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A guide to Fedora Linux`s audio creation and music capabilities.

1. ssessssssssssessn eese nenne nnne n nnns 99 9 1 4 Other Requirements ersi ayra nA ea ninaa Eana AEEA Eai 99 9 1 5 Installation eree e efe ee Pan e dM de Te Ree eae 99 9 2 CONTIGQUIATION a 3 mice aetate Mug RETE Re EP ete dud ee Eh EHE RE RE De EH Da Mn 99 9 2 1 Setup JACK and Qsynth sssssssssssssseeem eene 99 9 2 2 Setup Rosegarden s sss esee eene hne essen esses 100 9 3 Rosegarden and LilyPond sssssssssssseem eee enne 100 9 4 Write a Song in Rosegarden Tutorial ssssseH 101 9 4 1 Start the Score with a Bass Line sssseeee mH 101 9 4 2 Add a Percussion Track easset raini emen 102 9 4 3 Spice up the Percussion sssssssssseene eee 103 9 4 4 Adda Melody iio D ede deb eed tee tei 103 9 4 5 Possible Ways to Continue sssssssse mmm 104 10 FluidSynth 105 10 1 SoundFont Technology and MIDI sssse Hem 105 10 11 How to Get a SoundFOli ien cre roo e Et ERE ERU ae 105 10 1 2 MIDI Instruments Banks Programs and Patches n se 105 10 1 3 MIDI Channels oesie 1 0 eto x ct eoe v Le Sep SAX EE OE SE rr Speo 106 10 2 Requirements and Installation ssssse meme 106 10 2 1 Software Requirements sssssssssssee eee eene nennen 106 10 2 2 Thare Are Two Ways to Install FluidSynth ssssssssssss 106 10 2 3 Installation with Qsynt
2. function value 125 Chapter 11 SuperCollider zero postin always prints 8 Why does the last line always print 8 It s because zero was set to 8 within function More importantly Function did not declare its own copy of zero so it simply accesses the one declared in the next highest block of code which exists between and in this example This is why it is important to pay attention to a variable s scope and to make sure that you declare your variables in the right place Unexpected and difficult to find programming mistakes can occur when you forget to declare a variable but it is declared elsewhere in your program you will be allowed to use the variable but it will be modified unexpectedly On the other hand it can be greatly advantageous to be able to access variables declared outside the local scope meaning variables that are not declared in the same code block in which they are used but careful thought and planning is required Astute readers will notice that it is possible to re declare the single letter variable names allowing you to control their scope Consider the following program var a 0 pis var c 16 a 8 a postin c postln b value a postln This example requires careful examination What is the scope of a b and c The answers may be surprising ais declared just after the character so the interpreter destroys it upon reaching the character cis dec
3. sss 4 3 1 Installing the Planet CCRMA at Home Repositories s reee 4 3 2 Set Repository Priorities sssesessssseseenes enne enne nnne 4 3 3 Prevent a Package from Being Updated sssssssesseeee Il Audio and Music Software 5 Audacity 5 1 Knowing When to Use Audacity sssssssssene mme 5 2 Requirements and Installation ssssssssee mmn 5 2 1 Software Requirements sssssssssssssesee eene mene enne 5 2 2 Hardware Requirements ssssssssssesse emen ener nnne 5 2 3 Standard Installation 2 eiie etc tete ree rues t ber as 5 2 4 Installation with MP3 Support ssssssssseen mee 5 2 5 Post Installation Test Playback ssssssseeee Hem 5 2 6 Post Installation Test Recording ssssssseeem em 5 3 Config ration repe xe ERR ARDENTER EH REED EIE ER tans 5 3 1 When You Run Audacity for the First Time ssssssseem 5 3 2 Configuring Audacity for Your Sound Card ssssssssseeeee 5 3 3 Setting the Project s Sample Rate and Format s es rreren 5 4 T ie Interfaee coerente edet eed senate e fe iR haa beta tithes pede EATS 5 5 Recording oci c oec P co EE tec oye Hat t rie edi restes teu tels 5 5 1 Start to REGO i e ith A piping edis ren 5 5 2 Continue to Record An eese ves unes oe teed eres ede ud Tuas 5 6 Creating a New Login Sound Tutorial
4. ssssssssee He 5 6 1 Files forthe T torlal eea Dh d ce e EL tens 5 6 2 SCenidilO ieia ed d dm e ae oii de Pone a fierent 5 0 3 Align ITacks ient rte e EUER ERE ERE ELS EPRER UH ERE SEM ERES bade 5 6 4 Stretching Macks dreht ote Aere ec dtt end e d d pesar e 5 6 5 Adjust the Volume Level cccccceceeeeece cece ce eeeeeeeesaeeeeaaeeeeaeeeaa essen eeeaes SE REMOVE NOISE 22 250 TE 5 6 Fade In or OUt xcii diui uiis 5 6 8 Remove Some Audio ssssssssse emen mener 5 6 9 Repeat an Already Recorded Segment ssssssssssseeee 5 6 10 Add a Special Effect the Phaser sssssssseem 5 611 CONCUSSION 2 ente RDUM e inm 5 7 Save and EXDOTE cir pr eo ERREUR quee aee ERE beng ERE ae ERR SEE RE ERE EHE sean R4 aai 5t A Export Part ofa Elle 5e iet d euet etui tte Em tete eas 5 7 2 Export a Whole File esmais iusan ana u kanda aaiae nnne nnne 6 Digital Audio Workstations 6 1 Knowing Which DAW to USS aa IH a aat ae rne rre nnns 6 2 Stages of Recording er e cene pere RR Ee Te danh edo Lee rede iba EE es 6 21 Recording ec tede Lene de Le te eut Uk credite do La DERE RASA MIXING PETS 6 2 3 Masterilig iio te ba ed E e Pt be bf d UE A Rude 6 2 4 More InfOrmiatlOn 2s 2 eiit PR SERERE RE UNES E ERE UAR ERRE eed eed 6 3 Interface Vocabulary 2 2 0 0 ccc e cece cece eee e ce ee eee ee aa tees aa nessa essa nnne hh entier nennen nne 0 3 1 568SI0Dr cest ese
5. 12 5 5 Formatting the Score We recommend formatting the score after the notes have been inputting Formatting after inputting helps you avoid making formatting errors LilyPond works effectively with this approach 12 5 5 1 Move the Figured Bass Normally figured bass parts are below the staves This example is using the figured bass feature of LilyPond to do something else so we re going to move the figured bass so that it s where it needs to be 1 the score section contains everything in the score notice that the figured bass has the identifier bassFiguresPart remove this N scroll up to where it says bassFiguresPart and comment it with g scroll up to where it says pianoPart and enter the new FiguredBass figBass line that you just commented out on a line between the right and left staves 4 now erase the part that you commented in 2 or leave it there 5 Preview the file and see that the figures now appear between the piano staves 12 5 5 2 Remove the Word Piano at the Start 1 Find the part that begins pianoPart and erase the instrumentName line or comment it 2 Preview the file and see that it no longer says Piano 12 5 5 3 Make some Elements Transparent This involves some more advanced tweaking Explain this sort of command Every layout object has a stencil property By default this is set to whatever function draws the object If you set that pr
6. 14 3 1 Aural Skills and Musical Sensibility seen 222 1453 2 Exercise TYPOS ios d sates de rt HR Ee kf ve du ia t ed 222 14 3 3 Making an Aural Skills Program ssseeH 223 14 3 4 Supplementary References sssssssssseeem e 224 14 4 Using the Exercises 0 cccccceee cece ce eeee ca ee seca ence ee aa hhenen nnne hene resin nennen nns 225 14 41 LISTENING cosciente et teo reo te a eR e eg ERR 225 AP Mec dono MERC 226 14 4 3 Configure Yourself esssssssssssssssssseeensn enne essa essen eeaaies 227 14 44 RIVE iii tet ysl ta chemise acnduyeakepacsstshnadyvadacbegsectnagyaadecusestehee 227 PRSETER 228 14 4 6 Harmonic Progressions sssssssssssssm meme nnne 229 14 47 Intonation encode Exe Bond utei ied 229 A Revision History 231 Index 233 Preface 1 Document Conventions This manual uses several conventions to highlight certain words and phrases and draw attention to specific pieces of information In PDF and paper editions this manual uses typefaces drawn from the Liberation Fonts set The Liberation Fonts set is also used in HTML editions if the set is installed on your system If not alternative but equivalent typefaces are displayed Note Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 and later includes the Liberation Fonts set by default 1 1 Typographic Conventions Four typographic conventions are used to call attention to sp
7. 2 2 1 PulseAudio PulseAudio is an advanced sound server intended to make audio programming in Linux operating systems as easy as possible The idea behind its design is that an audio application needs only to output audio to PulseAudio and PulseAudio will take care of the rest choosing and controlling a particular device adjusting the volume working with other applications and so on PulseAudio even has the ability to use networked sound which allows two computers using PulseAudio to communicate as though they were one computer either computer can input from or output to either computer s audio hardware just as easily as its own audio hardware This is all controlled within PulseAudio so no further complication is added to the software The Fedora Project s integration of PulseAudio as a vital part of the operating system has helped to ensure that audio applications can just work for most people under most circumstances This has made it much easier for users to carry out basic audio tasks 13 Chapter 2 Software for Sound Cards 2 2 2 JACK Audio Connection Kit The JACK sound server offers fewer features than other sound servers but they are tailor made to allow the functionality required by audio creation applications JACK also makes it easier for users to configure the options that are most important for such situations The server supports only one sample rate and format at a time and allows applications and hardwa
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9. 92 Creating our Theme 10 decided to place a note every three beats one beat is marked by one vertical line on the beat lasting for one sixteenth note a Click the pencil where you want the note to appear A box will appear If you drag the box to the right then the note will sound for longer b put all of the notes on the same pitch but it doesn t matter whether you put them on the same pitches or not they will be changed later c lalso made a mistake when I was inputting the notes so there s one place where they are only two beats apart instead of three This didn t matter to me but it might matter to you d Continue inputting notes until you have filled the whole pre selected region between the blue markers Qtractor will let you continue beyond that point so you need to keep an eye on the marker yourself e To scroll sideways you can hold down either Shift or Ctrl and use your mouse s scroll wheel Move to transport just before the end of the segment you added use Shift click Listen to the end to ensure that your segment ends with or before the end of the first formal area Close the matrix editor window Use the main window to view the MIDI segment which you just inputted The vertical lines represent barlines and the darker rectangles represent notes If the MIDI segment extends beyond the last note that you inputted click and drag the end so that there isn t much over hang If you accidentally
10. Change Speed If you input a positive number the speed increases and the audio takes less time If you input a negative number the speed decreases and the audio takes more time 34 Adjust the Volume Level 3 Click Preview to hear some of the audio with the adjusted speed Audacity does not change the audio when you preview the change 4 Click OK to apply the change Audacity processes the audio Your change does not appear immediately We changed the speed of one of our tracks We are not concerned about the sound quality because this is a start up sound for us When you edit audio to which other people will listen you should be careful to preserve the sound quality 5 6 5 Adjust the Volume Level You can adjust the volume level of tracks by adjusting the fader in the track info box The fader is a horizontal line with a sign on the left and a sign on the right The fader does not change the audio signal itself You can also adjust the volume level of a portion of audio which does modify the audio signal itself Follow these instructions to adjust the volume level of a portion of audio 1 The tutorial s lowest track is very quiet Click the track s solo button then listen to the track alone Most of the track is quiet humming 2 Click Selection Tool then hold down the mouse button to select some audio in one track 3 Choose Effect gt Amplify When the Amplify window opens it is set for the greatest volu
