts are welcome as are new visitors Come in and meet the designer of
54. Substitute pattern 4QU0 9 Review undo buffer 0 to 9 N Repeat last substitution UU Undo most recent Appendix A X Down one line QX Down to bottom of page aC Down about one page AQC To end of file AD Right one character sE Right one word QD Right 80 characters J Start of next line W Scroll down G Del Delete char under cursor AT Delete word forward QY Delete line forward QB Goto block start 4QK Go to block end KV Move marked block to cursor AKC Copy marked block to cursor AKP Block to Undo buffer KD Write out file continue editing AKI Escape to 1616 0S A4AQG Goto line number AKF Partial screen freeze QF Find pattern Al Repeat last pattern find Esc Redraw the display U0 Undo buffer 0 to 9 User Tutorial Manual Page 101 Motorola S records Motorola S records are a way of representing binary memory images in an ASCII form which is a more convenient format for transfer between some computer systems Binary data is transferred by sending fields of the following form Number Characters ld Ml ad Sl The fields are used as follows S type eee TE O O length address data checksum The letter S upper case signals the start of the record A digit between 0 and 9 which defines the record type as described below A header record ignored by 1616 0S A data record with a 2 byte address field A data record with a 3 byte address field A data record with a 4 byt
55. a bits 7 transmit data bits even parity and one stop bit If running 7 data bits and parity there was a problem prior to V3 2 The parity bit is not stripped by either the SCC or by the TERMA or TERMB routines in some earlier version of 1616 OS This may lead to strange graphics characters being included in your transferred material The serial receive routine masks incoming 7 bit characters by ANDing them with 7F 6 bit characters with 3F and 5 bit characters with 1F to keep Andrew McNamara happy 1616 0S Commands User Tutorial Manual Page 95 From Version 4 the channel settings are stored by the serial driver so that they can be displayed upon request The serial ports are also restored to the last settings made after a reset rather than being initialised to the default settings Drivers support up to four SCC serial chips Using the 1616 as a terminal TERMA L TERMB L TERM SA L TERM SB L These commands allow you to use your 1616 as a remote terminal to another computer TERMA uses serial channel A TERMB uses channel B The optional 1 parameter copies all the material received to standard error in addition to standard output so that it can be redirected to a file to give you a log of a terminal session Characters are obtained from standard input normally the keyboard and are transmitted over the serial link Characters which are sent to the 1616 are displayed on standard output probably the video disp
56. al Introduction Programmer or user Because the 1616 is not a standard computer we assume that the type of person who buys it is either a programmer or is trying to learn to program Therefore the internal working of all commands are always available to you In contrast most computers assume you are not a programmer and hide their internal workings from you Most office computers such as the IBM and its clones are designed with the assumption that they will be programmed only by professional computer pro grammers Although they are not deliberately made hard to use or program it is often difficult for a new programmer to find sufficient information to start doing their own programs As a result it is unusual for users to become involved in writing programs most buy brand name application programs from the wide and often expensive range available Buying application programs works well provided you can find programs that do exactly what you wish to do However if your requirements are unusual you will be forced to write your own programs Many Applix 1616 owners bought their systems because they could not get their job done conveniently using ordinary office computers When writing programs the Intel central processor chip CPU used in most business machines has many restrictions that even professional programmers often find troublesome In contrast the Motorola 68000 chip in the Applix 1616 is usually accepted by programmers as
57. ams This is an important distinction that makes the Applix 1616 unique among home and educational computers because it enormously increases the power available to the new programmer The manual This manual includes brief introductions on some of the concepts underlying 1616 OS and includes some examples of their use It also includes tutorials on some of more complex utilities such as the extensive command line editor and the full screen editor A separate reference section towards the end of this manual lists by category all the inbuilt commands that appear in the 1616 OS operating system program The many programs available on the Applix User Disk are described in a separate manual The original version was written by Andrew Morton for builders of his Applix 1616 kit computer It now includes additional tutorial material and introduces some concepts with which a new computer owner may not be familiar If you have no background in computers you will find it helpful to read some introductory books while you learn about your new computer We recommend the cheap Understanding range devised by Texas Instruments and sometimes available from Tandy or Radio Shack A list and description of these is contained in the Applix Hardware and Construction Manual although I must warn that these books may now be difficult to locate Introduction User Tutorial Manual Page 1 Those readers familiar with home computers and especially MS DOS or UN
58. and F constructs must be the last part of the command line all characters after these are ignored Do not place both the gt and gt gt constructs or both the F and constructs on the same line as this will not produce sensible results The redirections may be entered in any order Using wildcards in I O redirection filenames will not work the whole filename must by entered A character device is identified by a name followed by a colon No differentiation is made between upper and lower case in the device name The character devices available when you turn on your 1616 are CON The CON device or console is the video display when used as output and the keyboard when used as input SA The SA device is serial channel A for input and output SB The SB device is serial channel B for input and output CENT The CENT device is the Centronics parallel printer output port Input may not be obtained from this device NULL The NULL device discards characters which are sent toit Directing the output or error messages from a program onto this device will prevent them from being displayed This can be handy for throwing away unwanted error messages or syscall results Input may not be obtained from this device TTY The TTY pseudo device is intended for use by programs expecting interactive input from the user where input redirection may be involved The pseudo device makes an inspired guess at the required
59. ast descheduled The handles of the process s standard input standard output and standard error streams The last field is the name of the process This name may be used when referring to the process for example using kill name The output of this command was altered in Version 4 2a The KILL command The inbuilt command kill aknn may be used to send a terminate or some other signal to a background process The process should then stop Processes may be identified by their process number in decimal not in hex as is usual with 1616 0S inbuilt commands or by their name as appears in the listing from the ps command If there are multiple processes with the same name only one will be killed The options are Multi Tasking User Tutorial Manual Page 59 a kill all children processes k unconditionally kill nn specify which signal to send in decimal rather than the default sigterm which is 15 See the Technical Reference Manual or Programmer s Manual for details of signals available which generally follow UNIX conventions The WAIT command The WAIT inbuilt command returns when the selected PID has terminated It may be used to synchronise asynchronous commands For example suppose there is a background process called download running We wish to report when the program has finished A command to do this is wait download echo G G G gt con amp This command will suspend until the completion of downloa
60. built commands also available from within programming languages and within other programs Similar methods are used by all computers however the system calls are often difficult to use or are hidden from the user Introduction User Tutorial Manual Page 7 The result is that in the 1616 many programs can be partly written by pasting together a variety of commands and syscalls rather than writing everything yourself Although similar methods may be available in various languages for other computers each language is different in how it deals with the machine In the Applix once you learn how to use some inbuilt facility in one language you can generally use it in any other language About the 1616 OS operating system 1616 OS was written by Andrew Morton of Applix The code in the 1616 s EPROMs is really a combination of a disk operating system an input output system and various small to medium sized application programs A partial list of what it does includes Hardware test routines used during construction and to locate faults Facilities to call external ROMS for use as a dedicated controller in industrial applications e Drivers for input and output devices including printer port two serial ports cassette port stereo sound outputs D A and A D converters etc e System timer and interrupt support time and date drivers e Floppy disk SCSI hard disk and RAM disk support including hierarchical dir
61. by pressing Esc This is provided because other programs running simultaneously in background may put output on the display when it is not wanted Page 48 User Tutorial Manual Edit The Screen Editor Scrolling commands The scrolling commands roll the screen up or down by one display line The cursor is left in the same position within the file so it will move within the display If the cursor is pushed off the screen by the scroll command then it is moved back into view in an appropriate manner The scroll commands are useful for displaying a line which is just beyond the screen limits with few keystrokes Curl Z Scroll the display up a line Ctrl w Scroll the display down a line Text deleting commands The text deleting commands remove text from your file You cannot undo a delete command as you can with the line editor Note that the block command Ctrl K Y also deletes text Ctrl Ctrl Ctrl Ctrl Ctrl Ctrl Del Grab or delete the character under the cursor Bs Delete one character backward the last character typed Delete from the cursor to the start of the next word Delete the entire current line Y Delete from the cursor to the end of the current line Delete from the start of the current line to the cursor lt OJK Ea The Ctl T command uses the same word terminators as the Ctl A and Ctrl F cursor movement commands above Undo commands Whenever any text is deleted
62. ce Manual and the Assembler Manual Page 40 User Tutorial Manual Starting Programs Executing shell program files When you execute a she11 file by typing its name without the she11 exten sion lines from it are read and executed as if they had been typed from the keyboard Control is returned to the keyboard when the file is exhausted Comments may be put in shel1 files They are preceded by a semicolon Any arguments following the command file name are substituted into special symbols within the lines before they are executed The special symbol 1 refers to the first argument 2 to the second etc The 0 symbol returns the name of the she11 file itself The symbol refers to all arguments except the name of the she11 file arguments 1 and on Two very simple and silly examples of shell files A shell program to rename a file Usage ren oldname newname rename 1 2 Pass the arguments on to the OS A shell program to delete files like MS DOS Usage del filel file2 file3 deere Sx Delete all the files specified You should carefully examine the various shell files on your User disk and on the various Applix freeware disks for more extensive real examples of how to use these files If readers pester me about this I ll find some better examples Shell file error trapping and command echoing There are five commands which are only allowed within shell programs
63. ceetatice eee osc eens ck ceca see ede ie abs acattestaies Numeric base conversion 5 c5cscesscdvnaccensanssresPantaauswsane Sadaancx datawuewastec Entering TNE SGI LON 3 tists aries hs evetecBaacer e e e uae Assembling 68000 code sao s2coas nesses veda ves sted aia races caapaveaunececovestsenetens Expression evaluation och concen dniatonanatateseaneneiuonteaeavansdavauacceuuatensuatrehe Printing the ASCH character set s vcss ceccssecacseesseteceunrtoniadecnaytosnnceoneaee Timige COMMA eireas erae ao E e EEE E EE EEEa Defining function keys ssssssssesssesseessserssesresssreesseersssereesseressereesseeee Setting video frequencies sseeeeseseesssessssesesseseessseessseressssresssressseee Helpful reminders i n a ea rE a SNEER Communication commands ssessoessoosssesssesssoessoessoesssesssosssoossoeessesso Reprogramming the serial ports ssesssssssssssresssersssereesssresssrressseees Using the 1616 as a terminal uc 200ce ce vecieccaseccesueuieueaddecctavemeseddaeiee ESCAPE SECUCNCES cs ccsiceeaiach ous cqasxevessacvsateviateasesacveaieiont aE Ee Eo Downloading S records c ccccserecsesevecesensccnsenacenesntonconnssraceanwnnsicenienes 9 Appendix Ae esis devinascccsssevivesececadcxisscccsstseviseceresadctewesstedetavevics For MS DOS users SOOHSSHHSSHSSHSSHHSHSHSHSHHSHSHSSHSSHSHSHSHSHSHHSHSHSHSHSSHHSHSHSSHHSHSHSHSHSSHSHSHSHSHSHHHSHHSHHSHHSHSHSHSHHHHSHEESEES Common commands 5 ois sews Seevcatacsetsnsacdeevciusne biased Genscswwieian u
64. character after a command puts that program into asynchronous or background mode The pipe command is produced by placing between two or more commands to feed the output from the first into the input of the next In assign only the backslash character makes the path that follows literal There are additional error codes and messages relating to the multitasking com mands Killing programs Typing Aly Ctrl C sends a signal to the current synchronous foreground process which should then exit with a negative exit code If all your programs are behaving correctly Alt Ctrl C should always return control to the command line prompt Running programs asynchronously You may run any 1616 0S command in the background as an asynchronous task by adding an amp symbol at the end of the command line The system will print out the process s PID and start it running If the process is going to produce output which you want to see it is best to direct it to a file for later inspection If you don t want to see the output direct it onto the NULL device Examples Typing SSASM myfile s 1 gt myfile lst myfile errs amp will start up the 1616 assembler assembling myfile s The listing will go to myfile lst any error reports will go to myfile errs and the entire assembly proceeds in the background permitting you to edit something else typing type myfile lst gt cent amp will send the file to the printer in the backgr
65. cussion of using shell files Starting a program Starting a program is easy you type its name leaving off the extension Programs can be identified by their extension which is always xrel pronounced dot exrel Older programs are indentified by exec Search path When the name of an executable program is typed in on the 1616 0S command line and it does not refer to an executable memory resident driver or an inbuilt com mand the system searches for a disk file to load and execute e It first searches your current directory for a file whose name is the command you typed with xre1 added It then searches for a file with she11 added If no shell file is found it searches for a file with exec added As mentioned the current directory is the one that appears in your prompt If you have used the xpath command correctly additional directories are searched If none of these three programs can be found in your current directory then searching for these three files continues in other directories The directories that are searched are as specified by your current execution search path which is set using xpath You can check for the current execution search path at any time simply by typing xpath You specify which other directories are to be searched by using the xpath com mand In this manner frequently used files can always be found even when you are in some other directory You should not incl
66. d and then emit some beeps Using pipes A pipe is created by typing vertical bars between two or more commands The operating system starts each command asynchronously connecting the output of each command to the input of the next via an interprocess pipe If the last command in the pipeline was run synchronously the system blocks until it is complete Standard input for every command in the pipeline except the first comes from the standard output of the previous command Standard output forevery command except the last goes onto standard input for the next You can also pipe standard error using the symbol however this can not be done while also using the normal pipe The command line pipes are very similar to the pipes provided by the pipe memory resident driver under earlier single tasking 1616 OS versions The important dif ference is that under multi tasking all the specified tasks are run simultaneously whereas the pipe MRD ran them sequentially connecting their input and output via temporary files This temporary file kludge is still used by MS DOS which explains several pipe collapses in that system Command line syntax 1616 OS command lines are getting quite complicated nowadays so a review is in order The command line in its entirety is interpreted by the exec system call so all the following comments apply to that call The following characters have a special meaning on the command line Page 60 User Tu
67. d out with the character string gt in front of it before it is executed Use this for testing how a shell file works or for informing a user via display on the screen that things are happening If echo mode is off then the only output which occurs is that produced by the commands which the she11 file invokes Multiple or nested shell programs The execution of shell files is fully nestable She11 files may be called from within she11 files Parameters may be passed from one she11 file to the next with the 1 2 mechanism The depth of nesting of she11 files is limited by the maximum number of disk files which can be open simultaneously generally sixteen When a shell file program is invoked by another she11 file the trapping and echoing status of the calling shell program are not normally transferred to the called one If you desire trapping and echoing in the called she11 program you will have to put and trap commands in it If a shell program which was invoked by another shell program is in error trapping mode and an error is detected the error flag will be returned to the calling shell program The calling shell program can then abort if it is in trapping mode lt lt redirection When the shell file interpreter encounters a line such as command args lt lt eofmarker lt stuff gt lt more stuff gt eofmarker it asynchronously executes the first command with its standard input attached to a