11. 0 1 SinOsc ar 1660 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 440 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 880 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 1660 0 0 1 152 SynthDef and Synth play Notice that like with the Mix Class independent mul levels are not preserved 11 3 10 SynthDef and Synth The preceding sections of this Basic Programming guide have only created sound with Function s The truth is that Function s are very useful for creating sound but they represent a simplification of the actual commands and Functions that must be run by the interpreter in order to create sound When you write this SinOsc ar freq 440 mul 0 2 play The interpreter actually does this SynthDef new temp 963 Out ar SinOsc ar freq 440 mul 0 2 play Yikes Don t despair it s easy to understand it just looks scary 11 3 10 1 Out UGen The Out UGen is one of the bits of magic automatically taken care of by the interpreter It routes an audio signal from another UGen into a specific output actually into a specific bus see Section 11 3 11 Busses The following examples have the same effect SinOsc ar freq 500 mul 0 2 play and Out ar SinOsc ar freq 500 mul 0 2 play The first argument to Out ar is the bus number for where you want to place the second argument which is either a UGen or a multi channel Array of UGen s If the second argument is an Array then the fi
12. 2 Titles and Headers Tab Dedication Comte d Ogny and Prince Oettingen Wallerstein Title Sinfonia No 92 e Subtitle Oxford Composer Haydn Joseph 202 Adjusting Frescobaldi s Output all the rest are blank 3 Parts Tab Flute 2 of Oboe Bassoon Horn in F Trumpet in C Timpani e Violin Violin Viola Cello Contrabass 4 Score settings Tab Key signature G Major Time signature 3 4 Tempo indication Adagio other settings as desired recommend not remocing bar numbers and removing the default tagline 5 Click Try to see if it works The instrument names will not be the same as the PDF score This Will be fixed later 6 Click OK to generate the score 12 6 3 Adjusting Frescobaldi s Output These steps are useful in establishing a consistent input style for LilyPond The things suggested here are also useful for getting used to working with large scores which can be a challenge in any text editor Thankfully careful and consistent code organization goes a long way in helping you to quickly find your way around your files Setting up files the right way to begin with makes this much easier in the end When you first setup the score Frescobaldi will have created many sections for you by default The program avoids making too many stylistic choices for you which allows you to create your own style It also sets up the default sections in a logical way version hea
13. With only a subtle change to our Function we can add the possibility of passing arguments on synth creation var myRandFunc arg frequency Rand 440 880 default value between 440 and 880 Out ar SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 025 u I ve decided to use the Rand UGen anyway so that supplying a frequency is optional This adds functionality while making the added complexity optional var myRandFunc arg frequency 440 Out ar SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 025 F SynthDef new myRandFunc myRandFunc send s 10 do Synth new myRandFunc If you use the SynthDef in the old way as in the example you ll get the expected result ten Synth s all with the same frequency But if you add a rand Function call into the loop you can get ten different frequencies var myRandFunc arg frequency 440 Out ar SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 025 F SynthDef new myRandFunc myRandFunc send s 10 do Synth new myRandFunc frequency 440 rand 440 Notice how we supply arguments an Array with elements alternating between a string quoted parameter name and the value of the argument itself If we parameterized all three main fields of the SinOsc we could supply them like this Synth new mySinOsc freq 440 add mul 0 2 11 3 10 9 Things to Do with a SynthDef Set and Free Once you send a synth definition to
14. var tL List new var myFunc arg item item postln F tL 27 46 102 81 34 39 26 203 62 tL do myFunc mal This example does several things differently but maintains the same basic functionality as the previous example In this case the Function only uses the first argument that the interpreter provides and completely ignores the iteration counter The syntax here also puts the Collection outside the parentheses which perhaps makes it more clear that tL is not part of the function 10 do repeat postln nil This example simply prints the string repeat ten times If the Function accepted one argument it would receive the integers zero through nine If it accepted two arguments both of the arguments would be equal 11 3 7 4 Do This While While loops execute continuously while their test condition is evaluated to be true Upon reaching the loop the SuperCollider interpreter executes the test condition If it is fale the interpreter does not execute the loop and continues with the code after the loop If it is true the interpreter executes the code in the loop once then re executes the test condition If the test condition is true the loop is executed the test condition re executed and so on Until the test condition returns false the interpreter will never leave the loop Here is the format of a while loop in SuperCollider while boolean testFunction number
15. 1 Open Frescobaldi into a blank document 2 Use the LilyPond gt Setup New Score dialogue 3 Set the title and composer and any other field on the Titles and Headers tab 4 You need a two staves so you go to Parts then Keyboard then Piano 199 Chapter 12 LilyPond You need to label the intervals between the notes so you choose Special then Figured Bass we ll put it in the right spot later You go to the Score settings tab a since you ve already played through this example uncheck Create MIDI output and save processing time b your example is in F Major c You want only whole notes with no barlines choose a 4 4 time signature since we ll change this later Press Try to get a preview of the score setup the notes are demonstrative and will not be there If the setup looks like you want it then press OK to generate the template 12 5 3 Adjusting Frescobaldi s Output For this tutorial Frescobaldi s default output is good enough 12 5 4 Inputting 10 11 12 13 14 15 Look over the template It s not important to understand what any of this means but it s good if you can figure it out The piano s upper staff will contain the notes between the and following the right relative c portion The piano s lower left The figured bass will say what you put in figBass start with the piano s upper part Input fT g af d e f c a f g f explain
16. Check that it s right Preview by press the LilyPond button on the toolbar The exercise starts too high and it ends too low Change the starting pitch by right relative c Preview again of course it still ends too low these simple exercises usually start and end on the same pitch Put a right after the c so that it goes to the upper C Preview again and this time it s right Now enter the notes that you ve written for the piano s lower staff f1 e d c bes c bes f d bes e f Preview the output again and see that it starts too high but ends on the right pitch Fix the start too high by changing to left relative c Preview again and decide where to fix the other change NB end up with f1 e d c bes c bes f d bes ef Enter the interval number between the top and bottom between the and preceded by figBass Miguremode 200 Formatting the Score 16 You have to put each interval between lt gt brackets The note length of the figure s duration goes after the gt so end up with lt 1 gt 1 3 5 4 3 3 5 5 5 5 3 lt 1 gt 17 Now you realize that there are some signficant errors in your work The top staff is the cantus and cannot change You have to correct the lower staff 18 I ve ended up with a lower part that is f1 e d a bes c d e f d cf which gives figures that are lt 1 gt 1 3 5 6 3 3 3 6 3 3 5 1
17. Making use of the lt lt and gt gt idea to indicate simultaneity if a note has multiple pitches indicated between gt and lt then LilyPond assumes that they are in a chord together Notating a single chord with single lt gt brackets has two advantages firstly it is easier to see that they are a chord and not something more complex secondly it allows you to enter information more clearly Consider the following examples which should produce equivalent output lt lt g 4 gt 5 b d and g b d gt 4 gt 5 With the first example it is more difficult to see the chord notes the duration and what the 5 means With the second example it is easy to see that the chord notes are a 6 a B anda D that they have quarter note duration and that the 5 is actually a fingering indication There is another advantage to using and for notation of simple chords they preserve logical continuity in relative mode The following note will always be notated as relative to the lowest note in the chord regardless of how many octaves the chord covers This is not true with and where where following notes will be notated as relative to the last note between the and 12 4 6 Commands There are a wide variety of commands available in LilyPond some of them quite simple and other quite complex They all begin with a backslash followed by the name of the command and subsequent arguments that give the command further in
18. bodyFunction number or like this testFunction while bodyFunction number The test condition called testFunc is a function which returns a boolean value either true or false The loop s body called bodyFunc is a function which can do anything The loop body function is not provided any arguments by the interpreter You will have to use comparison operators and boolean expressions when writing the Function for the test condition For information on how these work in SuperCollider see Section 11 3 8 1 Boolean Operators and Section 11 3 8 2 Boolean Expressions The following three code blocks are equivalent 141 Chapter 11 SuperCollider 10 do repeat postln and var counter 0 while counter lt 10 repeat postln counter counter 1 and var counter 0 counter lt 10 while repeat postln counter counter 1 You can see how it s easier to write this particular activity as a do loop It s often the case that a do loop better reflects what you want to do but not always Contemplate a situation where you are waiting for the user to input some information which you re going to use to calculate the rest of the composition The following example isn t real code It s intended to simplify a complex situation so you can see where a while loop makes more sense than a do loop play some background music while is the user still inputting info
19. 3 Locate the audio file that you want to import in this case imported a recording of the second movement of Beethoven s Op 57 piano sonata Appassionata 4 Ifthe clip doesn t start at the beginning of the track then click and drag it to the beginning 8 4 5 Marking the First Formal Area In addition to the transport Otractor has two blue place markers which sometimes merge into one The best way to learn the behaviour of the blue place markers is by using them They are intended to mark a range in the work area main screen 1 We re keeping the standard tempo of 120 beats per minute and the metre is 4 4 2 Start from the beginning and listen until the end of the first formal section which I ve decided is about the fourth beat of measure 12 use the ruler to see 3 Mark that point with the blue arrow 4 Mark the beginning of the formal area by left clicking at the beginning of the session If the transport is at the beginning then it will hide a blue marker placed at the beginning 5 Create a new clip by clicking on Edit gt Clip gt New 6 The clip editor will appear 8 4 6 Creating our Theme want something simple to match the simple sounding chorale at the beginning that is the theme of this movement What could be simpler than a moment of sound followed by some moments of silence 1 In the MIDI matrix editor window click on the Edit mode tool which looks like a pencil with no other markings
20. A or SACD capable player you would need to replace all of your audio equipment with models that support proprietary copy protection software Without this equipment the player is often forbidden from outputting audio with a higher sample rate or sample format than a conventional audio CD None of these factors unfortunately seem like they will change in the near future 12 Chapter 2 Software for Sound Cards One of the techniques consistently used in computer science is abstraction Abstraction is the process of creating a generic model for something or some things that are actually unique The driver for a hardware device in a computer is one form of dealing with abstraction the computer s software interacts with all sound cards in a similar way and it is the driver which translates the universal instructions given by the software into specific instructions for operating that hardware device Consider this real world comparison you know how to operate doors because of abstracted instructions You don t know how to open and close every door that exists but from the ones that you do know how to operate your brain automatically creates abstracted instructions like turn the handle and push the door which apply with all or most doors When you see a new door you have certain expectations about how it works based on the abstract behaviour of doors and you quickly figure out how to operate that specific door with a simple vi
21. Harmonic intervals allows you to de select specific intervals between m2 and M10 Melodic intervals and Sing intervals allow you to de select specific intervals between m2 and M10 and whether to test them up down or both Compare intervals allows you to select specific intervals between minor second and major tenth Also allows you to switch between harmonic or melodic intervals independently for the first and second interval Id tone allows you to choose a weighting for each pitch to conentrate on specific ones Also allows you to adjust octave displacement to higher or lower octaves For all of the rhythm exercises binary time means simple metre and ternary time means compound metre All sections allow you to choose which single beat rhythms to use when creating the question 14 4 4 Rhythm This is dictation or play back The rhythms described in this section use the takadimi rhythm system which is explained in The Takadimi Article available at http www takadimi net takadimiArticle html Use the rhythm system you prefer 227 Chapter 14 GNU Solfege For Rhythmic Dictation 1 2 Click Rhythm Choose which subcategory Rhythms easy is quarter 2x eighths 4x sixteenths Rhythms is those plus ka di mi ta ka mi ta ka di ta mi and ta ka Rhythms difficult is those plus rests and triplets e Rhythms in 3 4 is compound metre everything Click New to get a new question
22. In audio production Chapter 1 Sound Cards and Digital Audio communities this is called level The eve of an audio signal is one way of measuring the signal s perceived loudness The level is part of the information stored in an audio file There are many different ways to monitor and adjust the level of an audio signal and there is no widely agreed practice One reason for this situation is the technical limitations of recorded audio Most level meters are designed so that the average level is 6 dB on the meter and the maximum level is O dB This practice was developed for analog audio We recommend using an external meter and the K system described in a link below The K system for level metering was developed for digital audio In the Musicians Guide this term is called volume level to avoid confusion with other levels or with perceived volume or loudness Level Practices available at http www digido com level practices part 2 includes the k system html The type of meter described here is available in the jkmeter package from Planet CCRMA at Home K system Wikipedia available at http en wikipedia org wiki K system Headroom Wikipedai available at http en wikipedia org wiki Headroom__ 9628audio signal processing9629 Equal Loudness Contour Wikipedia available at http en wikipedia org wiki Equal loudness contour Sound Level Meter Wikipedia available at http en wikipedia org wiki Sou
23. Java is a registered trademark of Oracle and or its affiliates XFSO is a trademark of Silicon Graphics International Corp or its subsidiaries in the United States and or other countries MySQLO is a registered trademark of MySQL AB in the United States the European Union and other countries All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners This document explores some audio creation and music activities possible with Fedora Linux Computer audio concepts are explained and a selection of programs are demonstrated with tutorials showing typical usage Preface xi Ti Document Conventions i2 cies feed ede Led ec tb ed det ve Hte e de A fede naa xi 1 1 Typographic Conventions cisien in ianari ainaani naia aiaa aiaia aaea aa xi 1 2 Pull quote ConventiOns eenaa cea Pune t lae ene e et xii 1 3 Notes and Warnings naranai eaaa aiani ee aa tesa hene nnne nentes es inneren nnne xiii 2 We Need Feedback ssssssssssssssessssssseenn nennen seh enne sese rne nn hene irse nennen enini xiii I Linux Audio Basics 1 1 Sound Cards and Digital Audio 3 1L Types of Sound Cards roe Cer ee re le eo deer eee een ee 3 1 1 1 Audio Interfaces o ee Pe dL fe e eo d Li ed ng 3 1 12 MIDI Interfaces e e e er ERE ARE EE HERR EE devas tice 3 122 Sound Card Conrnectlons 5 e ei rere a e e Pe tea 3 1 2 1 Integrated into the Motherboard ssssssssm m 4 1 222 Internal PCI Connection 2
24. The buttons to record and move quickly through a file are also located here 2 The tool selection box changes the cursor s function 3 The two volume level meters display the volume level of stereo audio The left meter displays the volume level of the output signal The right meter displays the volume level of the input signal 4 The ruler displays the time since the start of the file in minutes and seconds 5 Each track contains two channels of audio signal data Audacity stacks tracks vertically in the main window Audacity plays back all tracks simultaneously Figure 5 1 The Audacity interface 31 Chapter 5 Audacity ee 2 xl lu T i wai f TE m T NT M m mpm TY mw ML 1 Eachtrack has a track info area which holds settings like the fader panner and mute and solo buttons 2 The timeline is the main area of the main window of Audacity The leftmost point is the beginning of the audio file Figure 5 2 A track in Audacity Refer to the image above as you read about the user interface of Audacity The transport controls play stop or pause playback of audio The buttons to record and move quickly through a file are also located here The tool selection box changes the cursor s function The two volume level meters display the volume level of stereo audio The left meter displays the volume level of the output signal The right meter displays the volume level of the input sign
25. Torename a bus use the mouse to left click inside the box with the bus name c The box will turn into a text editing box Erase the contents and write the new name 63 Chapter 7 Ardour d When you have entered the new name press Enter on the keyboard to set it in Ardour e The box will no longer be a text editing box f Bus marimba1 Bus marimba2 Bus voice Bus strings Bus clarinet Create ten new tracks a From the menu select Track gt Add Track Bus b Adjust the options to add 10 normal mode mono tracks c Click Add d Ten tracks should appear in the canvas area named Audio 1 through Audio 10 underneath the busses Change the tracks names in the same way as you changed the busses names Remembering that each track here will hold only the left or right audio channel each one should be pre or post fixed with a 0 or L for the left channel or a 1 or R for the right channel They should be called something like e marimba1 L marimba1 R marimba2 L marimba2 R voice L voice R strings L strings R e clarinet L e clarinet R Finally we ll re arrange the order of the tracks and busses This isn t strictly necessary and you can user whichever order you think makes the most sense You might choose for example to put the marimba at the bottom since it will be playing through most of the song a Find the session sidebar to the right of the canvas ar
26. and whether it is set for recording or only playback The transport can move the playhead forward or backward in slow motion fast motion or real time In most computer based DAWs the playhead can also be moved with the cursor The playhead is represented on the DAW interface as a vertical line through all tracks The transport s buttons and displays are usually located in a toolbar at the top of the DAW window but some people prefer to have the transport controls detached from the main interface and this is how they appear by default in Rosegarden Automation of the DAW sounds like it might be an advanced topic or something used to replace decisions made by a human This is absolutely not the case automation allows the user to automatically make the same adjustments every time a session is played This is superior to manual only control because it allows very precise gradual and consistent adjustments because it relieves you of having to remember the adjustments and because it allows many more adjustments to be made simultaneously than you could make manually The reality is that automation allows super human control of a session Most settings can be adjusted by means of automation the most common are the fader and the panner The most common method of automating a setting is with a two dimensional graph called an envelope which is drawn on top of an audio track or underneath it in an automation track The user adds adjustment points
27. guessing what we need after all There are two methods in the Synth Class that we can use to inform the server about our desired order of execution before and after They represent a small extension to the new method and they work like this Synth before variableHoldingSynth nameOfSynthDef ListOfArguments and Synth after variableHoldingSynth nameOfSynthDef ListOfArguments And it works just as it looks too the server creates a new synth adds it before or after the synth represented by variableHoldingSynth depending on which Function you use and uses nameOfSynthDef and ListOfArguments just as in the add method This example from Section 11 3 11 4 Using Busses Control Rate Example uses the after Function to ensure that the control rate synth is calculated before the audio rate synths that depend on it execute first prepare the server var busAudioSynth t arg bus fregOffset 0 Out ar SinOsc ar freq In kr bus freqOffset mul 0 1 F var busControlSynth arg bus freq 400 Out kr bus SinOsc kr freq 1 mul freq 40 add freq F SynthDef tutorialAudioBus busAudioSynth send s SynthDef tutorialControlBus busControlSynth send s b Bus control s 167 Chapter 11 SuperCollider execute second create synths Synth new tutorialControlBus bus b control synth Synth after x tutorialAudioBus bus b