68. decimal PPID the process s parent process PID HPID home PID TIME the number of 20 millsecond time slices over which the process has run converted to minutes and seconds Status This represents the state of five flags in the process s process table entry They are as follows W Set if the process is waiting blocked on another S Synchronous A Asynchronous E Exit pending process about to depart 1616 0S Commands User Tutorial Manual Page 85 B Binary process memory to be freed on exit K Killed some one has killed this process Load The load address of the program actually the call address passed to the schedprep system call when the process was scheduled Stack The address of the process s stack area SP The current value of the process s stack pointer PC The value of the process s program counter when it was last descheduled I O E The handles of the process s standard input standard output and standard error streams The last field is the name of the process This name may be used when referring to the process for example using kill See kill for getting rid of unwanted processes Careful readers may note that Andrew tends to change the exact information given in each release of the operating system If you notice a change and want it explained just contact me and I Il add it next release Kill a background process KILL process name KILL aknn processID You can stop a process by
69. ded However in colour it requires a much more expensive much higher quality Multisync monitor This option gives you the equivalent of IBM EGA output Prices of these range from round 400 some of pretty terrible quality to over 1000 some of which are very nice indeed There is also a single chip modifi cation required in your Applix although some monitors will run without this change Finally a 30 modification to your Applix allows you to run Stephen A Uhler s MGR windowing system ported from Sun Unix workstations providing multiple resizable windows and mouse support on a 940 by 512 display This requires a Multisyne monitor Ask Applix or the User Group for advice before you buy a monitor if this dis cussion of the differences between monitors is unclear to you The I O ports Data going to and from the 1616 s serial ports is buffered and interrupt driven The default buffer size is 200 bytes for input per channel and 200 bytes for output This simply means that a certain amount of communication can take place even when the computer is busy doing other things See the documentation for the inbuilt serial command for further description of the serial port software You don t actually need to know about this unless you want to use the serial RS232 ports Data transmission to the parallel printer is also interrupt driven and buffered The default buffer size is 64 bytes As with the keyboard buffer the size o
70. different characters 2 to the 8th power the why of this particular number will eventually be obvious We therefore may need means of typing all these extra characters Just as you use Shift keys to change ordinary alphabetical keys between UPPER and lower case the Ctrl and Att keys are used to produce characters that are not normally on the keyboard You can also produce any of the 256 computer char acters by using the numeric keypad Control key A control character is often indicated in computer manuals by preceding it with an up arrow character eg A is acontrol A This method is used in the Edit Quick Reference in Appendix A of the User Reference Manual to save space Normally however the Control key will be shown as Ct A control character is entered by holding down the Ct key whilst typing and releasing the appropriate character in this case an A It does not matter whether the character is in upper or lower case The line editor uses many control keys Alt key Similarly the symbol Al A alternate A indicates holding down the Alt key then pressing A Several 1616 commands make use of the Alt key Esc key The notation Esc indicates pressing the key labelled Esc releasing it and then pressing the next key required The Esc key precedes use of another key It is not often used like a shift key Number conventions A sign in front of a number indicates that the number is in base 16 or a
71. e is more than one word 1616 OS will assume that the first word in the line is a command and attempt to execute that command as detailed later For example type the inbuilt command ascii and you will get an ASCII table on the display Examples of commands Type the inbuilt command date and the date and time probably incorrect see the inbuilt setdate to fix them will be displayed To obtain a list of available inbuilt commands type help If a command takes arguments these come after it separated by spaces Try help setdat The help command with setdate as an argument now tells you that the inbuilt setdate command requires a series of values as its arguments Change the date and time by using setdate 92 12 21 14 30 9 but substitute the correct year month day hour minute and second Note that the year takes only two digits and that the hour is in 24 hour clock notation 14 is 2 p m Notice also that where a number exceeds 9 I placed a in front to indicate I intended a decimal number even computer people tend not to express dates in hexadecimal Each command knows what sort of arguments it needs and will give an error message if you provide the wrong type of argument Now type time ascii The inbuilt command t ime simply measures how long something takes to happen experienced users may note this is the way the equivalent UNIX command works MS DOS gives you the less useful time of day in
72. e address field Not allowed The number of type 1 2 and 3 records in a group of S records Ignored by 1616 0S Not allowed Terminating record for S1 records Terminating record for S2 records Terminating record for S3 records The number of character pairs in the address data and checksum fields This field is a two character quantity a hexadecimal byte This is the address at which the S record loads into memory in the target system It is a 2 3 or 4 byte address 4 6 or 8 hex characters depending upon whether it is part of an S1 an S2 or an S3 type record This is the actual data to be loaded It is a series of hexadecimal bytes This is the checksum of the length address and the data fields It is calculated by adding together the values of all the bytes received in these fields inverting taking the one s complement of the result and transmitting the least significant byte of the result as two ASCII hexadecimal digits Page 102 User Tutorial Manual Appendix A 1616 OS and hardware Miscellaneous This section explains various miscellaneous items that will not be of interest to you in your first encounter with the Applix 1616 and that do not conveniently fit into the flow of previous discussions Hardware exceptions If something goes seriously wrong with a 68000 program the microprocessor can be driven into a fault condition called an exception which is handled by special software In most computers an attempt
73. e files named Files and directories can be renamed which merely changes what they are called Typical commands include rename geg57 geg58 which renames the directory geg57 so that it becomes geg58 Notice the in the directory listing indicating we are dealing with a directory full of files not an individual file The same commands work with files or directories You can copy a file or files or directory thus having them in two different places using a command such as copy xrel rd bin This would copy all files ending with xre1 inthe current directory into the rd bin directory assuming that existed under their present names You can also change the name of files as you copy them by a command suchas copy abc cba Using a wildcard such as copy abc cba 1s a mistake because there would be more than one filename to change but only one destination The system will complain that the destination is not a directory in this case A slightly subtle difference is to move a file or directory usually to a different directory Moving a file or directory means that only one copy of it exists rather than two copies You can display the contents of a file with type cat or cio there is often more than one way to do similar things with files in this case type is for MS DOS users while cat is for UNIX users and both actually use cio to do their dirtywork Since wildcards are accepted type c will show the contents of all c f
74. e pipe go onto the head of the buffer Bytes read are taken from the tail Reading from an empty pipe or writing to a full one causes a process to be blocked A new pipe syscall is provided A pipe is produced at the command line by using the character between commands Signals A signal is a mechanism by which one process may send a small message to another one When a process is signalled the system initiates a call to a section of code within the process called a signal handler The signal handler is very similar in concept to an interrupt service routine A process must install the address of its signal handling routine in the operating system when it starts up If a process has not installed a signal handler it is killed when someone attempts to signal it The sigsend and sigcatch entries to the procentl system call handle signals The multi tasking features of 1616 0S impact on the use of the system both at the command line and at the programming level Multi Tasking User Tutorial Manual Page 57 Using multi tasking at the command line level Three extra commands have been provided to assist in multitasking These are kill which stops anamed process The process status is given by ps which lists all current processes The wait command is provided to synchronise the com pletion of commands One extra control sequence is Alt Ctrl C which returns control to the keyboard There are three new special characters The amp
75. eads MicroBee and other CP M disks and costs less than 140 Minix Andrew Tanenbaum s version of the UNIX V7 operating system ported by Colin McCormack of Tangled Web Software Includes over 100 utility programs manual and four disks which include the complete source code for round 200 A fine way to teach operating system design Applix Utilities 1 A variety of UNIX style utility programs about 30 in all for text formatting recovering files sorting searching etc two disks worth including source code all for 29 95 Page 4 User Tutorial Manual Introduction e Dr Doc The Applix document editor a WordStar like full screen editor compatible with the inbuilt editor Includes right and left justification of text support for on screen display of italics bold underline subscript and superscript Provides headers and footers page numbering date on line help etc Easy printer driver changes Printed manual but no source Only 29 95 e Mgr A free program by Stephen Uhler from Bellcore Ported from Sun workstations this is a full windowing system with mouse support We advise video modification for 960 by 512 display Run Dr Doc editor with cut and paste slide bars open close and resize windows etc 29 95 for video modification needed to run it two PALs includes free mgr executables on two disks Four disks of source code available if required Printed manual also available at the cost of photocopying The Ap
76. ectory structures e Bit mapped video drivers for 320 and 640 column displays windows and clipping support for graphics full cursor control via escape codes plus display character set e A powerful line editor with history facilities and function key re definition for macros e WordStar compatible full screen editor with search and replace block copy move and delete file merging partial screen freeze etc A command line interpreter with over 60 commands including machine code monitor full I O redirection wildcard expansion and access to over 200 internal system calls It features many utilities including an ASCII table command help and terminal facilities Multi tasking and multi user facilities to allow up to three users to simul taneously run up to 60 programs 1616 08 is described as a disk operating system because one of its major functions is to manage the orderly storage and retrieval of programs and data on block storage devices such as floppy disks and hard disks Material relating to programming 1616 OS is found in the Programmer s Manual and the Technical Reference Manual Page 8 User Tutorial Manual Introduction A note from Andrew Morton 1616 OS is written almost entirely in the C programming language It is a fairly large program the source code occupies over 3 4 of a megabyte and I grudgingly concede that there may even be a bug or two in it If you think you have found a programming
77. ee below are also used to alter the cursor position Ctrl E T Moves the cursor to the same column in the preceding line Ctrl x Moves the cursor to the same column in the next line Ctrl Q E Moves the cursor to the top of the screen Ctrl Q X Moves the cursor to the bottom of the screen Ctrl R Moves up the file about 2 3 of a screen Ctrl C Moves down the file about 2 3 of a screen Ctrl Q R Go to the first line in the file Ctrl Q C Go to the last line in the file Ctrl D Go forward one character Ctrl S Je Go backward one character Ctrl F Go to the start of the next word Ctrl A Go to the start of the previous word Ctrl Q D Go forward 80 characters within the current line Ctrl Q S Go backward 80 characters within the current line Ctrl B Go to the start of the current line If at the start go to the end Ce Go to the start of the next line The Ctrl A and Ctrl F commands make assumptions about which characters are used to separate words The separators at which these commands stop are a space a tab a newline or one of the following characters etat OLCI A good way to help memorise these commands is to think of the e key as the top of a diamond pattern that includes the s left d right and x down The a key moves left a word at a time and the f key to the right a word at a time You can redraw the display at any time
78. ene The KILL command iss sees cas sevaavcsecedsssacatnas sasgeiessivestentsousesessoundesestacdssses The WAIT command i cccessssiscsscssecconsscssnscsdseccscsspeasddconsdesvesasacsodueaissess Usine PIPES cc esstecsseecs cress cs ccceuseases ocestedsdeagadeaxsceuessccsuacaiiedsceonceesieeatsacceenss Command line syntax ssscsecsssocoecsssssoccecesssccceesssooecessssocoecessssosecessso The implications of multi tasking for programs ccccssssseeees 1616 OS Commands iscasscscensiscacssecvoussceneessvevssccneveeseseenessseones Helpful reminders sicsseecseesceeceisenct holes tesceetst nce eitess ceed eee File related commands isssssscossiessscsscsccassstcesssoocnssenessosdassonoascocacssepasess Copying joining moving files scccrncscsdiacaotdencctenewntecremepecaceeleuees Copying files and data ssooeeeseeeesseeeesseeeesseeessereessseeessressseressssressse Moving files and dataserie oiei E EE a EOS Displayins Hile SE esen eener erae e eE EAE e EEEE DIEET EE E A ce E E N ots eancersetes Renamino files csie eee a EE i EE AES Retreshine a 1116S Ale icc ceesscuteutsovacasestertuiethn Ranea EEE ES ETES Changing file attributes esseeseeeesseseessseessserssseresssseresssresssereessseessee Directory related commands sssssssessssooccessssocoessssssccecessoosessssssosese Directory SIS 8 spc cece tems ea e a top EETA Changing the current directory ceccccceesseeceenneeceseneeceeesteeeeeeaees CREATING a direCto
79. equivalent to entering the number 0 and sends you to the start of the file Entering an impossibly large number or 1 sends you to the end of the file Ctrl K F Freeze part of the screen function Often when editing a file par ticularly with program source code you wish to look at two parts of the file at once This may be done with the screen freeze function in the following manner Edit The Screen Editor User Tutorial Manual Page 51 1 Use the cursor positioning commands to position one of the sections of the file which you wish to see towards the top of the screen 2 Position the cursor under the text in which you are interested so that the text lies between the top of the screen and the cursor row 3 Type Cul K F This freezes the screen above the cursor All editing now occurs under the divider line which is drawn You may now move about the file within this smaller screen window When you no longer require the frozen display restore the normal display by typing ctrl K F again The editor will not allow you to freeze too closely to the bottom of the display as there must be sufficient active screen area left for the editor to work in D O Cui Q 0 9 CT Gui QA Places a marker within the file for you to return to later Type Ctrl K followed by a single digit number 0 9 When moving about a large file it is often convenient to place a marker at your current position move somewhere
80. es its text out The optional numeric argument n1 is the tab stop width which the editor is to use default is 8 This may not be an inbuilt command in versions of 1616 OS V3 0 running in 256k EPROMS See the chapter on editing for the full command list Most commands are WordStar compatible Assembling 68000 code SSASM filename This command invokes the 68000 assembler which is in 512k EPROM from version 3 2c to Version 4 1 This is not included in EPROM from version 4 2a on but is provided on disk See the Assembler Manual for details of usage and options Expression evaluation EXPR n1 op n2 op n3 This is a simple expression evaluator You type in numbers separated by arithmetic and logical operators and the result is calculated and printed out All the operators and numbers must be separated by at least one space or tab All of the calculations are done with 32 bit integers This means you can t have fractional numbers or numbers that include a decimal point The results are displayed in binary decimal and hexadecimal It does not do floating point arithmetic The evaluator ignores operator precedence expressions are simply evaluated from left to right Parentheses are not understood If your first attempt at a calculation fails remember last line recall 1616 0S Commands User Tutorial Manual Page 91 The available operators and their meanings are xorX multiplication division addition
81. f this buffer can be altered by advanced users by means of the new_cbuf system call Appendix A User Tutorial Manual Page 105 Page 106 User Tutorial Manual Appendix A Index 1 24 command separator 61 is 23 escape a character 61 11 41 hexadecimal 23 0 41 1 41 11 binary 23 amp asynchronous 61 amp background 58 61 28 shell command echo 41 shell command echo 41 35 36 35 decimal 11 23 root directory 35 f0 34 hO 34 rd 33 comment 61 comments 23 25 lt lt redirection 42 lt input redirection 61 gt 25 gt gt 25 gt output redirection 61 28 in attrib command 58 pipe standard error 60 87 P escape characters 20 47 pipe 57 58 60 61 User Tutorial Manual 25 25 error redirection 61 aliasing pathnames 72 alphabetical dir sort 87 alt 11 17 alt S disable 89 alter memory 78 and logical operator 92 applications 2 7 archive on tape 75 arguments 21 arithmetic 92 ASCII 17 78 92 assembling 68000 code 91 assigning pathnames 72 asynchronous process 56 58 attributes 68 70 backed up files 68 background amp 58 background processes 57 background wait 86 bak files change default 89 base 91 base conversion 91 baud rate 95 beep disable on error 89 beep speaker 96 bidirectional communication 57 binary 11 23 bits serial port 95 block comma