28. instrumentName something field 2 We ll be changing those to the following Italian names Flute Flauto Oboe gt Oboe Oboe II gt II Oboe Bassoon gt 2 Fagotti Horn in F gt 2 Corni in Sol NB these would have been natural horns Trumpet in C gt 2 Clarini in Do NB a clarino is a kind of trumpet Violin gt Violino Violin II gt Violino II Cello gt Violoncello obligato Contrabass gt Basso 3 Now we have to change the horns transposition to match the name This is because Frescobaldi added a Horn in F part which is the most common horn transposition However Haydn s score uses horns in G or Sol in Italian 4 Scroll up to the hornF section under the NOTES marker Change the line transposition fto Ntransposition g 5 As it turns out transposition can be a little more complicated than that We ll deal with that when we get there 204 Inputting 12 6 4 Inputting This tutorial offers step by step instructions representing one way to input the score Only the part before Allegretto will be inputted The full first movement is included in the PDF file so you can input it yourself 12 6 4 1 Starting with the Easy Part The best way to get started on large scores is to just start with something easy Nothing can be easier than doing nothing so let s first input the multi measure rests in the wind sections and timpani 1 Count the number of measure
29. it s never used This is the same thing that happened to the first nine stereo arrays they were created but you never said to do anything with them so they were just thrown out We need to execute the function Because it doesn t produce a UGen we can t use play so we have to use value instead You can choose to do either of these value or var myFunction myFunction value 13 This gives us yet another error as if we can t play the stereo arrays In fact we can t and we didn t do it in the first part either We play ed the result of returning a stereo array from a function The subtle difference isn t important yet we re just trying to make this work Use and to build a function for play to play 14 Now make the correction nine more times 15 When you play execute the resulting code you probably get something that sounds quite space age Execute it a few times to see the kind of results you get 11 4 6 Scheduling the Tones 1 The next step is to get these started consecutively with 5 second pauses after each addition For this we will use a TempoClock and since this is the only thing that we re doing we ll just use the default one called TempoClock default don t feel like typing that however so we re going 178 Scheduling the Tones to define an alias variable var t c TempoClock default You could put that in the main function but suggest putting it before the main
30. likewise has no understanding at all of the SuperCollider language The interpreter takes the code that we write and does one of a number of things depending on the nature of the code executes it completely executes it partially makes choices and then does something else send the server information about how to synthesize sound etc For simple code like 2 postin the interpreter just executes it For code like SincOsc ar play the interpreter expands it a bit then sends instructions to the server which deals with the rest of the synthesis process A SynthDef is part of this last process SynthDef Objects represent the synthesis information that is sent to the server before or at the same time as telling the server to play the sound There are two steps to creating a useful SynthDef making an interpreter Object and sending the actual synthesis information to the server There are two ways to write this as follows someVariable SynthDef new nameOfSynthDef FunctionContainingOutUGen someVariable send nameOfServer and SynthDef new nameOfSynthDef FunctionContainingOutUGen send nameOfServer The FunctionContainingOutUGen is simply that a function that when executed returns an Out UGen meaning that the Out UGen must be the last expression in the function The nameOfSynthDef should be a symbol as described in Section 11 3 10 4 Symbols but can also be a string The nameOfServer is a va
31. low audio synth Synth after x tutorialAudioBus bus b MfreqOffset 200 high audio synth lt Hou og commands to free each Object x free x nil control synth y free y nil low audio synth z free z nil high audio synth b free b nil control bus In this case the control rate synth is created before the audio rate synths probably the easier way to think about it Even so it s possible to add them in the opposite order with a little extra thought The other example from Section 11 3 11 Busses use the before Function to ensure that the pink noise and sine wave UGen s were calculated before the reverberation UGen Especially since these are all audio rate UGen s the server would not reasonably know which to calculate first so you need to let it know 11 3 12 2 Changing the Order SuperCollider offers equally easy to use methods to change the order of execution To move a synth s execution after another variableHoldingSynthmoveAfter variableHoldingAnotherSynth To move a synth s execution before another variableHoldingSynthmoveBefore variableHoldingAnotherSynth 11 3 12 3 Replace a Running Synth The server allows you to replace a running synth with a newly created one maintaining all of the ordering relationships This is the syntax variableHoldingNewSynth Synth replace variableHoldingSynthToReplace nameOfSynthDef ListOfArguments The variableHoldingN
32. nil If you accidentally send free to an already freed Synth the interpreter will cause an error and program execution will stop If you accidentally send free to a variable set to nil nothing will happen Proactively avoiding mistakes like this is good programming practice 11 3 11 Busses SuperCollider busses work just like busses in other audio creation contexts which work similarly to busses used to transport humans Busses are used to send audio from one place to another and in SuperCollider they can also be used to send control rate signals Each SuperCollider bus is given an index number which are integers starting at 0 Audio rate busses and control rate busses are independent and are given an independent set of index numbers Any number of unique signals can be routed into a bus and any number of receivers can take signals from a bus but the signal will be the sum of all the input signals In other words if you want to send two different sets of signals you need two different busses with different index numbers 11 3 11 1 Audio Rate Bus Numbers There are special audio rate busses reserved automatically by the server These interact with the audio interface allowing you to get sound from its inputs and send sound to its outputs The lowest audio rate bus numbers are reserved for audio interface outputs each channel receiving an independent bus The bus numbers just above those are reserved for audio interface inputs
33. of precedence rules SuperCollider evaluates from left to right so it s important to clarify to the interpreter what you mean Where would you put parentheses so that SuperCollider evaluates the expression as per the standard mathematical order of precedence rules with multiplication before addition and subtraction 11 3 8 3 If This Is True Then The if structure is provided a boolean expression and two Functions If the expression evaluates to true it executes one Function If the expression evaluates to false it executes the other Function Here are the two ways to write an if structure if booleanExpression trueFunction falseFunction and booleanExpression if trueFunction falseFunction It S possible to exclude the falseFunction which is like telling the interpreter If the boolean expression is true then execute this Function Otherwise don t execute it var test true false choose pseudo randomly chooses one of the elements in the List if true test It s true postln It s false postln na This example prints out a nice message saying whether test is true or false Because test is already a boolean value we don t need to include it in an expression The if statement could have been shortened like this if test It s true postln It s false postln Suppose we only wanted to be alerted if test is true 146 Conditional Execution v
34. the bassoon happened to be in the right register for us by default c The next measure is g8 cis cis4 r Remember to indicate cis twice Put it in and check that it s correct d Itis but we re still missing some formatting Use the Quick Insert toolbar thing to add staccato markings to the first measure You can add a staccato to the eighth rest but this doesn t make sense so you shouldn t e Slurs begin at and end at Add a slur from the g to c sharp f Preview the score to make sure that you entered these articulations correctly Your code should be r8 d g bes d bes g8 cis cis4 r Now to add the forte marking You can add text or any object for that matter onto a note or rest etc with one of these three symbols meaning put this above the object meaning put this above or below as you think is best e meaning put this below the object As you saw earlier Frescobaldi attached our staccato markings with the as you think best symbol which is almost always the right choice for articulations By convention dynamic markings always go below the staff to which they apply so we won t want to give LilyPond so much freedom this time The easiest way to add unformatted text to a note is to simply attach it in quotation marks For the forte marking put this on the eighth rest r8 f and so on When you preview this you ll notice that the result is thoroughly underwhelming It l
35. whatever channels you want to be mixed into them If you are using it as a recording bus then these should be connected to the same input device two channels for the master bus called master in 1 which represents the input used for the master bus These should be connected to all of the tracks If you are using sub bus mixing then all of the tracks should connect to the master bus input either directly or through a sub bus In most setups Ardour automatically sets the channel connections correctly There are ways to change the connections from within Ardour but they offer limited flexibility For this reason it is recommended that users use QjackCtl to monitor connections since through QjackCtl it is also possible to monitor and change many other features of JACK Learning to make the right connections is a valuable trick for people using Ardour The fact that Ardour uses JACK for both its internal and external connections allows tricks such as the earlier mentioned recording bus which adjusts the input level of a source flipping the left and right audio channels and creating a multi channel audio output by combining many input channels Undoubtedly other tricks exist 7 2 10 Importing Existing Audio When you record audio Ardour automatically save it to disk and adds a representation of that file in the program as a region You can also use pre existing audio files as regions which can then be added to any track To impo
36. you will be able to choose from a list of all the tracks and busses in a session Choosing specific tracks only makes sense if you do not want to export the master bus output so you should probably de select that first 7 6 2 2 Choose the Export Format Ardour offers quite a variety of output formats and knowing which to choose can be baffling Not all options are available with all file types Fedora Linux does not support MP3 files by default for legal reasons For more information refer to MP3 Fedora Project Wiki http fedoraproject org wiki Multimedia MP3 The tutorial s regions have 24 bit samples recorded at a 48 kHz rate Exporting any part of the session with a higher sample format or sample rate is likely to result in decreased audio quality Recommended File Types WAV An uncompressed format designed by Microsoft Recommended only if further audio manipulation is intended Carries only audio data so information like title artist and composer will be lost Playable with almost any device 83 Chapter 7 Ardour AIFF An uncompressed format designed by Apple Recommended only if further audio manipulation is intended Carries only audio data so information like title artist and composer will be lost Playable with almost any DAW and some audio players FLAC An open source compressed format A lossless format meaning no audio information is lost during compression and decompression Audio quality is
37. 0 play Since arrays are indexed from O to 9 those are the index numbers of the first ten objects in the array Remember that you need to put all of your variable declarations before anything else It should still work Let s use a loop to get rid of the ten identical lines In SuperCollider x do f will send the value message to the function f x times So to do this ten times we should write 10 do sinosc sinosc add func value and getrid of the other ones This is very powerful for simple things that must be done multiple times because you are definitely not going to make a copy and paste error because it s easy to see what is being executed and because it s easy to see how many times it is being executed Now let s reduce the repetitiveness of the scheduling First replace so1 so2 etc with a ten element array Test it to ensure that the code still works Getting the next two loops working is a little bit more complicated We know how to run the exact same code in a loop but we don t know how to change it subtly by supplying different index numbers for the array for example Thankfully SuperCollider provides a way to keep track of how many times the function in a loop has already been run The first argument given to a function in a loop is the number of times that the function has already been executed The first time it is run the function receives a 0 if we re using a10 do something loop then
38. 4 We ll decide which of these regions to use later Strings 3 is also the same material so rename it to Strings 1C Strings 4 starts with the place where Strings 1A went wrong and goes on from there Let s keep it as it is for now 7 4 5 5 Voice Regions These regions contain some overlap but it is relative simple to sort out Voice 1 contains two chunks of audio The first one is good but the singer had a problem making the second one clear so we re not going to use it Voice 2 contains the second chunk of audio that was recorded poorly in Voice 1 She also has a bit of a problem in Voice 2 Let s fix this up now 1 Trim the Voice 1 regions to remove the second chunk of audio and the near silence that precedes it 2 One way to deal with the Voice 2 region is simply to cut off the first part of the region which contains the words I have your flax and some near silence 3 The second time the singer sings I have your flax it sounds a bit rushed so I m going to combine the first I have your flax with the following golden tails to a Use the Select Move Ranges tool to select the first time the singer says I have your flax being careful to capture all of the word flax but none of the near silence that follows b Use the loop function of the transport to ensure you ve got the right range selected i Select a range then right click on the range and select loop range ii If you want to m
39. 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 number_of_SinOscs do arg index t_c sched 5 index 1 so so add func value play number_of_SinOscs do arg index t_c sched 51 so index free The do loop doesn t need a constant number it s fine with a variable What happens when you pass a bad argument like a string This would be an easy way to sabotage your program and in almost any other programming context it would concern us but this is just audio programming If somebody is going to try to create cheese SinOsc s it s their own fault for mis using the Function Now let s modify the Function so that we can adjust the range of frequencies that the Function will generate We know that we ll need two more arguments and that they ll have to be used in the equation to calculate the frequency But we ll also need to do a bit of arithmetic because of the way the rand Function works actually we don t see the rand Function s help file Also to preserve functionality we ll make default assignments of 200 and 800 Try to accomplish this yourself making sure that you test the Function so you know it works Here s what I did var t_c TempoClock default var secondPart arg number_of_SinOscs 10 pitch_low 200 pitch_high 800 var so Array new number_of_SinOscs var func var freq pitch_low pitch_high pi
40. 600 rand var frequency4 200 600 rand var frequency5 200 600 rand 177 Chapter 11 SuperCollider var frequency6 200 600 rand var frequency7 200 600 rand var frequency8 200 600 rand var frequency9 200 600 rand var frequencyO 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency1 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency1 mul 0 01 play SinOsc ar freq frequency2 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency2 mul 0 01 play SinOsc ar freq frequency3 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency3 mul 0 01 play SinOsc ar freq frequency4 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency4 mul 0 01 play SinOsc ar freq frequency5 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency5 mul 0 01 play SinOsc ar freq frequency6 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency6 mul 0 01 play SinOsc ar freq frequency7 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency7 mul 0 01 play SinOsc ar freq frequency8 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequencys mul 0 01 play SinOsc ar freq frequency9 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequencyg mul 0 01 play SinOsc ar freq frequencyO mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freg frequencyo mul 0 01 play 12 When you execute this no sound is produced but SuperCollider outputs a Function Can you think of why this happens It s because you wrote a function but never told SuperCollider to evaluate it At the end of execution SuperCollider just throws away the function because
41. 7 3 The Ardour session sidebar Figure 7 3 The Ardour session sidebar shows the session sidebar located at the right the main Ardour window In this image the Regions tab is selected so the sidebar shows a list of regions currently in the session You can see blue ones which were directly imported white ones which were created from blue regions and the arrows to the left of some blue regions indicating that there are white coloured sub regions associated with those blue regions 54 Setting up the Timeline 4 6 Y NoGrid Bars Mouse 1 Tool selection buttons 2 The select edit object button 3 The select edit range button 4 The snap mode 5 The grid mode 6 The edit point Figure 7 4 The main Ardour toolbar Figure 7 4 The main Ardour toolbar shows the main toolbar located underneath the transport controls and above the timeline and its rulers In the middle of the toolbar are three unlabeled but highly useful multiple choice menus the snap mode menu currently set to No Grid the grid mode menu currently set to Bars and then edit point menu currently set to Mouse To the left of these menus are the tool selection buttons the most important of which are the two left most buttons select edit object and select edit range 7 2 3 Setting up the Timeline At the top of the main Ardour window to the right of the transport s toolbar are two relatively large clocks Right click the clocks to choose wha
42. Are Durations When entering pitches relative to the previous one the register is still indicated with commas or apostrophes but usually none are needed When using this input mode the octave of each note is guessed based on the octave of the previous note Think of it this way the next note will always be placed so it produces the smaller interval For example after a C an E could be placed as a major third a minor sixth a major tenth a minor thirteenth and so on In relative mode LilyPond will always choose the major third option If you wanted LilyPond to notate the E so that it s a minor sixth you would tell LilyPond with a comma appended c e so that LilyPond knows what you want It s the same case if you were to input c aes meaning C then A flat the A flat will be notated so that itis a major third from the C if you wanted LilyPond to notate it so that the A flat is a minor sixth higher than the C you would need to append an apostrophe c aes The only possible ambiguity with this method is with a tritone LilyPond solves this by not recognizing tritones per se and thinking of them as augmented fourth or diminished fifth Unless instructed otherwise with a comma or apostrophe LilyPond will always notate the interval as an augmented fourth You must always indicate a sharp or flat even if it is already in a key signature This ultimately helps to reduce the number of errors Letters used to indicate pitch are
43. Combining Audio the Mix Class This example will always result in one being printed 11 3 9 Combining Audio the Mix Class One of the requirements of multi channel audio is the ability to combine a large number of UGen s into a small number of channels normally just two The SuperCollider interpreter allows you to accomplish this in a number of ways which are explained here 11 3 9 1 The Mix Class The Mix Class allows you to combine a mutli channel Array into one channel It s just that simple you put in an Array of UGens and out comes a single channel combination of them Here are the two possible syntaxes for the Mix Class Mix new ArrayOfUGens and Mix ArrayOfUGens The second form is simply a short hand version of the first The Mix Class doesn t really create Mix Objects either it s just a Function that combines many UGen s into one Here s an example of the Mix Class in action Mix SinOsc ar 220 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 440 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 660 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 880 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 850 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 870 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 880 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 885 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 890 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 1000 0 0 1 3 play Notice how all of these SinOscs are heard through the left channel only The Mix class mixes all the UGen s together into one You could use a bus to send the audio to both the left and right channels What happens if we don t use the Mix class Try to remo
44. Drag the segment so that the beginning is near the end of the other segment Drag the track back and forth slowly so a yellow line appears The yellow line means that there is no silence between the segments and that the segments do not overlap 4 You can move a segment to start at the selection cursor Click the Selection Tool button then click on the track where you want the segment to start to play Choose Tracks Align Tracks gt Align with Cursor to move the track 9 You can move tracks in other ways by using the Tools Align Tracks menu choices 6 You can select multiple tracks at the same time Press Shift while you click on each track 7 You should listen to each adjustment to confirm that it is correct Click Selection Tool in the tool selection toolbar then click on a track where you want to begin to listen Press Play to hear the audio We aligned the tracks so that they sound nice to us We tried to make the sound short and interesting but not confusing We changed the positions of the tracks many times after this step 5 6 4 Stretching Tracks You can stretch or compress tracks so that they take up more or less time The Change Tempo tool adjusts speed but not pitch Sound quality is lowered significantly The Change Speed tool adjusts speed and pitch Sound quality is less affected 1 Click on the track info portion of the track that you want to adjust 2 Choose Effect gt Change Tempo or Effect