82. ferred to as an inbuilt command It is these commands that we describe in this manual If no match is made with the inbuilt commands then the operating system searches for disk files with names based upon the command which you typed in If for example you typed in diskcopy the following searches occur diskcopy xrel in your current directory the directory that appears in your prompt diskcopy she11 in your current directory diskcopy exec in your current directory If none of these are found then a search is made for these files on other directories as specified by your current execution path see the xpath command for details Most users make up a special directory usually called bin to contain programs they often use Upon starting the system they use something like the command xpath 0 bin to ensure that the directory f0 bin is always searched as well as their actual current directory If one of these files is found itis executed xrel and exec files contain executable MC68000 machine code This sort of command is referred to as a transient command because the microprocessor code for it is loaded into memory from a disk device only when it is needed The she11 file contains a list of commands such as you would type in from the keyboard which the system interprets Many of these disk based commands are discussed in detail in the User Disk Manual Input output redirection The
83. filing systems and mass storage devices How to use the inbuilt commands e Writing shell programs to avoid retyping involved or lengthy groups of commands e Re directing information to and from different parts of the computer and to and from the outside world e Using the screen editor as a simple word processor and for general text editing e Using commands to save files on disk or tape and read them again e Using commands to print files on paper or send them to another computer e Using the inbuilt monitor to examine and change the contents of memory e Using the 1616 as a terminal to another computer e Using inbuilt application programs to tell the time do arithmetic convert numerical expressions obtain help etc This is an introductory users manual only it does not mention programming nor does it cover the powerful system calls available in the 1616 It does not attempt to explain how to use the program languages available for the Applix 1616 Each language has its own manual listing the commands available In addition when you learn programming you will need a separate manual about the programming language in question Use of the many powerful lower level system calls is covered in the Programmer s Manual and the Technical Reference Manual The hardware and electronic design of the 1616 is covered in the Hardware Manual Other manuals and programs A wide variety of manuals are available
84. for the Applix 1616 system Extra copies updates or copies for evaluation are available at 10 per manual at any time The manuals available include e Users Disk Manual A program by program description of some of the many handy utilities available on the User Disk or via the Applix bulletin board e Hardware and Construction Manual Complete details of how to build the 1616 including parts lists step by step instructions schematics design overview detailed hardware description connector pinouts switch and link settings cable connections test and trouble shooting procedures e Disk Co processor Card Parts list step by step construction instructions design overview and hardware description explanation of the software connector pinouts switch and link settings and schematics Introduction User Tutorial Manual Page 3 Hard Disk Manual Explanation of the action of the SCSI port the hard disk and how to connect them Explanation of the hard disk software and addi tional utility programs for formatting testing and using hard disks Programmer s Manual Short explanation of programming the 1616 how to use system calls a complete list of system calls including file control character I O video output and graphics control Technical Reference Manual Using relocatable code writing memory resident drivers additional material on system calls including character device drivers disk device drivers file systems mouse
85. has its own name This name may be up to 31 characters long and may not contain any characters This is the filename A filename is a string of characters which does not contain any directory specifications such as ssasm xrel A pathname includes a directory specification such as rd myfile bin edit xrel and test A pathname may include the name of the disk device such as rd or f0 or h0 It may be be merely the name of some directory such as bin or test It may include a filename as in bin edit xrel It may include disk directory and filename as in f0 bin edit xrel Notice that each directory name is separated by the delimiter of a character A full pathname starts with a disk device rd f0 hO or similar and lists the entire pathname starting at the root directory However there is often an easier way to reach a particular sub directory by starting from whichever directory you are currently in When a pathname does not start with a device name it is a relative pathname the full pathname is obtained by concatenating the current directory pathname to the relative pathname For example you can go back one parent directory using cd or back two using cd or move back and up to another directory using something like cd newdir topdir You can specify that you are starting a relative path from your current directory by indicating your current directory as Examples If the current
86. he function key which is being defined This feature is handy for remembering a sequence of editor commands which needs to be repeatedly typed If you find yourself repeatedly typing any lengthy group of commands capture them on a function key and use that instead The captured function keys are lost when you switch off the system and you would have to retype them The fkey command is provided so you can save function key definitions on disk Last line recall and completion The up arrow and down arrow J keys or C E and C X scroll up and down singly through the last ten lines which have been entered in the line editor Once you have found the line you wish you can change it with the line editor As an additional feature you can type the first few letters of a previous command and then press the Esc key The most recent command starting with those letters will be displayed ready for editing Pressing the Esc key again will bring up the next most recent command starting with the letters you typed This applies by default to the last ten commands issued You can change the number of command lines retained by altering your mrdrivers file as explained in the documents for the mrdrivers Technical Reference Manual or Users Disk Manual Page 18 User Tutorial Manual First Steps In addition you can type the first few characters of a filename and then press the Tab key and the 1616 OS will attempt to complete the filena
87. he return key the following things happen L Multiple commands separated by characters are separated for individual processing Any comments indicated by semicolons are removed The lt gt gt gt F and commands are searched for and interpreted Any necesary file creation or opening is done and the redirection part of the command line is stripped off All wildcards are expanded and inserted into the command line in place of any prototypes The system attempts to match the command name the first word on the command line with one of the current memory resident drivers If a match is found the MRD is called Otherwise a search is made of the inbuilt com mands If a match is found the syntax of any arguments is checked with that which the particular command requires If no error is detected the command is executed If the command is not an MRD or an inbuilt one the system assumes that you are executing a file whose name is the same as the specified command with xrel shell or exec added A search is made in the current directory and in all the directories specified in your execution path see the xpath command for one of these three files Command Handling User Tutorial Manual Page 29 4 Files and Directories This chapter explains about block devices in 1616 0S Block devices despite their crass name are one of the really handy things about computers because they help you manipula
88. he tape until the disk to which they are being written is full or until you reset the 1616 using the reset switch or the Alt Ctrl R command or until you use the Alt C command Cc The 1616 may take some time to respond to the Al C command Verifying tape files TVERIFY The TVERIFY verifies tape files by reading them in the same manner as in the TLOAD command however the actual data which is read is discarded and no disk files are created This command allows you to verify that files that you have just saved are correctly recorded Page 76 User Tutorial Manual 1616 0S Commands Memory manipulation commands The memory manipulation commands are useful for debugging software and hardware A safe memory area for experimenting with these commands is the 8 100 10000 memory range Between the inbuilt monitor the inbuilt editor and the raw disksyscalls youcan do from the keyboard nearly everything the MS DOS version of Norton s Utilities can do without even firing up a disk drive ll explain more on using these in the Assembler Manual since they are a bit heavy for a beginner Examining memory MDB al a2 MDW al a2 MDL al a2 Mnemonic Memory Dump Byte Word or Long These are the memory dump commands MDB dumps memory in byte format MDW in word format MDL in long format All dump formats display the data in ASCII form on the right hand side With no arguments the dump commands display 64 bytes of memo
89. hexadecimal number However you do not type the sign when entering the number from the keyboard Hexadecimal and binary numbers are explained in detail in many books on programming and are traditionally used by programmers mainly because programmers find them easier and more convenient than ordinary numbers An ordinary decimal number is indicated by having a period placed in front of it A binary number is indicated by a in front of it Since itis more convenient for programmers to work in hexadecimal all numbers entered into the 1616 0S are assumed to be hexadecimal unless you indicate otherwise If entering a decimal number from the keyboard you do so by placing a in front of it Introduction User Tutorial Manual Page 11 If entering a binary number you place a in front of it This feature may confuse you at first however persistence will pay offin learning these conventions Typeface conventions In general in these manuals commands that you type the names of files and example programs are shown in courier typeface The names of system calls or syscalls are generally in bold italic face Internal variable names in system calls are generally in helvetica typeface File conventions A pathname is the name of a disk file or directory A relative pathname is the name of a directory relative to the current one An absolute pathname or full pathname is the full specifica
90. ia the standard routines so they can be re directed never direct to the hardware Wherever possible a program should behave correctly whether it is run syn chronously or asynchronously The isinteractive system call is provided for a process to tell whether or not it is running in the background If it is a background process it should produce no unnecessary output It should not attempt to read from the keyboard because that is being used for other processes Multi Tasking User Tutorial Manual Page 61 8 1616 0S Commands In this section the 60 1616 OS inbuilt commands are described in detail An alphabetical list of the commands is available on the Applix 1616 by typing help as shown below The commands are grouped by function in this manual rather than alphabetically The groups are e File related commands e Directory related commands e Cassette tape commands e Memory manipulation or monitor commands e Command line redirection e Shell file commands e System commands e Handy utilities e Communication commands In this documentation the term word refers to a 16 bit number four hexadecimal digits a long is a 32 bit number eight hex digits A symbol in front of a number indicates that the number is in hexadecimal format base 16 Do not put a symbol in front of a number when entering it on the 1616 0S command line The following notations are used nl n2 The letter n fo
91. iarity with typical computer keyboards and that you can locate the Control Alt Esc cursor arrow keys function F1 to F10 keys We assume you will remember to turn the Caps Lock J e Num Lock J and e Scroll Lock J keys on and off as appropriate when using the numeric keypad for number entry or as a cursor pad Weassume you will remember to let the computer know you have completed each command line by pressing the Enter or Return key We assume you know the cursor is the little blinking or perhaps steady box or perhaps line that can be moved about the video display In fact we assume far too much if you are really a total beginner If you don t know about all the above try to find someone perhaps by attending any computer User Group or evening college who can show you what the keys are and how they work If all else fails simply experiment It is remarkably hard to damage a computer by typing something wrong Merely learn where the reset button is at the rear of the computer system box and use it freely if and when you have problems The Applix system survives a normal reset with very few problems Your ram disk contents will remain intact and your directory and other settings will be unchanged Page 10 User Tutorial Manual Introduction Extra keys Although a computer keyboard typically contains between 80 and 110 keys the computer itself can and often does use the equivalent of 256
92. ies normally cached are re read every time an unrecognised command is encountered Turning option 19 off gives quicker turnround on mistyped 1616 0S Commands User Tutorial Manual Page 71 commands however it means that if you add new files or swap floppies the new files or floppy contents will not be recognised by xpath You can compensate for this by doing an xpath with no arguments when you change floppies XPATH with no arguments causes the current execution path setting to be dis played XPATH also scans all the new execution path directories All exec xrel and shell file locations are cached in RAM providing quicker access to executable files The xpath directories are automatically re read after a system reset There is a problem if you refer to a disk using a volume name the cache is not updated XPATH causes the current execution paths to be removed no directory searches except for the current directory will occur XPATH path path2 instructs the system to seach the named directories for executable files Note that the pathnames should refer to directories in which to search not to files XPATH path path2 instructs the system to add the named directories to the execution search list Naming disks VOLUMES The volumes command displays the name of each disk as does a dir Handy for keeping track of which disk is which provided you remember to give the disk a name when formatting it or later Assigni
93. ight will flash for a while You should see a number of messages on the display including one about booting from FO Finally you will have a prompt on the display showing either RD or FO Your prompt may also show that you are in a particular sub directory such as FO BIN After the prompt you should have a flashing cursor If you do not have such a prompt and are using disks re read the more detailed note that accompanies 1616 OS Version 4 on starting the system In newly updated systems the most likely problems are not using a Version 3 or 4 boot disk having the jumpers for your eproms wrong or having installed new eproms incorrectly Page 14 User Tutorial Manual First Steps Applix 1616 0S V4 0c Level 0 reset Copyright c 1987 1989 Applix pty limited Andrew Morton Compiled 11 May 1989 ROM checksum S 4DC56E35 V2 0disk control cer Loading FO MRDRIVERS 32K video memory 10K bitmap buffers at 75800 160K RAM disk at 4D800 3 drivers occupying SEEC bytes at 4C914 64K system stack top at 4C910 System processor 15 MHz 68000 Booting from FO The keyboard This section describes how to use the 1616 keyboard at the command line level This is when you are staring at a screen display that contains a prompt starting with such as FO or RD The keyboard is explained first as it is the primary input device for the 1616 The keyboard and line editor handling of the 1616 are very powerful e
94. ile markers merging files partial screen freezing etc Editor commands are described in detail below a quick reference chart is given in appendix A The Control Q and Control K commands are two keystroke commands You must first type the Ctrl Q or Ctrl K and then the selected letter For example the command Ct l Q C is entered by typing a Ct Q in the normal manner followed by a c or a C or a Cul C The 5 key on the numeric keypad can optionally generate a Ctrl Q sequence if the number lock is off Edit The Screen Editor User Tutorial Manual Page 47 Cursor movement commands The cursor movement commands are based upon file lines groups of text separated by Enter or Return characters rather than display lines which means that a movement from one line to the next may involve the cursor moving vertically by more than one display line to preserve its relative horizontal offset The editor attempts to keep the cursor at the same horizontal position during vertical moves This is good for program files because they have short lines the length of which tends to vary considerably If you are editing files which have lines which extend over several display lines ie normal text not programs you will find that the line up and line down commands Ct l E and Ct ea are not all that you might want Use the Ctl Q S and Ctrl Q D commands instead Note that some of the block and marker commands s
95. iles in a directory type will also show the filename before displaying each file if there is more than one file For obvious reasons t ype complains if you want to see a directory You can update the time stamped on a file or directory using touch It brings all the files specified up to today s date without otherwise changing them Handy for programmers since many compilers are fussy about dates and times As always all wildcards are accepted To help prevent accidental destruction of a file and to keep track of when it was last backed up saved elsewhere you can change its lock and backup attributes using filemode We will cover this and other more advanced commands later Since the computer only looks in your current directory the one that appears in your present prompt for a file you can tell it to search other directories or even other disks as well by using the xpath command Files and Directories User Tutorial Manual Page 37 All these and other disk commands are described in detail in the reference section of this manual Page 38 User Tutorial Manual Files and Directories 5 Starting Programs This section continues the discussion of commands by expanding upon the treatment of disk files by 1616 08 Obviously the concepts here will be of most use when you Start using programs that use the disk drives The chapter includes starting a program the different types of programs exec and xre1 and dis