45. ER ERE EAR 12 7 5 Troubleshooting Errors sange e eee i pee eee teta ee dod 12 7 6 Formatting the Score Piano Dynamics ssssesemm 13 Frescobaldi 13 1 Frescobaldi Makes LilyPond Easier ssssssse mme 13 2 Requirements and Installation 00 cece cece cece cece eee mmm 1323 Gotnflgurati ni cedere eoe e ER e Re dul ann eases cian heed a ete le 13 4 Usirig Frescobaldr dise e eR oec E be Bee EH ER SU REIR 14 GNU Solfege 14 1 Requirements and Installation ssesse Hem 14 1 1 Hardware and Software Requirements ssssssseeeene 14 1 2 Other Requirements sssssssssssse eene menn nennen 14 1 3 Required Installation ssssssse mmn 14 1 4 Optional Installation Csound sss 14 1 5 Optional Installation MMA sssseem Hem 14 2 ConfIglratiOn zz eoone tasa Laie otto oet ERES He a UE E HER Ud HE e RR e 14 2 1 When You Run Solfege for the First Time sssssssee 14 2 2 Instr mieHits c iter en ot e re Ei cide Lent e eO seve ban exe op roce e eb rds 14 2 3 External Programs iot eite c te tige c p de Le eed 14 2 4 Interface eon ner E in eet Lote e ene t ei dives dele tide cut 14 2 5 PIactlSe EE E p hetero Dep de pb ee ies tis 14 2 6 Sound Setup oii terrere ER ERR ERREUR E Aa i anea RYE LR aN 14 3 Training Yourself ott tt rtt leto te d ete edi es E t RE viii
46. Notes and Warnings public class ExClient public static void main String args throws Exception it InitialContext iniCtx new InitialContext Object ref inictx lookup EchoBean EchoHome home EchoHome ref Echo echo home create System out println Created Echo System out println Echo echo Hello echo echo Hello 1 3 Notes and Warnings Finally we use three visual styles to draw attention to information that might otherwise be overlooked Notes are tips shortcuts or alternative approaches to the task at hand Ignoring a note should have no negative consequences but you might miss out on a trick that makes your life easier Important boxes detail things that are easily missed configuration changes that only apply to the current session or services that need restarting before an update will apply Ignoring a box labeled Important will not cause data loss but may cause irritation and frustration RLY warning Warnings should not be ignored Ignoring warnings will most likely cause data loss 2 We Need Feedback If you find a typographical error in this manual or if you have thought of a way to make this manual better we would love to hear from you Please submit a report in Bugzilla htto bugzilla redhat com bugzilla against the product Fedora Documentation When submitting a bug report be sure to mention the manual s identifier musicians guide
47. Something That Is already Recorded A technique often used for studio recordings is to separately record parts that would normally be played together and which will later be made to sound together see the Prepearing a Session section below For example consider a recording where one trumpeter wants to record both parts of a solo written for two trumpets The orchestra could be brought into the studio and would play the entire solo piece without any trumpet solo Ardour will record this on one track Then the trumpet soloist goes to the studio and uses Ardour to simultaneously listen to the previously recorded orchestra track while playing one of the solo trumpet parts which is recorded onto another track The next day the trumpeter returns to the studio and uses Ardour to listen to the previously recorded orchestra track and previously recorded solo trumpet part while playing the other solo trumpet part which is recorded onto a third track The recording engineer uses Audacity s mixing and editing features to make it sound as though the trumpeter played both solo parts at the same time while the orchestra was there Coordinating the timing of musicians across tracks recorded separately is difficult A click track is a track with a consistent clicking noise at the desired tempo Click tracks are played through 59 Chapter 7 Ardour headphones to the musicians being recorded or to a musician who leads the others Click tracks
48. User external MIDI player This mode lets you choose a MIDI synthesizer The button Test allows you to ensure that you ve correctly configured Solfege 14 3 Training Yourself There are three kinds of exercises available in Solfege Listen and identify exercises will play some sort of musical structure and ask you to identify classify or label it according to widely used conventions Identify exercises will show you some sort of musical structure usually in Western classical notation and ask you to identify classify or label it according to widely used conventions 221 Chapter 14 GNU Solfege e Sing exercises will provide a specific musical structure sometimes partially completed and ask you to sing the completion of the structure Unlike many commercially available aural skills computer applications Solfege often relies on the user to know whether they performed the task correctly and how correctly This is especially true of the Sing type exercises since Solfege lacks the capability to receive sung input from the user This requires at least two things to be kept in mind firstly that it is to your own benefit to honestly tell Solfege when you correctly and incorrectly provide a solution since this helps Solfege to focus on your weaknesses and to more accurately track your progress secondly there are many degrees of correctness when it comes to music and harmonic and melodic dictation are partic
49. Users new to programming might find the various kinds of Lists to be more helpful 11 3 6 1 1 Building an Array An Array is a Collection with a finite maximum size determined at declaration time It is the programmer s responsibility to maintain a meaningful order and to remember the meaning of the data Data in an Array is called elements each of which is assigned a specific index number Index numbers begin at 0 Any mix of Objects can be stored in an Array including an Array This example declares an Array adds some elements then prints them out 132 Collections var tA Array new 2 tA stands for testArray tA tA add 5 tA tA add 3 tA tA add 17 tA postin nil Notice that Array is a Class and it must be instantiated before use Here the variable tA is assigned an Array with enough space for two objects Notice that the elements are printed out in the order that you add them to the Array They are not sorted or shuffled unless you send a message like scramble But why did I write tA tA add 17 instead of tA add 17 Shouldn t the second method be sufficient for adding an Object to an Array thereby making the re assignment unnecessary It does but let s see what happens when we take it away var tA Array new 2 tA stands for testArray tA add 5 tA add 3 tA add 17 tA postin nil The 17 is missing it doesn t get added into the Array This i
50. additional channel produces another set of stereo outputs Increasing the polyphony setting will allow a higher number of simultaneous notes MIDI events really which will be useful in exteremely complex situations 10 4 4 MIDI Input Configuration FluidSynth will only produce sound as instructed by a connected software or hardware based MIDI device If you are having problems configuring FluidSynth to accept MIDI input verify the following options 1 Open Qsynth s Setup window 2 The Enable MIDI Input setting must be enabled 3 There are two settings for MIDI Driver that you would likely want When set to alsa seq the input will appear on QjackCtl s ALSA tab in the Connect window This is useful if the MIDI generator device that you are using such as a MIDI enabled keyboard is connected directly to ALSA When set to jack the input will appear on QjackCtl s MIDI tab in the Connect window This is useful if the MIDI generator device that you are using such as Rosegarden is connected directly to JACK 109 Chapter 10 FluidSynth 4 You can set the number of MIDI input channels provided by FluidSynth Refer to Section 10 5 1 Changing the Number of MIDI Input Channels below 10 4 5 Viewing all FluidSynth Settings 1 Open the Setup window 2 Select the Settings tab 3 Scroll through the list to the setting you wish to see 4 The settings in this tab are not editable in this
51. adjust it too far and remove notes then simply drag the segment back out the notes should still be there Return to the matrix editor by double clicking on the MIDI segment Select all of the notes that you have inputted so far Press Control a Click and drag to select or e Click on Edit gt Select gt Select All Randomize the pitches a Click on Tools gt Randomize b Ensure that Randomize is checked c Ensure that Note is checked this means pitch d Choose a percentage e Click OK to apply f You may need to experiment with the percent of randomization that you allow Greater randomization means a lower chance of repetition but it also means that the pitches will be spread within a smaller range g If you want to re try the randomization click on Edit gt Undo Randomization then use the Randomize tool again 93 Chapter 8 Qtractor h If you like what happens to most of the pitches you can select and move a few of them either individually or together To adjust pitches as a group select the ones that you want to move either by click and drag select or by Control click select and Control drag them to the desired new location 11 Now you need to adjust the volume of the pitches There are two ways to do this You can select all of the pitches then use the Resize MIDI tool adjusting the Value property You can select all of the pitches then use the value editor p
52. an error The only aspect of that example that s a little tricky to understand is the do loop Remember that when you run a do loop on a List the interpreter automatically loops over each of the elements in the List running the Function that you provide Each time the Function is run it receives the current List item and its index number in the List in that order So the Function in this loop simply uses set to change the frequency argument Take special note that the arguments in this case are not identical to those given with the new message Compare the two forms below SynthDef new SynthName parameteri value Nparameter2 value and existingSynth set Mparameteri value parmeter2 value To get rid of one synth without stopping all sound send its corresponding Synth the free message variableHoldingSynth free This stops the synth and frees the associated memory on the server Your Synth Object still exists in the interpreter but you can t use it any more A Synth Object represents a synth on the server since you got rid of the synth on the server the Synth Object represents something that doesn t exist If you 160 Busses attempt to send the free message again you ll get an error For this reason it s a good idea to get rid of the Synth Object at the same time lt replaceable gt variableHoldingSynth lt replaceable gt free lt replaceable gt variableHoldingSynth lt replaceable gt
53. and some invalid symbols stopSign this is a symbol stop sign this is a symbol called stop followed by the unrelated word sign stopSign NN this is a symbol stop sign this is a symbol stop sign these lines are not a symbol and will cause an error The following example illustrates the differences between strings and symbols var a stop sign a string var b stop sign a string with the same letters as the first string a b returns true because the strings are equivalent a b returns false because the strings are separate copies with the same characters var c stop sign a symbol var d stop sign the same symbol c d NN returns true because the symbols are equivalent c d NN returns true because the symbols are identical 11 3 10 5 SynthDef Becomes Synth After you send a SynthDef to the server you can put it into action When the interpreter tells the server to play a synthesis definition which the interpreter holds in a SynthDef Object the server creates a synth from the definition and starts generating sound The interpreter gives us a Synth Object to represent each synth on the server so that we can control the synth This is the syntax used to create a new synth after its definition has been sent to the server Synth new nameOfSynthDef The name will be a symbol or a string whatever you supplied when you ran the SynthDef new function