96. in the 1616 0S ROMs or as a xrel transient program It is present as an inbuilt command in all 27512 based systems that is Version 3 and up As the inbuilt version can only be invoked once while multitasking it is worthwhile to keep a copy of the edit xrel disk version available for those times when you may want multiple copies of the editor operating simultaneously The disk based version can also be used by those with Version 2 or earlier of 1616 08 A much more elaborate version of the editor Dr Doc with full on screen formatting and printer support can be obtained on disk from Applix for 29 95 This enlarged version unfortunately will not fit in EPROM The cursor Throughout the description of the editor the term the current line refers to the line upon which the 1616 s cursor appears The number of this line is displayed on the editor status line The flashing cursor represents your current working position within the file and almost all commands are effective at the cursor s position In the case of text insertion single character block move or copy and file read the current position may be thought of as being in between the character under the cursor and the one preceding it Starting the editor The editor is started by typing edit filename If the file does not exist then edit creates anew one If you enter a number after the filename then this number Edit The Screen Editor User Tutorial Manual Page 45 bec
97. ing all of this buffer for reading and writing data in large blocks When copying from a character device CAT terminates the read when it receives an end of file char acter normally a control D See the option 6 4 command for details of how to set end of file characters Examples CAT myfile gt myfile new Creates a new file called myfile new and copies the contents of myfile to it The file myfile is undisturbed CAT myfilel myfilel sa myfile2 gt myfile big Creates a new file called myfile big and puts in it two copies of the contents of myfile1l followed by input from serial channel A and then one copy of the contents of myfile2 The files myfilel and myfile2 remain undis turbed CAT myfilel Dumps the file out to the screen Naturally you can specify multiple file names CAT con gt myfile Creates a new file called myfile and copies everything you type on the keyboard into that file without displaying it on screen The Enter key is 1616 0S Commands User Tutorial Manual Page 65 treated as a carriage return only so each line overwrites the previous one To produce separate line use Ctrl J followed by Ct M to produce a line feed and carriage return Copying files and data COPY sourcel source2 destination The COPY command is a smart file copier It copies from character devices or files onto character devices files or directories The ge
98. ing system to use xrel files and that almost all programs produced are in xrel format Executing binary files When you execute a binary program from an xrel or exec file it is loaded into memory and executed If itis an exec file it is loaded at the start address indicated by its load address attribute the third column in the dir display If it is an xrel file it is loaded at the highest available address where it will fit If the load address is unsuitable or the program will not fit into available memory an error message is displayed and the program is not run The contents of the command line are passed to the loaded program so that you may supply it with any options file names etcetera which it may need This is how arguments are passed along to programs and why most programs are written to accept command line arguments If the program is correctly written then any output which it normally produces upon the screen may be redirected to devices or disk files by using the gt or gt gt construct on the command line Any keyboard input may be obtained from a device or a disk file by using the lt construct Error messages or other special output may be redirected to devices or files with the F or constructs When the program has ended it returns control to 1616 0S s command interpreter There is much more about this topic in the Programmer s Manual the Technical Referen
99. ion key nl to produce string1 when typed The nl argument must be in the range 1 to 10 notice that 10 is decimal or you can use the hexadecimal equivalent a The string of characters must be a single argument if it contains any spaces or tabs it must be surrounded by quotes Strings may contain any characters including control characters entered by preceding them with Cu P Function keys may be programmed to produce more than one command line by including the Enter or CDM character in the string don t forget to precede control characters with Ce P Remember that you can also program the function keys direct from the keyboard using the Alt Ct function key combination Ten Function key definitions of up to 63 characters in length are permitted Examples FKEY 1 dir FKEY 4 cm K xX cm P cm M delete myprog bak cm P crl MJSSASM myprog s The last example is a complicated but useful one It does the following things 1 Quits from the editor using the KX command however a P is not required because the editor insert mode will directly accept control characters as commands 2 Issues an Enter M character to confirm the file name a P is required to embed the Enter because you are now outside the editor s insert mode 3 Deletes the editor s backup file again a P is required since you are on the regular Applix command line 4 Assembles the file upon which you are presumably
100. it is placed in one of ten undo buffers The undo buffers can be reviewed with Cu Q U Typing Ct1 U 0 to ctrl U 9 inserts the contents of an undo buffer at the cursor Ctl U U is shorthand for Ctrl U 0 The undo buffers work on a last in first out basis when some text is deleted from the file the oldest entry in the undo buffer is removed to make space for the new entry This undo facility is new in Version 4 Block commands With the block commands you mark out a block of text and then move it delete it copy it or write it out to disk The block is marked out by putting the cursor onto the first character of the block and entering Ctrl K B the cursor is then put at the next character beyond the end of the block and Ct l K K is entered These two operations may be reversed but the beginning marker Ct l K B must always be closer to the front of the file than the end marker Ct K K When both markers are correctly entered the marked block is re displayed in a different colour or with Edit The Screen Editor User Tutorial Manual Page 49 a different brightness on a monochrome monitor You may move the beginning or end marker simply by repositioning the cursor and placing the marker again the screen will be updated appropriately If you make an error in using the block commands a message is printed on the status line Common errors are attempting to move a block to some position within itself and maki
101. ition All markers and the search and substitute patterns see below are preserved This is a useful command for making a periodic backup of a file You are prompted for the name of the output file Ctrl K x Exit The normal way of quitting from the editor You are prompted for a filename the edited text is saved and you are returned to the 1616 OS command level Both the Cw1 K D and the Ctrl K X commands preserve the file in its original form before editing in a bak file This is for safety purposes if something went wrong with your last edit then you still have the original file You can stop automatic production of a bak file by using option 15 1 See the option command in the Reference Section for full details of all options Page 50 User Tutorial Manual Edit The Screen Editor If reading from a file in which an EOF end of file character accidently appears the standard input reverts to device TTY This essentially means that 1616 08 makes an inspired guess about where to look for its next command handy if working the computer remotely say over a phone Under normal circumstances you won t notice this feature Miscellaneous commands The miscellaneous commands cover various odds and ends which you expect to have in a text editor and then some Ctrl K Q Quit from the editor without saving the file to disk You would do this if you had made some changes which you later decided to reverse or if you made a
102. k doc will match only files that end in book doc and ignore files that don t have book doc in them Since wildcard expansion is done by 1616 OS rather than by individual commands itis entirely consistent from command to command That is wildcard expansion by dir is the same as by echo and is the same as by delete type cat move copy and so on Some operating systems such as MS DOS get this wrong and therefore don t do wildcard expansion correctly or at all for some commands such as type In addition to the simple wildcards and the Applix 1616 allows grouping of letters by means of the brackets and and these can be used to indicate a range of letters for matching For example echo a c will match any file names commencing with the letters a toc The same effect occurs using echo abc You can also negate the effects of this and thus exclude a particular range by using before a group Thus echo a c will show all file names that don t commence with a toc Similarly echo a d x z will match any filenames starting with a to d followed by x to z as a second letter The best way to learn how this works is to experiment with the echo command and a group of junk files Page 28 User Tutorial Manual Command Handling Command line processing order To understand how command lines are processed it is necessary to know the order in which operations occur When you have typed in a line and pressed t
103. k version you can toggle an overwrite mode by using the Ins key You may insert any control character except a Ct M into the text by preceding it with a Ctl P as with the line editor This is useful for inserting special escape sequences such as those which start boldfacing and underlining on your printer when the file is printed For serious text formatting and full printer support we suggest that you use the enhanced editor Dr Doc available on disk from Applix for 29 95 Editor commands All of the editor s commands are either a single control character or a single character preceded by a control Q or a control K The 1616 s numeric keypad cursor control keys are programmed to generate codes which are suitable for use with the editor The editor commands can be broken up into the following groups Cursor movement The cursor movement commands allow you to display and or alter different parts of the text file by moving to different positions within it Scrolling The scroll commands move the screen display without altering the relative cursor position Handy when you are used to them Text deletion There are a number of commands for deleting ranges of text before or after the cursor Block commands Blocks of text may be marked and manipulated File commands Various file I O commands and system access commands are available from within the editor Miscellaneous The miscellaneous commands include setting and moving to f
104. l port A is used as the console provided no disk controller is present If you do accidently leave the switch open a rude message appears on the video to remind you of what has happened If you have a disk system the selection of a serial port can be made by software on the disk so the setting of this switch is used differently If a disk controller is present switch 2 now determines whether you will attempt to boot first from the floppy drive or hard disk Monitor types The best monitor for the Applix 1616 is a colour Multisync or greyscale multisync if cost is a problem Since these are costly the alternatives are discussed below A standard Applix 1616 is compatible with an ordinary old fashioned IBM style RGBICGA colour monitor The style of monitor was selected because it is readily available and more moderately priced than multisyncs These displays are rela tively cheap because they use standard TV video refresh frequencies are easy to make and are built in great numbers It does however have the great disadvantage that like a TV it does not provide a very clear or readable text display Look for them at sales Don t buy a new one these days as they are obsolete The standard Applix can also use a composite monochrome display to display shades of grey well green or amber usually You can connect a non IBM composite video monitor as used by Apple and MicroBee that is you don t need an IBM Monochrome or Hercules sty
105. lay and optionally sent to standard error e g termb 1 logfile If full cursor control is needed then the 1616 s terminal control escape commands will have to be installed on the remote system These are set out below You may leave terminal mode by typing Alt Ct C Version 3 0 of 1616 OS sees a change from hardware video scrolling to software scroll Whilst this makes life easier for video programming it does slow down scrolling so the 1616 may experience overrun problems with characters which come after a series of newline characters when running at high baud rates Escape sequences If you embed terminal control characters or escape sequences in a text you can display bold underline italics subscrip and P text or any reasonable mixture The 29 95 Dr Doc editor uses these as does anything that writes text to the display These sequences are displayed or used whenever the Applix 1616 encounters them thus making it relatively easy to employ fancy text in your programs Test them Ctrl by usin P to embed an Esc key in your text Thus from the keyboard echo Ctrl P J Esc G 4 will put the display into bold mode etc AG Beep speaker 7 OL Tab 8 AJ Line feed 10 K Cursor up 11 L Clear screen 12 M Carriage return 13 V Cursor down 22 Page 96 User Tutorial Manual 1616 0S Commands AA ESC ESC ESC ESC ESC B ESC b ESC E ESC F ESCG 1 ESC G2 ESC G4 ESC G8 ESC G
106. le heretnaeres COMMA A Ni E EEE E E ate ketene f Edit quick re erence SOOHSSHHSSHSSHSSHHSHSHSSHHSHSHSHSHSSHHSHSHSSHHSSHSSHSSHHHHSSHHSHSHSHSHSSHHHHSHHHSHHHSHHHHHHSESOESES Cursor MOY CIN GUI a a aar ea a E ATE REEE Text deleti E ere a scale E E A R E T Block cO MA S e e rete aaraa AE eE EEE EE A TOE File commands saeeseenssensseessenessesseessserssensssesscesserssscsseerssressesseerrse WAERTE OL EE E E E E E Motorola S records SOOHSSHHSHSHSSSSHSHSHSHSSHHSHSHSSHSSHSHSHSHSHSHHSHSHSSHSSHHSHSSSHHSHSHHSHSSHSHSSHSSHHHSHSHSHSHSHHSHHSHHHHSHEEEEE 1616 OS and hardware LALALE Miscellaneous osnneoenssenssossssnsseessersssersecsssrrsscrseersscrssecsssrrsecsseersse Hardware exceptions sranie oteier Ae E EE ESES Using reSetne orea a E Aar EA AaS AEE User Tutorial Manual 81 81 82 82 82 84 84 90 91 91 iv Switch selection colour boot ete oo eee ceececesseecceeeeeeccceeseeceeeees Monitor types The I O ports Perec er cccccccccccccccccccccce reece ccc ccee reser ese eseeseeeeeceseceseeereceeseeeees Pee ree crr cece ccccc ccc cece cccerccc cece secre eer eceeseeer eer eeeeseeerereeseeseeeeeoees User Tutorial Manual
107. le monitor but read on These composite monitors are considerably cheaper than colour displays Again check out sales and look for prices well under 100 If you decide upon a monochrome monitor I strongly recommend that a dual scan monitor be used These are intended for use with IBM PC clones and can readily be adjusted to accept both standard IBM RGBI CGA video as provided by the Applix and also the higher scan frequency IBM monochrome or Hercules graphics monochrome output You should note that many most monochrome Page 104 User Tutorial Manual Appendix A monitors are able to show only a relatively few tone graduations Although the Applix provides up to 16 shades not all will be visible on most monochrome monitors As the Applix video is programmable a Memory Resident Driver see the Technical Reference Manual for details can alter the scan frequencies and the number of pixels on the screen It is thus possible to change the display from 640 by 200 pixels up to 640 by 350 pixels This requires an increased horizontal scan frequency and thus a different style of display A suitable frequency turns out to be closely equivalent to that required by the non TV standard IBM Monochrome or Hercules monitor Thus we recommend a dual scan monitor for monochrome use The 640 by 350 display devised by Conal Walsh who also did the ZRDOS port is capable of much better text and graphics displays and is highly recommen
108. lect commands However you often find that you learn no more than what the menu provides Other computers such as the Apple Macintosh Atari ST and Commodore Amiga use windows icons and a mouse pointer the wimp interface to insulate you from actually typing commands Although much easier to use such a system can also insulate you from the full power of your computer However at some level the equivalent commands exist in all computers In the Applix control comes from you knowing the commands and typing them correctly This manual provides the first steps in this process A command is simply an inbuilt program intended to do something that is of use either to you or to the computer Some commands do simple very understandable jobs like tell the time while others have purposes that will not be clear until you use them extensively yourself In the Applix commands are intended to work together in a manner similar to UNIX This allows you to build your own com mands even before you learn programming Contents Amongst other things this manual includes the following topics e Background information e How to start the computer Page 2 User Tutorial Manual Introduction e How to use the keyboard and various special keys that can save you effort e How to use the inbuilt line editor to avoid re typing material e What we mean by computer terms such as files disks directories floppy disks hard disks hierarchical
109. ling it with the kill entry to the proccntl system call A normal process exit is very similar to killing except a process does it to itself and the exit code is handled differently Blocking A process is said to be blocked if it is descheduled until an event happens typically the termination of another process The most common case of blocking is where one program runs another one then blocks until the second one completes and exits Locking in a process A process is locked in if the scheduler is prevented from descheduling the process and running another one The lockin entry to the proccntl system call is provided to permit a program to lock itself in Sleeping A process is said to be sleeping if it is not being rescheduled It still occupies a slot in the process table and will be reactivated at some time in the future Sleeping processes take practically no CPU time 0 1 actually Sleep is an entry in the proccnitl system call Synchronous and Asynchronous processes A synchronous or foreground process is one which blocks its parent An asynchronous or background process does not block its parent so usually the child and parent proceed in parallel The availability of asynchronous processes is what it is all about the only sort of process under the earliest versions of 1616 OS were synchronous Page 56 User Tutorial Manual Multi Tasking Background processes A background process is one which is asynchronous from the 161
110. llowed by a digit represents a number Numbers are entered in binary by preceding them with a symbol Decimal numbers are represented by preceding them with a symbol Hexadecimal numbers are the default and need no prefix al a2 As with the nl n2 format except these numbers always refer to 1616 memory addresses pathnamel These represent valid pathnames for files pathname2 An argument within square brackets is optional or changes the function of the command which is being used A row of full stops after a command line represents optional con tinuation of the last argument on the line 1616 0S Commands User Tutorial Manual Page 63 Helpful reminders FO gt help help ASCII ASSIGN BASE CAT CD CTO DIRS ECHO EDIT EXPR FILE KILL CMP DB DL MDW MFA MLOA MOVE OVE RDB MRDL MRDW MWB WL WW OPT IO PAUSE PS SREC SSASM SYSCALL TARCHIVE TERMA TSAVE TVERIFY TYPE VOLUMES WAIT XPATH FO gt help ascii assign base cat cd cio copy Usage ascii ascii a ascii D ascit h H assign current assignments assign removes all assign OLD deletes assign OLD NEW assigns base number number i cat pathname ses cd directory z Cio Waseca eof code copy sourcefile destfil copy sourcefilel sourcefile2 directory HELP cmdname cmdname The command HELP with n
111. ly may require changes to the source and recompiling First some terminology much of which is standard for modern multitasking operating systems such as UNIX and Minix Multi Tasking User Tutorial Manual Page 55 Processes A process is one of the one or more sections of program between which the operating system is dividing the 1616 s time All the currently known pro cesses are described by a table internal to 1616 0S This table is called the process table The current processes can be inspected using the inbuilt command ps which also shows the status of many of the multitasking operations described below Scheduling A process is said to be scheduled when the operating system has decided to run it for a while When the system decides that the process has run for long enough itis descheduled and another process is scheduled The amount of time a process can obtain can be varied by the nice entry to the proccntl system call Parent and child processes When one process starts or spawns another the second process is referred to as a child of the first The first is the parent process A typical example of this is in running shell files The shell file interpreter in 1616 0S is the parent process creating a child process for each command in the shell file Killing A process is said to be killed when another process or the system causes it to terminate abnormally This is done by sending it a signal or by explicitly kil
112. me you have started You can also use Ctrl C and the 1616 OS will attempt to match the last word Likewise Ctrl will recall the last word from the previous line and if used again the word before that and so on The line editor Whenever the operating system or any program which runs under it must obtain a line of input from the keyboard the system line editor is used The line editor permits you to enter a single line of up to 511 characters It has many features to simplify and accelerate command entry In particular the line editor permits you to recall to the screen any of the last ten commands you have issued you can alter the number of commands it stores if you have a disk drive It then allows you to modify these commands to make a new command This feature allows very rapid changes to repetitive commands and easy correction of mistakes in commands You should learn how to use the line editor as you discard much of the power of the keyboard if you ignore it The line editor s commands have been designed for compatibility with those of the screen editor only the Ctrl Y command differs The line editor s special features are invoked by typing control characters These commands generally follow the same pattern as the WordStar word processor To insert characters into the line one types in the normal manner The Cw w key causes previously entered lines to be inserted into the current line at the cursor
113. must be at least one byte long specifying the optional arguments n2 etc allows you to search for multi byte patterns The start address of any found pattern is printed out Use Alt C to stop large amounts of output Example 1616 0S Commands User Tutorial Manual Page 79 MSEARCH 500000 50ffff 41 70 70 6c 69 78 This command searches the 1616 ROM space for the sequence of characters in the word Applix The ASCII codes for the characters in this word have been specified Memory moving MMOVE al a2 a3 The MMOVE command moves the contents of the block of memory in the address range al through to a2 inclusive to the address a3 and onwards There are no restrictions on the move overlapping moves are handled correctly Saving memory in a file MSAVE al a2 pathname1 The MSAVE command saves the contents of the address range al through to a2 inclusive in the named file Loading memory from a file MLOAD pathname al This command loads all the bytes in the named file directly into memory at the given address if supplied If the address is not given then the file s contents are loaded at the address specified in the load address field of the file s directory entry An error message arises if this address is not a reasonable one Page 80 User Tutorial Manual 1616 0S Commands Command line redirection Moving characters about CIO n1 Mnemonic Copy Input to Output The
114. n iaaa iea 45 General OPE TALON sieer a Aaa a a aeia KeA A 46 ENEN ES EXI ir niee nerna T ETE EE EEOAE EAS Gee aaa 47 Edit d 47 I or comman S SOOHSHSOHSHSHSSHSSHHSHSSHSHSHSHSSHSSHSHSHSSHHSHSHSSHSHSHHHSHOHSHSHSHSHSSHHHSHSHHSHSHHSHSHHHHHHSOHSHOSHOOOES Cursor movement commands s cssssncsaesraseveacnacrveneenncacnrcnecereesneneaneecs 48 Scrolling command reesei r etie aE saiavbc teva ceterediaanactsavouse 49 Text deleting commands ssesesseseessseessseresssreesssersssereesssressseeesseee 49 Und commands eeaeee e E EEE ETa 49 Block commands srsessscosstecsssresiseristiusessresredissries usti ceauanatagaenee 49 FilecommandS ratse oe ea e iste ties E e E A A a as 50 Miscellaneous commands ssesseseeeseseesssseesssreesseeessseressseressereesseeee 51 Editor MINS atetea e ecniucacaetotananocedesvantupauemonugaluotieasecaneesnmuentanees 53 Fancy TER osios reie orrietan Ee er Ea E E E ERN AE EE E 54 T Multi Tasking eos ods cvasezentueccccuare sduisecapeeweuststaeveeneudeatapiteedenae OO User Tutorial Manual Multitasking introduced 1 cccsscccccssssssssccccssssssscccsssssssssccssssssssssees Using multi tasking at the command line level 0ceseseesee Killing programs sssecsessssssccecessoocccsesssoocesssssoooeessossesecessooeesesssseseeses Running programs asynchronously ssseesesssscccecssosoccecessoocecessssooeee The PS command sess ciscsssvasiconunlactnensiedenastataslcaksbansudapuobedsadesbecdenegeadss
115. names of all the currently installed memory resident drivers MRD which can be executed from the command line If a match is made the MRD is called to handle your command This sort of command is referred to as an executable memory resident driver These commands modify the way the system works They are installed from disk by the mrdrivers file when you first start the system each day if you have a disk drive you may recall seeing messages about them on your display when you started the system These Page 24 User Tutorial Manual Command Handling MRDs provide a powerful method of modifying every detail of how the computer works You can even replace existing commands with MRDs or expand com mands to make the system more powerful Use of MRDs are explained in the User Disk Manual and we try to explain how to write them in the Technical Reference Manual Some common MRDs are the ones that blank the display when it is left unattended crtsav the one that displays the time tdos and the one that provides an EGA and extended graphics display sseg If the command did not refer to an MRD the command name is compared with the 60 or so which are implemented within the 1616 OS program These are the commands listed when you use the he 1p command Ifa matchis found the selected function is executed The actual MC68000 microprocessor code to perform the selected command is contained within the 1616 0S EPROM chips This sort of command is re
116. nds editor 49 block devices 33 blocked 56 bold text 96 buffer 57 bug reports 9 bugs 9 bus error warm start 89 cache xpath 90 calls system 85 capture function key 18 cassette commands 75 cassette motor 17 cat 65 cd 71 cd directory 35 cent 26 change directory 35 71 channel serial 95 Index i character device 26 checksum 33 child process 56 cio 81 close files option 88 comand processing order 29 command transient 25 command examples 22 command line syntax 60 command syntax 22 commands 2 24 comments 23 communications 95 compare memory 79 con 26 connectors 13 console control 104 control 11 17 Control Q for 5 key 89 conventions 10 convert numbers to base 91 copy 66 copy file 65 66 create directory 71 cursor 10 16 19 45 48 cursor control sequences 96 daemon 57 date 84 date dir sort by 87 date display 84 date setting 84 dead keyboard 16 decimal 23 define function key 18 define function keys 92 delete 67 delete directory 67 delete file 67 delete text 19 49 device 26 dir 70 directory 36 directory commands 70 directory in prompt 87 directory list 70 dirs 70 disable alt S 89 disable alt keys 89 disable beep on error 89 disable reset 88 disk error messages 88 display file 67 display memory 77 display time and date 84 downloading S records 97 User Tutorial Manual dump memory
117. ne Specify lowbaud in your environment You can use redirection to send a set of commands to the editor so you can actually edit a set of files by remote control Use this trick when you have standard changes to make to a lot of files See the Applix demo disk for an elaborate example Fancy text If you embed terminal control characters or escape sequences in a text you can display bold underline italics suscrip and P text or any reasonable mixture The 29 95 Dr Doc editor uses these extensively and also will allow them to be printed However any 1616 0S command that writes text to the display cat type will also work These sequences are displayed or used whenever the Applix 1616 encounters them thus making it relatively easy to employ fancy text in your text files Test them by using Ctl P to embed an Esc key in your text Thus from the keyboard echo ca P Esc G 4 will put the display into bold mode etc Listed below to star in your text are the main sequences that produce text attributes The full list of escape sequences is in the 1616 OS Reference Section at the end of this manual after the term entry G Beep speaker 7 AE Clear screen 12 ESC Start highlighting ESC End highlighting ESC Clear the screen or current window ESC B value 32 Sets the background colour to value ESC b Visible bell ESC F value 32 Sets the foreground colour to value ESC G 1
118. neral format is COPY sourcel source destination If COPY detects an error it continues attempting to copy all of the specified files The current copy movement is printed out as the copying proceeds this indication of what is happening may be disabled with the option 1 0 command When the source of a copy is a character device the copy continues until an end of file character is received This character is normally a Ctrl D but may be altered with the option 6 4 command Whenever possible the COPY command preserves the modification date name and attributes of copied files The permissible formats of this command are described in the following examples A pathname refers to a valid 1616 08 filename A device is the name of a character device such as CON or SA A directory is the pathname of an existing 1616 OS directory COPY pathnamel pathname2 Copies a single file COPY pathnamel pathname2 directory Copies one or more files into a directory COPY device pathname Copies from the device into the named file COPY pathnamel pathname2 device Copies the contents of one or more files onto a character device COPY pathnamel pathname2 devicel pathname3 device2 Copies the contents of files as well as characters from a device onto a character device Moving files and data MOVE source destination The MOVE command is similar to the COPY command except that when a source file is copied to a new file the
119. ng an error setting the markers It may be a good idea to use the Ctl K D command to write the current file out to disk before using some of the block commands they can be destructive ctrl K B A beginning marker is put at the current cursor position Ctrl K K Put the end marker at the current cursor position Ctrl K Y Delete all the text between the beginning and end markers Ctrl K V Move the marked text to the current cursor position The marked block is removed from its original position and placed in the new one Copy marked block to the current cursor position The marked text is left where it is and it is also copied to the new position Put the currently marked block into the head of the undo buffers Writes the marked text out to a disk file The user is prompted to enter the filename Hides the marked block The block becomes inaccessible and the highlighting is removed Typing Ct K H again restores the block Go to the start of a marked block Go to the end of a marked block z ie Ctrl Ctrl Ctrl Al A Ji z Ctrl Ctrl Ctrl OJOJ Aj File commands Ctrl K R Reads an entire disk file into the file which you are editing The new textis placed immediately in front of the current cursor position You are prompted to enter the name of the file to be read Ctrl K D Disk write Writes the current file out to disk and resumes editing at the previous pos
120. ng and substituting pathnames ASSIGN display all current assignments ASSIGN delete all current assignments ASSIGN path path2 path2 is substituted whenever path1 appears Used to replace the leading parts of a pathname Pathl can be any convenient abbreviation Whenever path appears it will be replaced by path2 which could be some long or inconvenient pathname You can define up to 20 ASSIGNSs Unlike the earlier MRD used prior to Version 3 2c there is no ON OFF switch assign inc f 0 asmfiles includedir ensures that from then on when a reference is made to a file or directory whose pathname starts with inc the string 0 asmfiles includedir will be substituted Particularly handy when including files in C or assembler Use it also to standardise pathnames of include files Normally assign expands its second argument out to a full pathname before storing it away However if the second argument is preceded by a character then it is taken literally For example 0 mdir gt ASSIGN execute bin Page 72 User Tutorial Manual 1616 0S Commands will assign execute to 0 bin whereas 0 mydir gt ASSIGN temp will assign temp to which would let processes place their temporary files in their current directory Set an environment string SET Display current settings An environment string is a method of passing information about your computer to a program or to substitute similar to assign one
121. now about different base number systems you can read up on them in many computing and math text books You should also note that these commands only work with integer numbers That is you can t use numbers that include a fractional part or a decimal point Special characters 6 The semicolon character is used for putting comments on command lines particularly within shell files see below any characters occurring after a semicolon are ignored If the first non blank character in a line is a semicolon then the entire line is ignored Use this method to remind you what a line is supposed to do If you actually wish a semicolon to appear on the command line rather than using it to indicate a comment it will have to be surrounded by double quote char acters For example note the difference between the two examples of the inbuilt echo command which merely repeats its arguments Command Handling User Tutorial Manual Page 23 echo abc def and echo abc def If you wish to enter a quote character at the command line type in two successive quotes Wherever possible the operating system does not distinguish between upper and lower case characters on the command line The words on the input line may be separated by any number of spaces or tabs Spaces or tabs before or after the command are ignored but at least one space must always separate a command from its arguments A l symbol may be used within a command
122. o arguments causes a sorted list of all of 1616 0S s inbuilt commands to be printed out as shown on the sample screen The HELP command may be used to obtain more detailed help concerning one or more particular inbuilt commands by using the name of the inbuilt command as an argument to HELP as shown for ascii assign and so on Page 64 User Tutorial Manual 1616 0S Commands File related commands The file related commands allow the user to manipulate files on disk block devices A number of these commands work when applied to character devices such as CON and CENT as well as with disk files The COPY MOVE TYPE CAT and CIO commands overlap in their functions and there are a number of ways of doing any one thing This largely derives from the fact that COPY MOVE and TYPE internally use CAT and CIO Each com mand has its own application for specific functions Copying joining moving files CAT pathname1 pathname2 device1 device2 The CAT command copies and joins files and input from character devices All of the named files are joined together in the specified order and are copied onto standard output Often this output will be sent to another file or a character device using redirection If no filenames or character device names are specified then this command gets input from standard input in fact an internal call to the CIO command is made The CAT command copies by obtaining as much memory as possible then us
123. oaded from or saved to cassette These files appear with an A in the left column of their directory listing see the DIR command The purpose behind this is to remind you which RAM disk files have been altered and should be backed up on cassette before you turn off your 1616 The tape archive command saves on tape as in TSAVE only those files that a Appear on the command line as pathnamel or pathname2 etc and b Require backing up Suppose for example that you are working on some assembly language programs and at the end of the session you wish to save all the files that you have newly created onto tape A typical sequence of commands would be DELETE bak Remove editor backup files TARCHIVE Save all new files This will automatically save new files skipping ones that have not altered such as the executable binary file which contains the assembler SSASM 1616 0S Commands User Tutorial Manual Page 75 Loading files from tape TLOAD pathname The TLOAD command loads the next file from the tape into a disk file If pathname is given then the tape file is written into a disk file of this name if the optional name is omitted then the disk file has the same name as that of the tape file which in turn has the same name as the disk file from which it was created Loading multiple tape files ITLOAD Mnemonic Indefinite Tape LOAD This command indefinitely performs TLOADs Files are read off t
124. of a particular word then it will stay at the start of the word if text is inserted or deleted before it The positions of markers are lost if you quit from the editor using the Ctrl K Q or Ctrl K x commands Whenever the editor reads or writes a disk file the user is first prompted to enter the filename The editor makes a guess at the name of the file and if it is correct you need only press the Enter key otherwise you may edit the filename in the usual manner before pressing Enter Whenever edit prompts for an output filename placing a gt character at the front of the filename results in the text to be written being appended to that file rather than overwriting it as is normal This feature is only available from 1616 OS Version 4 and up Once within the editor a status line appears at the top of the screen From left to right the status line consists of e A general message display area for status information and command echoing The cursor position within the file measured in characters from the start of the file The current line number The current character number within the current line e The name of the file which is being edited Page 46 User Tutorial Manual Edit The Screen Editor Entering text Enter text into the file by positioning the cursor at the desired place and simply typing There is no insert mode All non control characters go directly into the file In the expanded Dr Doc dis