54. at http en wikipedia org wiki Tonic sol fa 224 Using the Exercises Hoffman s The Rhythm Book was developed specifically for the takadimi rhythm system Like Hall s text The Rhythm Book progresses fro easy to difficult exercises and offers helpful instructions for performance Karpinski s two texts are the result of two decades of research about how musicians acquire aural skills The Manual contains instructions exercises and tips on training yourself to hear musical elements and real music and how to perform and imagine music The Anthology is organized in chapters that coincide with the topics discussed in the Manual and contains very few instructions The Anthology contains a wide variety of musical excerpts some from the public domain and others under copyright taken from the classical music canon and from national repertoires There are some three part and four part exercises which should be performed by a group of people leraning aural skills together When you practise sight singing from any book we recommend hearing the tonic pitch from a fixed pitch instrument like a piano or keyboard synthesizer before you sing an excerpt With the tonic pitch in your mind and without singing aloud find the starting note of the excerpt and sing the excerpt in your mind several times until you are sure that you are singing the excerpt correctly When you have the melody in your mind sing the excerpt out loud as many tim
55. audio engineer might make the left recorded channel sound like it is in front of the listener by setting the panner to center meaning that 5096 of the output level is output to both the left and right output channels Balance is sometimes confused with panning even on commercially available audio equipment Adjusting the balance changes the volume level of the output channels without redirecting the recorded signal The default setting for balance is center meaning 096 change to the volume level As you adjust the dial from center toward the full left setting the volume level of the right output channel is decreased and the volume level of the left output channel remains constant As you adjust the dial from center toward the full right setting the volume level of the left output channel is decreased and the volume level of the right output channel remains constant If you set the dial to 2096 left the audio equipment would reduce the volume level of the right output channel by 20 increasing the perceived loudness of the left output channel by approximately 20 100 left center 10096 right Meli OA ues idu left right left right left right I You should adjust the balance so that you perceive both speakers as equally loud Balance compensates for poorly set up listening environments where the speakers are not equal distances from the listener If the left speaker is closer to you than the right speaker you can adj
56. brackets surround the name of the sound card The names of the sound cards in this example output are SB and MobilePre 4 Identify the name of the sound card that you want to use If you do not see your sound card in the list outputted by cat then your computer does not detect it 5 Start QjackCtl 6 Click Setup to open the Setup window 7 Inthe Interface text box type the name of your preferred sound card with hw in front With the sound cards listed above you might write hw MobilePre 8 Save your settings by exiting QjackCtl If you want to use JACK restart QjackCtl 2 3 2 Using QjackCtl The QjackCtl application offers many more features and configuration options The patch bay is a notable feature which lets users save configurations of the Connections window and restore them later to help avoid the lengthy set up time that might be required in complicated routing and multiplexing situations For more information on QjackCtl refer to Jack Audio Connection Kit 64studio at http www 64studio com manual audio jack 2 3 3 Integrating PulseAudio with JACK The default configuration of PulseAudio yields control of the audio equipment to JACK when the JACK server starts PulseAudio will not be able to receive input or send output of any audio signals on the audio interface used by JACK This is fine for occasional users of JACK but many users will want to use JACK and PulseAudio simultaneously or switch between
57. by adding and moving points on the graph This method allows for complex gradual changes of the setting as well as simple one time changes Automation is often controlled by means of MIDI signals for both audio and MIDI tracks This allows for external devices to adjust settings in the DAW and vice versa you can actually automate your own hardware from within a software based DAW Of course not all hardware supports this so refer to your device s user manual 43 Chapter 6 Digital Audio Workstations This section describes various components of software based DAW interfaces Although the Qtractor application is visible in the images both Ardour and Rosegarden along with most other DAW software have an interface that differs only in details such as which buttons are located where Messages 8x kfilemodule 326 1 KFileDialogBridge accept kfilemodule 326 1 KFileDialogBridge accept The messages pane shown in 6 4 The Qtractor messages contains messages produced by the DAW and sometimes messages Nircduced by SoftiarE eed by the DAW such as JACK If an error occurs or if the DAW does not perform as expected you should check the messages pane for information that may help you to get the desired results The messages pane can also be used to determine whether JACK and the DAW were started successfully with the options you prefer 44 Clock 6 4 2 Clock Figure 6 5 The Q The cl
58. canvas area The pop down menu probably says Magnetic indicating that it s in Magnetic Snapping Mode but it might also say No Grid or Grid No Grid This mode gives the user full control over where they will place a region It is useful for doing highly precise alignment as we re about to do 74 Arrange Regions into the Right Places 10 11 12 Grid This mode only allows the user to place regions where they will start on a grid line Unless you changed it your grid is set to two seconds so you can only start regions in two second intervals Ardour will not allow you to place a region so that it starts on an odd numbered second or anywhere in between Magnetic This mode allows the user to place a region wherever they like but when the start of the region is near a grid line an even numbered second in this session the start of the region will automatically snap to that point It behaves as if the start of regions were magnetically attracted to the grid lines Adjust the snap grid mode to No Grid Move the Marimba 2 regions so that they are in the marimba2 tracks so that the sound in Marimba 2 starts at about 15 seconds 00 00 15 000 on the timeline You ll have to move the grinding of the chairs out of the way if you decided to keep it Move it to the strings tracks before the Strings regions Ensure that both the marimba1 and marimba2 busses are on solo mode so you will be ab
59. composing this section copy and paste within the matrix editor You can see this around the beginning of measure 103 where the same pitch classes are heard simultaneously in a high and low octave created the upper register first then selected the notes that wanted to copy used Control c and Control v to create the copy Like when copy and pasting clips in the main window the cursor icon changes to a clipboard and an outline of the to be pasted material is shown so that you can position it as desired As you will see you can paste the copy onto any pitch level and at any point in the measure What is kept the same is the pitch intervals between notes and the rhythms between notes also used the copy and paste technique with the three stepwise descending notes figure in this passage After building the initial note of each set of four randomized those and copy and pasted the three descending notes after This way was able to randomize part of the melody but avoid randomizing another part In this passage kept the a note followed by three beats of rest idea then added onto the melody by taking two cues from the audio file The first was the increasing surface rhythm of the upper part which gave rise to the three descending notes figures The second was the fact that the chords are still going on underneath that melody so added a second randomized set of notes underneath my upper part At the end of the passage continue
60. doing it now helps to avoid confusion later Use the Select and Edit tool to create a segment in the Melody track of four measures long Edit the segment in the default editor by double clicking on it Create four measures of a melody It doesn t have to be complicated or even interesting 103 Chapter 9 Rosegarden 6 Close the notation editor and listen to the the three tracks Don t forget to reset the playhead to the beginning of the session 7 It sounds a bit silly to have the melody enter at the very beginning so add an introduction With the Select and Edit tool press F2 on the keyboard to engage it click and drag the melody segment to a few bars or beats later Note that even if you move it to start on beat 2 3 or 4 the view in the notation editor will always start the segment on beat 1 9 4 5 Possible Ways to Continue You re on your way to a full MIDI composition All you need is some inspiration to continue and some willingness to experiment with more advanced features and tools If you don t know how to continue try these suggestions Remember you re just starting out so your first song doesn t have to be interesting or particularly good Once you learn how to use MIDI composition tools you ll naturally learn how to create better music with them Make a simple ternary form ABA you ve already created the first part called A so make a transition and a second different part called B
61. e Segment 3 Some time after supper Use GNU Solfege to test your ability to perceive musical rudiments Spend only a few minutes on a few different kinds of exercises Three ten minute segments is not a lot of time and indeed it may take additional time to plan and to find and set up materials Even so the point is that training your aural skills does not have to take an inordinate amount of time or effort What s important is that your effort is consistent and well planned 14 3 4 Supplementary References GNU Solfege offers a relatively wide variety of exercises but no one source can possibly offer all of the exercises and training required to develop a well rounded set of aural skills Some of the following books and activities should be used to supplement the exercises available in Solfege Note that melodic and harmonic dictation are not yet Solfege s strong points mostly due to a lack of different exercises This may improve in the future as the developers improve the software Activities Taking dictation from real music Try focussing on one element rather than writing a complete score Verify your solution by checking a published score if possible Remember that some orchestral instruments may not be written at concert pitch Using your sight singing skills to sing a melody or rhythm to a friend who can use it as an example for dictation Use Bach chorales as sight singing examples for a group of four or more