125. of end of process 86 wildcard expansion 28 wildcards 26 27 write syscall 57 write to memory 78 xor logical operator 92 xpath command 39 xpath re read 90 XT keyboard 13 User Tutorial Manual Index v Table of Contents I t d ti n ro uc lon SOHOHSCHHSSHSHSSHSSSHSHSHSHHSSHHSSHSHSHSHSHSHSHHSSHHSHHSHHSHHHSHHHSHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHOHHOEOEEEE The manual SOOHSSHHSHSHSSHSSHHSHSHSSHHSHSHSSHSSHHSHSHSSHHSHSHSSHSSHSHSHSHSSHHSHSHSHSSHHSHSHSHSHHHSHSHSHSSHSHSHSHSSHHHSHSHHSHHSHSHSHHHHHHHHSEES Other manuals and Programs 2 0 eee eee ec eee ec ence nce neeceec enc eneneeeeneeneeaes e pp 1x SOOHOSHSSSHSSHHSHSHSSHHSHSHSHSHSSHHSHSHSHSHHSHSHSSHSSHHSHSHSSHHSHSHSHSHSSHHSHSHSSHHSHHSSHSSHHSHSHSHHHHSSHSHHHHHHSESES ou e 1616 OS opera mg S S em SOOHSSHHSHSSSSSHHSHSHSSHHSHSHSSHSSHHHHSHSHHHSHHHSSHHHHHSHEHSESES A note from Andrew Morton ou eee ceeeecesecccceccecccecesccccececeusecenseees Enhancements changes TE E 6 Sie eisibis a A bce T E A E T o ebesenioe eae bee ols C venti on en 1ons SOOHSHHSSHSSHSSHHSHSHSHSHHSHSHSSHSSHSHSHSHSSHHSHSHSHSHSSHHSHSHSSHHSHSHSSHSSHHSHSHSSHHSHSHSHSHSSHSHSHSHSSHHHOHHSHHSHHHHSHHHHSHSESEE Keyboard CONVENTIONS serere cier rius n Eneak p aAA Lar ENERO aAA ETEN Number conventions cccccccsesecosssccvessccessccacssccacscensssconsssenesees Typeface CONVENTIONS eiiean rA EE a EE EE AAE EEEE First Steps ec saicccseseclated cccsvecscdcstsssudsucccassacussscscatectusuwcesascssveety Starting the 1616 ssissiisssssoinisissise
126. ol is a standard feature A standard Centronics parallel printer port is provided The text editor can support any brand of parallel printer An Apple II compatible joystick port is included Stereo sound outputs are standard and include a two or four watt amplifier Macintosh and Amiga sound files can be played without any additional equipment Sound can be digitised via the User Port by adding a microphone Analog and digital input and output ports are available as standard to measure and control the outside world The optional disk controller allows the use of both floppy and SCSI hard disks and adds the ability to run ZCPR3 an advanced variation on the CP M operating system programs Using a utility program it can read and write Microbee and IBM disks All serious users should aim at getting one The optional memory board allows up to four megabyte of memory with optional virtual memory support for Minix plus an additional optional high speed SCSI disk controller port For those with big program needs The optional high resolution video board includes over a half megabyte of video memory and a TI32010 graphics processor For those into serious video work Being prototyped a combined Ethernet and memory board providing four megabyte of memory and Ethernet connections to mainframe or mini computer networks Will include TCP IP network software Four expansion bus spaces for add on cards Page 6 User Tutorial Manu
127. omes the tab column width this is a useful feature for program files which are heavily indented with tabs If the editor is supplied on disk you must have the correct disk in your drive and the editor must be in the current directory or in a directory that is in your search path When the editor is started it determines the size of the file and allocates for itself sufficient memory space for the file plus 32k kilobyte enough for about an extra 30 000 characters of text The size of the edit buffer is displayed as the file to be edited is read in Because of this memory allocation scheme you cannot increase the size of the file by more than 32 000 characters during a single edit session if you get the file too large message on the status line then you will have to write the file out using the CE x command and re edit it This isn t usually much of a problem General operation The editor works on the basis of always displaying all of the current line partial lines are displayed but if the cursor is moved to a line which is not fully on the screen then the display is scrolled to bring the line into view A marker is a position within your text file which you supply to the editor and which is remembered by the editor The markers are used for remembering positions in the file If text is added or deleted before between or after markers they stay at the same position in the text so that if you place a marker at the start
128. ontains too many entries it tends to slow down disk access However you can make other named directories each of which also can contain multiple names Each of these directories can also contain named directories and so on In general directories that contain more than about 50 to 100 files tend to get unwieldy You can create a new directory using the mkdir pathname pathname command You should try to make the pathname both meaningful and short if you make it too long you will get tired of typing it You can create several new directories simultaneously with this command You can move into the new directory using the cd pathname command You will notice that the command prompt will change from something like f0 bin to show which sub directory you are now in If you now create another directory using mkdir and move to it using cd your command prompt will show both directory names You can suppress the display of the directory path by using the option command see Reference section of this manual for details You can move back to the previous or parent directory using cd and continue doing this until you reach the root directory You can also reach the root directory directly by typing the shortcut cd The directory you are currently in is for historic reasons known as Files and Directories User Tutorial Manual Page 35 Filenames and pathnames As we mentioned each file and sub directory
129. optional input output redirections lt gt and F in the command line format described at the start of this section will get input from and send output and error messages to the nominated character devices or files for the duration of the command Using the doubled redirections gt gt and means that instead of over writing the previous output new output is added to it Command Handling User Tutorial Manual Page 25 When you redirect I O for a command you effectively replace the keyboard and the video display with different character sources and or destinations When the inbuilt or transient command is executed it will typically send its printed output to standard output which is normally the video display Input characters come from standard input which is normally the keyboard Error messages should go to standard error which is normally the video display I O redirections reassign standard input standard output and standard error to different physical devices or to files The advantage of this sort of thing is that you can save the output of programs in files or on a printer or even send it to a different computer Likewise you can use a file to provide the input to a command or program instead of typing something repeatedly from a keyboard Great stuff for lazy people This works for both inbuilt and transient commands and is a very powerful tool The lt gt gt gt F
130. original file is removed However a MOVE from a file to a character device does not result in the source file being deleted A MOVE with a character device as a source behaves the same way as in a COPY which although not precisely consistent is what is usually desired and is also the only possible way of handling this situation Page 66 User Tutorial Manual 1616 0S Commands A special use of the MOVE command is moving directories within a file system MOVE directory pathname will move the named directory to somewhere else in the file system of a disk device This cannot be done if the source and destination pathnames do not refer to the same physical disk device When a file or directory is MOVEd to another place on the same disk no actual copying of data takes place it is all done by shuffling of directory entries This is why a move can delete sources when files or directories are involved but not when character devices are involved Displaying files TYPE pathname pathname TYPE device pathname The TYPE command causes the contents of one or more files or character devices to be displayed on standard output normally the video monitor If verbose mode is set see the option 1 1 command headers are printed out before each source is output Any mix of files and character devices may be specified If a character device is specified then TYPE proceeds until an end of file character normally control D is encountered
131. ough everything described in this manual so far will work For another virtually all the programs available for the Applix 1616 are provided on 9cm disks not on cassette Before you can use a brand new diskette you must both format and initialise it This process places magnetic tracks on the diskette onto which files and pro grams can be stored Formatting and initialising a disk totally destroys the previous contents so do not format a disk on which you have programs You format a disk using a utility program called blockdev this replaces a much earlier version called ssddutil This program is supplied to you on your 1616 OS Version 3 or 4 user disk and is usually in directory bin It is menu driven and can also convert old Version 2 4 disks so they can be read by Version 3 or 4 You invoke it by typing blockdev 0 0rblockdev f1 depending upon which drive is to be used The largest capacity disk device available is the hard or fixed disk known as h0 h1 These are much faster than floppy drives nearly as fast as the ram disk They also have much greater capacity The smallest is at least 20 megabyte or 20 000k bytes but you can get them 20 times as large You can store at least 5 000 pages of text on a hard disk One disadvantage of the hard disk is that it is permanently sealed and you can never remove the disk Once you run out of space on it you will have to delete something to make room for the next Of course tho
132. ound so you can use the machine while it prints Simple as that If a process is started asynchronously and its standard input is not redirected with the lt mechanism the system will connect standard input to the NULL character device which always returns end of file error code 18 This ensures that a background process cannot compete with the foreground one for input Page 58 User Tutorial Manual Multi Tasking The PS command The inbuilt command Ps may be used to display a list of all the current processes from the process table Some facts and figures which emerge are PID PPID HPID TIME Status ADM gt lt Load Stack SP PC I O E the process s ID number in decimal the process s parent process PID home PID the number of 20 millsecond time slices over which the process has run converted to minutes and seconds This represents the state of five flags in the process s process table entry They are as follows Set if the process is waiting blocked on another Synchronous Asynchronous Exit pending process about to depart Binary process memory to be freed on exit Killed someone has killed this process The load address of the program actually the call address passed to the schedprep system call when the process was scheduled The address of the process s stack area The current value of the process s stack pointer The value of the process s program counter when it was l
133. pe 57 60 pipe error 60 87 pipe interprocess 87 Index iii pipe syscall 57 pipes 55 PPID 59 85 premptive multitasking 55 printer 26 problem with keyboard 16 proccntl system call 56 process wait to end 86 process ID number 57 process table 56 processes 56 program status ps 85 programs 32 programs shell 41 prompt directory shown 87 ps 57 59 ps program status 85 quick reference to edit 101 quit 90 quit editor KQ 51 quote characters 23 ram disk 33 ram disk size 33 ramdisk size 33 read syscall 57 read xpath on error 90 recall last line 18 redirection 25 81 87 reference to edit 101 refresh date 68 register contents option 89 register dump 87 relative pathname 36 remember function key 18 remote terminal 96 rename 67 rename file 67 replace 52 reset 17 103 reset disable option 88 RGBI 14 root directory 35 RS232 port 26 RS232C 95 RS232C terminal 96 rxbits 95 s records 97 sa 26 save on tape 75 sb 26 scheduling 56 screen editor 45 scroll 20 49 User Tutorial Manual SCSI 34 search editor 52 search memory 79 search path 39 71 serial 95 serial port 26 serial port control 104 serial ports 95 serial terminal 96 set environment 73 set time and date 84 setdate 84 shell error trapping 41 shell file commands 82 shell program 32 shell programs 41 shift key 17 sigcatch syscall 57 signal
134. pipe The data up to the line eofmarker is fed down the command s normal input after which the normal interpretation of the shell file continues The opening eofmarker must be all UPPER CASE characters in the range A to Z only There must be no trailing white space after the eofmarker and no space between the lt lt and the eofmarker The closing marker must be identical to the opening marker and must be on a line of its own If it has a amp character added to it the shell interpreter will not wait Page 42 User Tutorial Manual Starting Programs for the command to terminate but will continue to interpret the shell file from the closing marker This is great for feeding lengthy information into commands or programs Again if readers pester me I 1 come up with some lengthy examples Shell file example Almost any non trivial example will be hard to understand for a beginner I suggest that you start by taking any long command line or sequence of command lines you happen to use and type that in as a shell file As an example of she11 file programming suppose that we wish to write a shel1 program file which with a single command will allow us to assemble an assembler source code file We wish to produce a listing file delete its editor backup file perform a directory listing of the file and then edit the file An appropriate she11 file would be Shell file to perform assembly functions Usage doasm asmfilename lis
135. ple you can start assembling or compiling a program in background since this can take a minute or so and continue editing a file Or you can start a print out in background and play a game while things are printing Another typical use is running a serial terminal in background By use of the vcon utility programs on the Users Disk you can obtain multiple virtual consoles so several programs can each display their output simulta neously You see either a number of small windows in which the various outputs appear or else swap between several full size displays whenever you wish The only home computer systems that include full pre emptive multitasking are the Applix 1616 and the Commodore Amiga and computers running expensive operating systems such as OS 9 or Unix MS DOS machines the Atari ST and the traditional Apple Macintosh do not provide multitasking although you can sometimes obtain a limited form of context switching changing quickly from one task to another in each by using additional programs from other companies Multitasking introduced With much compatibility the system now supports multitasking the full bottle quite transparent to programs running under it This means that you can run more than one program simultaneously Most programs devised for earlier versions of 1616 0S will still run but some may need alterations to their stack size use the chmem utility provided on your User Disk Others more rare
136. plix 1616 Welcome to the world of the Applix 1616 User The 1616 is designed as a powerful but easy to program general purpose computer It is particularly suited to education and self instruction especially for learning low level assembler or Forth programming and for interfacing to external devices It is suitable for higher level language programming in Basic and the C language Due to the accessibility of the operating system and its relatively advanced nature it can be used in courses about operating system design In addition Andrew Tanenbaum s famous Minix operating system designed especially for academic courses on operating systems has been ported by Colin McCormack of Tangled Web Software and is available for round 200 The Applix 1616 is suited to light industrial and home control use or controlling and recording scientific instruments thanks to the extensive inbuilt communication and input output facilities and its expandability It is the only low cost Motorola 68000 computer with both extensive input and output facilities and full bus expansion on the Australian market Although the Applix 1616 is not designed specifically for office and business use it does have processing graphics and communication capabilities that are the equivalent of modest office desk top computers e The 7 5 megahertz Motorola 68000 processor used in the Applix 1616 is identical to that in an Apple Macintosh Classic but runs about
137. r a list A WordStar like full screen editor is always available and can be used from within languages such as BASIC See Chapter 6 for details There is a built in calculator expr terminal emulation and function key re definition There is a inbuilt 68000 assembler available in EPROM in some models Wildcards are similar to MS DOS however they are more consistent in use and are available from all commands For example type doc will display the contents of all doc files while dir will display the contents of all directories one level up the tree from your present directory A amp after a command will invoke multitasking and run the command in back ground while you continue working See Chapter 7 for details Page 100 User Tutorial Manual Appendix A Edit quick reference Cursor movement E Up one line QE Upto top of page AR Up about one page AQR _ To start of file AS Left one character AA Left one word AQS Left 80 characters B Start end of line Scrolling Z Scroll up Text deleting H BS Delete char backward DN Delete line AV Delete line backwards Block commands AKB Mark block start SKK Mark block end AKY Delete marked block KH Hide block KW Write block to file File commands KR _ Read in merge a file KX Write out file quit Miscellaneous 4KQ Exit without saving file KE Execute 1616 0S command 4KO0 9 Set block markers 0 to 9 4Q0 9 Go to a block marker SQA
138. rent EOF character applies from Version 3 2c on Alt Del toggles between 100 and 04 Ctrl D as EOF Sets the exec file stack space You can tune it to suit the needs of your program default Disables the system from writing to the system blocks of a disk blocks zero through to the start of the root directory This is a safety feature in the blkwrite system call which will hopefully prevent the odd disk crash option 8 1 enables writing to the system tracks Turn this option off after use default Enable the Att Cu R keyboard reset function option 9 0 disables Page 88 User Tutorial Manual 1616 0S Commands option 10 1 option 11 1 option 12 1 option 13 1 option 14 1 option 15 0 option 16 56 option 17 1 option 18 0 1616 0S Commands default Enable the Alj S output suspension facility option 10 0 disables Note the period indicating a decimal value default Enable all special keyboard Alt codes option 11 0 disables default Enables the output of a beep character when the system prints out an error message option 12 0 disables default Warm start upon bus or similar exception option 13 0 is cold start available from Version 3 1e on previous default was cold start default Dumps contents of program counter and reg isters if the 68000 trace flag is set on You set the CPU trace flag in the 68000 status register with or w 8000 sr and clear it using
139. rnssasesrisesnisiasosossisiioatist sensasi otsan aieiaa Connecting everything eeessessesssesesseersssseeesserrsseresssseeesseeessseeeessres Starting the System oreen asriar eri eran riar a e ias e i The k yb oard eseteecs excesecszececcsessseccbosssenseecbecdesstencecceeadicacueccncinsseuteccceties Using the 1616 keyboard ssenesseeeessseesssesessseeessseesssereesssresssreesseees Gy DO ath at IS a s aodrei eA EE A ERE Cursor keys and numeric keypad Control and Alt KEYS nrirerieioeiresisisiit iaeiei da taiea en ents setae The Alt ac id ciate es a E E A A EE E PUNCH ON REY Sy oet eT e e a E E E ENAR Last line recall and completion sssseessseseessseeesseeessereesssersssereesssee The hne editori sncissovedsdesissonetionsasesnassocscsesededsdosssnnetedos pssndopesssetevoryaneens Command Handling eeesssocssoceccsssosooccecesssosocccecessesssosoeeeee General command format sesssesssossseosseessoossoossocossosesoessoossoesssesssose Command input syntax sseesessseesssesesssseesssersssereessseesssressseressssressee Examples of commands ssesseeeeseseessseesssesesserresssersssereesssresssreessseees Typing MTN CS enkeier e ieena E EAE E AAE TEES Numeric commands sseesssesesseeeesseseesseressereesssteesseressereeesseressereessseee Special characters niena etneo ee EEE a
140. ry starting from the address at which the previous dump finished If the al argument is entered then the 64 bytes of memory at this address are displayed If the al and a2 arguments are entered then all of the memory between these addresses is displayed Long memory dumps may be halted using Alt C Continuous memory examination MRDB al MRDW al MRDL al Mnemonic Memory Repetitively Display Byte Word Long These commands continuously display the value of the byte word or long at address al This function is useful for examining addresses which are being changed by interrupt routines but it is mainly for monitoring I O addresses during hardware debugging and development The Alt C terminates memory examination 1616 0S Commands User Tutorial Manual Page 77 Memory alteration MWB al n1 n2 n3 MWW al n1 n2 n3 MWL al n1 n2 n3 Mnemonic Memory Write Byte Word Long These commands write byte word and long sized numbers into memory starting at address al If any of the numbers n1 n2 etc are entered then this data is sequentially written into memory starting at al with the correct data size No read is performed upon the addresses which are written to If none of the optional numbers are supplied then the user enters a prompted input mode The current address and the value of the byte word or long at that address is printed out and you may do one of the
141. se who haven t used a hard disk find it unlikely that they will fill one those who use them tend to fill them with remarkable speed The moral is get the biggest one you can afford The other major disadvantage of the SCSI hard disk is the cost At the moment you can expect to pay between 400 and 1500 or more depending on the size Page 34 User Tutorial Manual Files and Directories Hierarchical file systems Version 3 0 and higher of 1616 08 store their files in a hierarchical or tree structure With large capacity disks the keeping of all a disk s files within one directory becomes unmanageable sub directories are used to categorise disk files as explained below Directories A disk directory is a list of information about a number of disk files Each section in the list is called a directory entry A directory entry may describe either a file or another directory By putting directories within directories a tree structured file system is built Because the structure is like a tree the main directory is generally known as the root directory and for historic reasons is shown as Experienced computer users should note that MS DOS uses a backwards slash V instead There is no limit to the number of files or directories that can be contained in the root directory or any other directory When a directory is first made it contains space for 16 entries It expands by an extra 16 entries as required If it c
142. serious editing mistake or if you were simply using the editor to browse through a file If the file has been altered since it was last written to or read from disk then the message Not saved yet appears on the status line and you must enter the Ctrl K Q command a second time to quit This is a safety feature which prevents you from accidently quitting before saving your work ctrl K E Execute one 1616 OS inbuilt or transient command A prompt is displayed and you can type the command Upon completion of the command you are prompted to press the Enter key and then editing is resumed as before ctrl K 1 Temporarily escape from the editor and execute 1616 OS inbuilt and transient commands The 1616 OS command line prompt gets another gt character to remind you that you are still within the editor To return to your file use the 1616 OS quit command or type the end of file character usually Ctr D The Ctl K E and Ctrl K 1 commands are temporary escapes from the editor When you return to the editor all the block markers the substitute pattern and the search pattern are undisturbed The only 1616 O0S command which you cannot use with the editor escape is edit you can only edit one file at a time This only applies to the ROM version of the editor in 1616 0S Version 3 Ctrl Q G Go to a particular line within the file You are prompted to enter a line number Pressing Enter immediately is
143. sic sounds or pictures If you type the name of such a text or data file you will get an error message Cannot execute filename No such file or directory If you believe a file contains readable text you can see the contents using the inbuilt type filename command If the file does not contain ordinary text type will still try to display it however you may well get a real mess of display characters on your screen Incidently you should be cautious about trying to print such non text files on a printer as you can waste a lot of paper and upset your printer enough to have to power it down before you can use it again One special form of text file is a she11 program file This simply contains lines of normal commands just as they would be typed from the keyboard It has the filename extension shell Whenits name is typed all the commands contained within it are executed or run one by one just as if you had typed them out at the keyboard This can be a very convenient way of storing extensive commands that you tend to repeat often As with exec and xrel programs you must not type out the she11 extension Filename extensions Programs always have names ending in an extension This extension consists ofa full stop followed by aterm suchas xrel or exec You cause programs to run by simply typing their name File names can be either upper or lower case You must leave off the xrel
144. specially by comparison with conventional business systems such as MS DOS and it is worthwhile learning all their features In particular e the most recent lines that have been entered can be recalled for editing as in some versions of UNIX e multiple commands can be typed on a single line e commands can run in background while you continue typing your next command e the function keys can be readily altered to print up to 63 keystrokes without any additional program being required Using the 1616 keyboard The 1616 keyboard is interrupt driven which means that 1616 OS can receive keystrokes immediately and save them to be presented when they are needed This means that you may type when the 1616 s microprocessor is not actually First Steps User Tutorial Manual Page 15 awaiting keyboard input the keystrokes are not displayed upon the screen until they are used Up to 200 keystrokes may be accumulated which is far more than most systems allow Experienced users can alter this value to virtually any desired level using the new_cbuf system call Keyboard failure The Applix 1616 is designed to work with any IBM XT compatible keyboard with a5 pin DIN connector Applix can supply a suitable keyboard but in these days of low prices many users prefer to obtain their own Unfortunately such keyboards do differ somewhat from brand to brand so sometimes a new user encounters a keyboard problem If your keyboard does not work
145. ss of a machine language program and sets up an argument array Page 84 User Tutorial Manual 1616 0S Commands A program which is executed in this manner must preserve the MC68000 stack frame and return to 1616 OS with an RTS instruction The value which the program returns in the MC68000 s dO data register zero is printed out by 1616 OS when it regains control Manually performing system calls SYSCALL callno n1 n2 n3 This command causes 1616 OS to perform system call number callno with parameters n1 n2 etc The value returned from the system call in data register dO is printed out upon return from the system call If a non numeric argument is given then the system call is passed a pointer to the non numeric string rather than an evaluated number as with numeric input so the following works SYSCALL 48 Sd plus d d 2 2 4 printf system call Refer to the 1616 0S Programmers Reference Manual for more many details about system calls Process status PS Displays a list of all current processes from the process table Show their PID process ID and their parent s ID PPID the amount of time they have consumed their current status their load address stack area their current stack pointer value the program counter value when they were last descheduled and the handles for their standard input output and error streams Finally their name is given PID the process s ID number in
146. stead As with the help command its arguments happened to be yet another command Page 22 User Tutorial Manual Command Handling Typing in numbers Whenever a number is to be entered on the command line as a parameter to an inbuilt command there are three ways of representing it e Decimal numbers are entered by preceding them by a full stop e Binary numbers are entered by preceding them with a symbol e Hexadecimal numbers are entered without any leading character Decimal numbers may be preceded by a minus sign eg 1234 As an example the command mfb 4000 17000 101011 will fill the memory range 4000 hexadecimal 16384 decimal through 17000 decimal with the binary value 101011 decimal 43 assuming you have some reason to want to do this Numeric commands Most commands have as their arguments filenames or numbers Try the inbuilt expression calculator a poor man s pocket calculator expr 23 84 29 If you don t agree with the answer note that you must put a lt and mathematical operators in front of decimal numbers when entering them and must leave spaces between all arguments The answer is given in binary decimal and hexadecimal Check the values of different base number with the inbuilt base base 40 60 100100 This command converts a set of numbers into hexadecimal decimal indicated by the in front binary shown with in front and in addition to octal If you don t k
147. stead See the fkey inbuilt command below for a description of programming function keys You can put any character into a function key definition including the control characters which the editor uses for commands You can also use keyboard programming via the Alt Ct function key method Occasionally write your file out to disk with the Ctrl K D command if something regrettable occurs you will at least have a recent copy e Learn all the features of the editor at an early stage If you limp along using only half of the available commands you will regret the wasted time when you finally come to learning all of them Use the Ctl K 0J Ctrl K 9 place markers and the partial screen freeze feature particularly if you are editing program source code They re great The Ctl Q F search command can be used for counting the number of occurrences of a pattern within a file position the cursor at the start of the file and search for an enormous number of occurrences the editor will display the actual count on the status line when it has finished Search for spaces for a rough word count To move a single line use Ct Y to delete it move the cursor to where it should be inserted then undo the deletion using Ct U U Edit The Screen Editor User Tutorial Manual Page 53 If running edit over a slow serial line you can optionally eliminate the periods at the end of the file and in the status li
148. t the video display The input for the CIO command comes from the file filename and the command will terminate when all characters have been read from this file This command prints the file on the screen CIO la lt sa gt myfile Read characters from serial channel A and write them onto the new file myfile Terminate when a control Z ASCII code 1a is received CIO gt gt myfile lt sb Read characters from serial channel B and append then to myfile The user will have to type Alt C to terminate this transfer 1616 0S Commands User Tutorial Manual Page 81 CIO lt sa gt sb Copy bytes from serial channel A onto serial channel B until A C is pressed or an end of file normally control D is received CIO lt myfile gt cent Print the file myfile out on the parallel printer Shell file commands Echo command line arguments ECHO n arg1 arg2 The ECHO command simply prints its arguments out If the first argument is n then a new line is not printed out after the arguments This command is mainly used within shell executable text files For example suppose one creates a she11 program file called sum containing the following lines ECHO n Adding 1 and 2 produces EXPR 1 2 When this shell program is executed with two numeric arguments e g sum 1 2 the appropriate output results You can echo characters that have an audible effect
149. te large chunks of information whatever way you need Block devices store the contents of the computer memory in chunks called blocks each of which is 1024 bytes long They include disk drives hard disks and ram disks In contrast character devices such as the keyboard and printer manipulate memory contents on a byte at a time basis This chapter explains that computers store information in named files and groups the files in directories It explains the different types of block devices such as ram disks disk drives and hard or fixed disks their advantages and disadvan tages It tells you about hierarchical file systems directory names filenames and pathnames It introduces some easy commands for using block devices Although you do not actually have access to a disk drive or hard disk until you expand your Applix 1616 the inbuilt ram disk known as rd obeys exactly the same commands so it is possible to run the system without a real disk drive However the contents of rd are destroyed once you switch off the computer making this an insecure system Although cassettes were the only choice a decade ago today all serious users try to obtain disk drives as soon as they can You will find more detailed discussion of setting up disk drives in the Disk CoProcessor Manual and the User Disk Manual Background Since the contents of the memory in a modern computer disappear when power is switched off some method of storing files and
150. tes are ignored if you are user O the default The RWX attributes are provided to assist in managing a multiple user system say a bulletin board or networked 1616 and apply only to user IDs other than user 0 See option 16 56 for setting the file creation mask for the default attributes The file creation mask defaults to 56 which sets RWX permissions on and A and L off when a file is created Set the setdate command for setting the time and date See option 17 for enabling or disabling lower case filenames Wildcards are very useful for obtaining partial directory listings If for example you wished to obtain a directory listing of all the assembler source code files on your disk you would enter the command DIR s Entering dir lists the contents of all the directories immediately below your current directory and then lists the contents of the current directory Page 70 User Tutorial Manual 1616 0S Commands Changing the current directory CD Display name of current directory CD path Change to a new directory The CD command with no arguments causes the display of the name of the current directory Youcan ensure the wole directory path appears in your prompt by using the option 0 1 command The CD command followed by the name of a directory causes that directory to become the current directory CD f0 Makes the root directory of floppy 0 current CD ax Moves up a directory level CD mydir Moves down a level CD m
151. tfilename y Echo commands to screen trap stop on error SSASM 1 1 s gt S2 1st Perform assembly notrap Prevent shell exit if backup file is not present delete Sl bak Remove the backup file drig i List the new directory entry pause 100 Wait two seconds edit Sl s Edit the source code This file may be created with the 1616 OS editor by entering edit doasm shell and typing the text And again if readers pester me l lI come up with some longer examples Starting Programs User Tutorial Manual Page 43 6 Edit The Screen Editor The inbuilt editor is a convenient method of creating text files The 1616 08 full screen editor is designed for editing text files for use as programs Its commands are similar to those of MicroPro s WordStar word processing program in non document mode The 1616 0S editor uses many of the features of the 1616 environment It works in any of the video modes 320 or 640 columns or MGR windows and in text windows of any size It may be used by application programs which run under 1616 OS For example if you are writing a program such as a text formatter or data base that needs extensive typing you can have your program call upon the full screen editor for accepting the typing In other words it is very much more elaborate than the MS DOS editor edlin so you should learn how to use it cor rectly Using an editor EDIT exists either as an inbuilt command
152. the 1616 Inthis example it assembles the file of assembler code asmfile s The assembly output is sent to the parallel centronics printer port Any error messages are recorded in the file errorlog in the current directory Another redirection facility available is piping This is used to link many com mands together The result of the first command becomes the input of the next command and so on It is these redirection facilities that enable you to build very powerful and complex commands out of a series of simple commands For example you might use some UNIX style disk utilities to generate a phone list for a visit to Victoria from a more extensive address list with a line similar to cat address list grep Vic cut f1 2 7 gt phone list which would throw away any line not containing Vic then take the first second and seventh space delimited fields of what remains and put the result in another file Wildcard expansion Often you will wish to use an inbuilt or a transient command to perform some operation upon a group of files There will frequently be some similarity between the names of the files To specify such a group of filenames you may enter a Command Handling User Tutorial Manual Page 27 prototype name which contains a mix of characters and wildcards The wildcard matches any group of zero or more characters the wildcard matches any single character What all this means is that you can specify names witho
153. the computer Switch the power on to the computer Starting the system The Applix 1616 will start without a disk in a drive but it takes longer and limits what you can do to only those commands described in this manual You will be limited to using the inbuilt ram drive RD to store files and the contents of the ram drive are destroyed whenever you turn off the power If available you should use a 1616 0S version 4 boot disk you received a suitable disk labelled User Disk with the 1616 disk co processor card in any disk drive it is traditional to use FO this is the one whose light comes on first when you switch on the power as many non Applix computer systems are unable to boot from any drive except their first drive Those with disks from older versions of the operating system should note that version 2 disks will not work as boot disks Using a non boot disk will stop you from starting the Applix if you are not sure you have a proper boot disk just start up without a disk in a drive for your first time Insert the disk in the first disk drive with the shutter on the disk at the front As you push it into the drive it will click into place If the disk will not fit correctly and does not click into place you are probably putting it in upside down Never force a disk into a drive Switch on the power for the display and then for the computer the switch is on the rear towards the left hand side The disk drive l
154. the pipeline was run synchronously the system blocks until it is complete You can also pipe standard error using the symbol however this can not be done while also using the normal pipe Under multitasking all the specified tasks are run simultaneously rather than sequentially via temporary files as is the case for the older MRD or for MS DOS Altering internal settings OPTION optionnum setting The option command is a general way of varying various fiddly settings within 1616 OS If you use the option command without a second setting parameter it will return the current setting of the option This is handy for finding things like the present end of file character The present options are option 0 1 default Turns on display of the current directory in the prompt option 0 0 turns it off again option 1 1 Turns on verbose mode Many commands operate quietly option 0 turns verbose mode off option 2 2 default Turns on alphabetic sorting The option 2 setting also affects the sorting of wildcard expansion option 2 0 turns off sorting of directory listings option 2 turns on sorting of listings by date option 3 0 Affects how information is displayed when a machine exception occurs If option 3 0 default has been selected then the screen is not cleared and a register dump only is displayed The system registers are dumped in memory as follows 8000 registers d0 d7 a0 a7 1616 0S Commands User Tutorial Manual
155. tion of a file or directory s place in the file system The concept of pathnames is very important and will be explained in the section on Disks Files and Directories Filenames and any arguments that are optional are usually enclosed in square brackets thus v This indicates something that you can type to cause a certain action but you are not forced to do so for the command to work If more than one filename can be used in a command the repeat action is indicated by Page 12 User Tutorial Manual Introduction 2 First Steps In this chapter we assume that you have a completely built and tested 1616 preferably complete with 3 5 inch disk drive ready to be unpacked and plugged in Kit builders will already be familiar with connecting the 1616 from their Hardware and Construction Manual This chapter explains how to start using the Applix 1616 It lists the connectors available for external devices peripherals such as printers modems joysticks and so on It explains how to use the keyboard and the numerous extra features of the Applix keyboard drivers such as recalling past commands and function key macros The Applix 1616 includes a powerful line editor that makes it easy to alter very long commands and this is also explained Please learn how to use the keyboard the Applix keyboard handling is specifically designed to make life easier for those of us who are not fast or accurate typists Starting the 1616
156. to date as new features are added to the 1616 s operating system particularly if these involve compatibility changes However the cost of EPROMS and printing extensive documentation and the time involved in preparing them means that a charge must often be made A small refund may be made for old EPROMS if their size is such that they can still be used for current upgrades Contact Applix for current prices and upgrade details The upgrade from Version 3 to Version 4 is 29 95 These changes include updates for your manual sets plus an updated User Disk Within versions changes are often made Version 4 1a to 4 2d for example and updates within Versions are 5 provided the original eproms are returned Manuals are not updated with 5 upgrades Disks may be an additional 5 The latest version printed manuals are available at any time at 10 per manual If you have printing facilities the Introduction User Tutorial Manual Page 9 ASCII text of manuals or a Postscript file of each manual can be made available on 1616 or IBM disk please note that Postscript files in particular are very large typically one manual per disk Conventions To avoid repeating how to use certain key combinations or types of commands we have used various typographic conventions throughout this manual These are detailed below Keyboard conventions Throughout this manual we assume that the reader can type even if only slowly We also assume some famil
157. torial Manual Multi Tasking Quotes are used to remove the special meaning of all other characters A separator between multiple commands gt gt gt Standard output redirection Standard error redirection lt Standard input A pipe to connect two commands A Pipe standard error A comment separator we amp Run command asynchronously lt lt Redirect following lines until marker into input of command within shell files only The above are listed in order of precedence Some examples dir cio cio This performs a directory listing and passes the output through the cio command a couple of times ssasm myfile s type myfile s gt cent amp This will perform the assembly synchronously then print the source file out as a background process ssasm myfile s amp type myfile s gt cent amp Both the assembly and the printing proceed asynchronously ssasm myfile s type myfile s gt cent amp Here both the assembly and the printing run in the background but the printing will not start until the assembly has completed The implications of multi tasking for programs Having multi tasking affects a program s user interface It is the responsibility of the programmer to attempt to ensure his or her programs can run in background if the user so desires In general a program can not assume it has unlimited access to resources particularly access to the keyboard or video Input and output should be v
158. ty x cies ceoacnts iesieta iii ooa EEI EEAS Setting the execution search path ssesssesssseseesssersssesessssressseresseee Naming disks ioranene clacton sta ncaa ven cece tea decease sh ss TE oan S Assigning and substituting pathnames ccceseccceesteeeeeeeteeeeees Set an environment string s lt 554ceeescecees ates oetnsssaceiacaaphosabesuaevcroean sence os Cassette tape commands oo isciccccctescsesaseccbecesevcse sees JcsnavcsesccSesscuccnedeasses Saving files Orn tape oerein seime ient ira EEES EEEE Archiyi e files on ape ee eaen ee orane eaaa rave ects EAEEREN E AE ae a EE Loading files from tape ssseeessessessseerssesesssseresseressereesssersssereesssee Loading multiple tape files sci sys sctscescieeontcersarn so ctataaaleersanscentunseat onues Venfying tape Mleset ne ar eE K aE Memory manipulation commands ssessssessssocesssssococecssoooecessssooeese Examining MeMO eneore kee eeror a EEEE EAEE REE N E Continuous memory examination esssssessseeessereesssresseressereesssress Mem rysalt rai ons seres ne a eese EREE E ERE AEREE Putting ASCII strings in Memory sssesssessessssresseersseeressseressereessseees Memory fno osne e ee e E a A Seite EE R Memory comparing eseesssseesseersseseessseresseresssreeessresssereesssresssreresserees Memory searching seeesseeessssesssessessssresserresssreesseeessseressseressereesseeee ITSO Ty TOV INS sok rene bon es araos e E E E EEE E Saving memory in a file
159. uction to alter the directory bit or the file address bit since you don t really want to alter them Ox g O OMADNDNBWNK The read write and execute RWX bits apply only to users other than user 0 User 0 can use files regardless of these three bits However if user 1 etc tries to say read a file without a read R permission they will get an error message Cannot open Permission denied Normally you are always by default User Page 68 User Tutorial Manual 1616 0S Commands 0 however up to 64k of user numbers can be established for use when the Applix is serving multiple users or running as a Bulletin Board Normally you just ignore this Files with the address in the directory entry provide a way for small files to load quicker than normal The BORING bit is provided for you to apply to files which don t change such as programs in the bin directory therefore removing any need to back them up Hidden files are for tidy housekeeping when others are using the system as User 0 will see all files in any case Symbolic links are for use by Jeremy Fitzhardinge and allow a file to have multiple names provided you have an appropriate driver 1616 0S Commands User Tutorial Manual Page 69 Directory related commands Directory entries for the last 20 files or directories used are kept in a RAM cache This increases disk performance in accesses to files that are several directory levels deep Directory
160. ude unwanted directories in your xpath commands as this simply slows down access to programs Typically you would include the command xpath 0 bin f 0 utility or some similar sequence soon after starting the system As an alternative you can easily add directories to the search path by using xpath 0 newpath or similar at any time Take care with xpath which removes all search paths Starting Programs User Tutorial Manual Page 39 Types of executable files A file whose name ends in xre1 is a relocatable MC68000 machine language program It is designed to be loaded into memory and executed A file whose name ends in she11 is a text file created with edit containing a list of commands which 1616 Os interprets when the shell file is executed A exec file is non relocatable MC68000 machine language It is loaded at a specific fixed address in memory for execution If this particular memory is not free the exec program cannot be executed so you should only use exec programs sparingly They are really an obsolete form of program In general xre1 files are preferable to exec files because multiple programs can reside in memory when they are relocatable exec files are used during program development and debugging or for special applications they are partially a relic from earlier versions of 1616 OS and may not be available in future versions Please note that you must have Version 3 or later of the operat
161. ugh previous lines Scroll forwards through previous lines The ctrl A F and T commands work ona word by word basis A word is considered to end with a space tab L Page 20 User Tutorial Manual First Steps 3 Command Handling The 1616 is made to do things by typing commands at the keyboard If the command is not correctly typed then an error message is produced A command is simply the name of a program or the name of an inbuilt command or system call In many cases the command or program requires parameters or arguments A parameter or argument modifies the effects of a command by telling it which of several possible things you want done Some commands accept more than one type of parameter Some accept multiple instances of a single type of parameter This chapter explains the general form of commands their syntax and gives examples of some simple commands for you to try The Applix can accept numbers in decimal the way humans write numbers hexadecimal the default as computer numbers are usually expressed this way or binary the way computers use numbers internally This chapter explains how to use each form Punctuation and special characters are important when issuing computer com mands these are listed The general way commands are executed obeyed by the computer is covered A brief explanation is given of the very powerful redirection facilities of the Applix 1616 Wildcard expansion is explained
162. ut a character If an environment string does not have the a flag you can still force substitution by preceding it with a character set is a 1616 0S inbuilt command The set command permits the manipulation of the environment strings which are associated with your current interactive command shell Each command shell can have a different environment thus allowing multiple users to customise their own environment An environment string consists of a name and a setting each of which is an arbitrary length ASCII string 1616 0S Commands User Tutorial Manual Page 73 The sset program is a front end to set which records your current environment string settings in the file home settings shell in a format which is suitable for restoring your environment settings when you log in to the system at a later time home settings shell is normally executed for you when you log onto the system You should generally use sset rather than set Environment settings can be substituted anywhere in the command line regardless of their mode by preceding them with a sign You can further bind the sub stitution by parenthesising the name For example Command Output set fred frog echo Sfred frog echo S fred frog echo fred c frog c echo bin S fred xx bin frog xx echo aaSfredbb aaSfredbb sic echo aaS fred bb aafrogbb The environment string named path has special meaning for execution path searching
163. ut typing them in full and manipulate groups of similarly named files without specifying each of them individually Basically it saves you effort and typing Wildcards which appear somewhere within double quotes are not expanded If no match is found with your prototype filename it is passed unchanged Wildcards are only expanded in the last part of a pathname so the specification F0 fred s is incorrect The specification F0 srce s is correct because only the last part of the pathname has a wildcard Some examples e To delete all of the editor backup files from a disk you would type delete bak The system reads the names of all the files on the disk and attempts to match each name with the prototype If a match is made the full filename is substituted into your command line e To delete the files filel and file2 but not file34 you would type delete file The question mark matches the single characters 1 and 2 but not the double character 34 To experiment with wildcard matching you can create files by typing gt filename and then use the inbuilt command echo to find matches For example echo prints out all filenames echo c prints out all filenames which have a c as their second last character Wildcard expansion stops when the template is matched so you can have a wildcard early in a filename but restrict matching to a series of letters later in the filename For example boo
164. xecution paths on a command miss Bit 1 set causes the system to scan the xpaths before reading the current directory which is useful for hard disk users Note that if you call an option with 1 or error as the second parameter the next option called will return a bad option error message If the second option given is correct it will be set correctly despite the error message returned Quitting the command interpreter QUIT The QUIT command is provided as a way of returning to an application program which temporarily called the 1616 0S command interpreter For an example see the documentation for the 1616 OS editor Ctrl K 1 miscellaneous command You can also use the end of file character usually Ctrl D to quit provided you have changed the value of the EOF character normally not implemented to o using option 6 4 or the Alt Del hotkey Specifically this is the way for the user to terminate a program s call to the iexec system call Page 90 User Tutorial Manual 1616 0S Commands Handy utilities Numeric base conversion BASE nl n2 n3 The BASE command converts the supplied numbers into their binary decimal hexadecimal and octal equivalents The output is now in neat columns to please Andrew McNamara Entering the editor EDIT filename n1 This command invokes the 1616 0S full screen editor The filename is the file which is to be edited if it does not exist it is created when the editor writ
165. ydir Moves across a level The system changes back to the current directory after a reset from Version 4 on Older versions did not Creating a directory MKDIR path path Make directory or multiple directories The MKDIR command creates a new sub directory as specified by PATH The directory size is rounded up to a multiple of 16 each time it runs out of space for new files Remember that very large directories make it hard to find things and may slow down the system There is no provision for shrinking the size of directories if the number of files decrease Setting the execution search path XPATH Display path setting XPATH Clear all paths XPATH path path2 Set paths XPATH path path2 Add paths It is often desirable for the system to search a number of directories for executable files when they are to be loaded and run Suppose for example that you wish to run the 1616 assembler SSASM It possibly resides in FO BIN or in RD BIN or in F1 etc It is much simpler to simply type SSASM and let the system do the searching The XPATH command allows you to specify which directories are to be searched when the system is looking for xrel she11 and exec files to execute When the name of an executable file is typed the system searches the current directory followed by those directories specified in the execution path as entered by the XPATH command If option 19 1 is set on the xpath director
166. ype the command ascii Typing a key while the Att key is depressed will generate the ASCII code of the key plus 128 for programmers bit 7 is set by the Att key Special exceptions to this rule of thumb are listed below All 256 characters of the extended ASCII character set can be produced by holding down the Alt key and typing the character s ASCII code including leading zeros on the numeric keypad section of the keyboard This does not depend upon the state of the Num Lock key The ASCII character set is explained in detail in many elementary programming texts It is simply a method by which the computer keeps track of the meanings of characters You can see an ASCII table on the 1616 by typing the inbuilt command ascii upper or lower case is fine and don t forget to press Enter after the command The Alt key A few special functions are implemented using the keyboard s Alt key Alt T Typing this sequence at any time switches the cassette relay to the opposite state Do not type this during cassette I O When the cassette relay is connected to a cassette recorder remote control it switches the motor on and off Alt Ctrl R This sequence is typed by holding down the Ait key then holding down the Ctl key then the R key The effect is the same as pressing the 1616 s reset switch This key sequence will have no effect if the 1616 has seriously hung up for some reason you will then have to use the

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