62. each channel receiving an independent bus For a simple audio interface with two channels each for input and output the pre reserved audio rate bus numbers would be these O for left channel output 1 for right channel output 2 for left channel input 3 for right channel input Now you can change the first argument of the Out UGen as desired 11 3 11 2 Out and In UGens The Out UGen is discussed in Section 11 3 10 1 Out UGen What it does is take a signal and route it to the specified bus number The In UGen performs a similar action take a signal from a bus number and make it available for use This is the syntax to use for the Out UGen Out ar busNumber audioRateUGen Or Out kr busNumber controlRateUGen The UGen enclosed here should not be enclosed in a Function If the UGen provides multi channel output Out will automatically route the lowest channel to the specified bus number the next channel 161 Chapter 11 SuperCollider to the next highest bus number and so on This way you can achieve stereo output with one Out UGen This is the syntax to use for the In UGen In ar busNumber numberOfChannels or In kr busNumber numberOfChannels Whereas Out automatically outputs the right number of channels based on how many you provide In requires that you specify how many channels you want it to fetch for you When created with this form both of these UGens automatically co
63. eee ee ge ect E e nete teni e eet a elk dcus 128 Recording MOTE aseinaan aeaiee teet Pica a epe e ee DIRE Roco aae unie e e SEDI 7 2 9 Routing Audio and Managing JACK Connections ssseeseeses 7 2 10 Importing Existing Audio ssssssssee mem Fs Files for the Tutorial sve edet tenore Eu ee ER tege EOD gu ec MUR Rel ans 7 4 Editing a Song Tutorial riiintean aiandi nemen rennen nnn 7 4 1 Add Tracks and BUSSES soei ranirea near aN eene 7 4 2 Connect the Tracks and BUSSES irei keira aein eee 4 43 Add Regions toi Tracks cost feed nt a e Ot Le tr RID 7 4 4 Cut the Regions Down to Size sssssssssssse emnes 7 4 5 Compare Multiple Recordings of the Same Thing ssssesssesss 7 4 6 Arrange Regions into the Right Places sssseese V wewBrcERMC Lm 1 5 Mixing a Song T torlal 4 uie tene ce RYE n e TAAA IKA EAE Rea EN RREL LER 7 5 1 Setting the Session for Stereo Output and Disabling Edit Groups 25 2 Set Initial Eevels et san T T E 7 5 3 Set Initial Panning r ea oa a ae aaan E EE nnne nhe 7 5 4 Make Further Adjustments with an Automation Track sssssssss 7 5 5 Other Things You Might Want to Do sssssssee mme D6 LISTEN ier TTC 1 6 Mastering aA Session o ssri coercere sean CER HER Exo Xe nia ai aa iieiea 46 1 Ways to Export Audlo io ete lett eed tete eal ede citet inen 7 6 2 Using t
64. end of the session 1 4 6 Synchronization Synchronization coordinates the operation of multiple tools most often the movement of the transport Synchronization also controls automation across applications and devices MIDI signals are usually used for synchronization 1 4 7 Routing and Multiplexing Routing audio transmits a signal from one place to another between applications between parts of applications or between devices On Linux systems the JACK Audio Connection Kit is used for audio routing JACK aware applications and PulseAudio ones if so configured provide inputs and outputs to the JACK server depending on their configuration The QjackCtl application can adjust the default connections You can easily reroute the output of a program like FluidSynth so that it can be recorded by Ardour for example by using QjackCtl 10 Multichannel Audio N master in 1 XQ master in 2 ES playback 1 A playback_2 Master bus inputs accept multiplexed audio from many sources Master bus outputs routed to system playback inputs Figure 1 6 Routing and multiplexing Multiplexing allows you to connect multiple devices and applications to a single input or output QjackCtl allows you to easily perform multiplexing This may not seem important but remember that only one connection is possible with a physical device like an audio interface Before computers were used for music production multiplexing required physic
65. ens Create the Inconceivable region where the second highest singer alto sings just after the highest singer who is the soloist Make rought adjustments to most of the tracks to place them in approximately the right space in the stereo image You may wish to adjust an individual track s panner setting in addition to the busses panner settings they will have a slightly different effect For the marimba tracks you may wish to fine tune things now adjusting the fader settings Because these tracks are so consistent they will require relatively little automation and therefore will benefit more from a more thorough initial set up procedure Remember that it s better to be turning down the fader than turning it up It s probably easier to avoid working with the voice tracks for now 7 5 4 Make Further Adjustments with an Automation Track So far we ve been crudely adjusting the fader and panner settings manually This won t work if you want to change the settings while a session is playing you would have to change all of the settings by yourself every time you play the session This quickly becomes complicated not to mention difficult to remember Automation allows effects like the panner and fader to be moved automatically during session playback An automation track is simply a track that contains no audio but rather instructions to adjust a particular effect Automation tracks usually resemble audio tracks but they hold lines an
66. fedoraproject org Added all external and internal links Added all images Revision 0 5 Fri Aug 6 2010 Christopher Antila crantila fedoraproject org Re formatted ex lt pre gt tags Changed images to lt inlinemediaobject gt where appropriate Revision 0 6 Sat Aug 7 2010 Christopher Antila crantila fedoraproject org Added tables to SuperCollider chapter Reviewed lt code gt tags all but Basic Programming in SC Revision 0 7 Sun Aug 8 2010 Christopher Antila crantila fedoraproject org Reviewed use of lt code gt tags in Basic Programming in SC chapter Searched code for or and replaced them with emphasis where appropriate Formatted bibliography book list in the Solfege chapter Revision 0 8 Fri Aug 27 2010 Christopher Antila crantila fedoraproject org 231 Appendix A Revision History Re wrote the JACK installation instructions to incorporate the fact that jack2 will be in F14 Made other minor revisions to the sound servers section Revision 0 9 Mon Sept 6 2010 Christopher Antila crantila fedoraproject org Added links to tutorial files Incorporated some comments from external sources Changed numbering of Revision History Added list of links that need to be updated with every release to Musicians_Guide xml Updated Audacity to make it publish able Replaced instances of Fedora 14 with Fedora PRODVER 232 Index F feedback contact information for this manual xiii 233
67. for creation but rather the specific way that created a new composition with the inspiration stated below 8 4 1 Inspiration The goal of this demonstration is to illustrate a particular strength of Qtractor combining audio and MIDI tracks decided to start with a portion of one of my favourite compositions and to compose a MIDI based alter ego to go along with it The piece is listed below in Requirements Since that particular movement is a theme and variations movement it starts with a theme then continues with varied versions of that theme The theme is in two parts each of which is repeated once Beethoven uses several compositional techniques that are typical of his time period and achieves a consistently similar but consistently new movement We are no longer bound by the aesthetic rules of Beethoven s time We are also using a very different style of notation with Qtractor the matrix editor does not even resemble standard Western musical notation Another interesting aspect of this piece is that unless you have access to the same audio recording that used you will not be able to experience the piece as do Playing the MIDI alone gives a completely different experience and it is one that knew would happen This sort of mix and match approach to music listening is more common than you might think but rarely is it done in such an active way normally the extra sound of listening to music is provided by traff
68. happens when you try to access elements beyond the end of a List with the clipAt Function For index numbers beyond the end of the List the interpreter will simply return the last element var tL List new tL 42 820 7 19 23 tL foldAt postln outputs 42 tL foldAt 1 postln outputs 820 tL foldAt 2 postln outputs 7 tL foldAt 3 postln outputs 19 tL foldAt 4 postln outputs 23 tL foldAt 5 postln outputs 19 tL foldAt 6 postln outputs 7 nil This example shows what happens when you try to aceess elements beyond the end of a List with the foldAt Function For index numbers beyond the end of the List the interpreter will start moving back through the List towards the first element folding through the List var tL List new tL 42 820 7 19 23 tL wrapAt postln outputs 42 tL wrapAt 1 postln outputs 820 tL wrapAt 2 postln outputs 7 tL wrapAt 3 postln outputs 19 tL wrapAt 4 postln outputs 23 137 Chapter 11 SuperCollider tL wrapAt 5 postln outputs 42 tL wrapAt 6 postln outputs 820 nil This example shows what happens when you try to access elements beyond the end of a List with the wrapAt Function For index numbers beyond the end of the List the interpreter will start again at the beginning of the List wrapping around to the beginning 11 3 6 3 LinkedList Linked lists are very common stru
69. high Experiment with this one var myFrequency SinOsc kr freq 1 mul 200 add 400 var sound SinOsc ar myFrequency 0 0 2 play sound 11 3 5 Multichannel Audio By now you must be growing tired of the left side only sounds being produced by the examples 11 3 5 1 Stereo Array The easiest way to output multichannel audio in SuperCollider is to use a kind of Collection defined later called an Array SuperCollider will theoretically handle any number of audio output channels but by default is usually only configured for two channel stereo audio Since humans have only two ears this is sufficient for most tasks A multichannel array is notated like this LeftChannel ar x RightChannel ar y Here is our simple sine oscillator expanded to produce stereo audio SinOsc ar 440 0 0 2 SinOsc ar 440 0 2 J play Not much has changed except that the audio we hear is now being emitted from both the left and right channels Change the frequency of one of the sine oscillators to 450 and the difference will become much more apparent Multichannel arrays can also be combined with each other like this 130 Multichannel Audio var one x y z var two a b c one two If a b c x y and z were all audio rate UGens this function could be play ed It would produce stereo audio and each channel would have three independent UGens 11 3 5 2 Multich
70. initialize sinosc1 sinosc2 and so on 6 Then declare a ten element array in the same place var sinosc Array new 10 7 The next part is to write code to get ten func value s into the array To add something to an array in SuperCollider we use the add method s nosc add thing to add There is a small wrinkle to this described in the SuperCollider documentation It s not important to understand for musical reasons that is it is explained on this help page but when you add an element to an array you should re assign the array to the variable name sinosc sinosc add thing to add Basically it works out like this if you don t re assign then there is a chance that the array name only includes the elements that were in the array before the add command was run 8 With this we are able to eliminate a further level of redundancy in the code Ten exact copies of sinosc sinosc add func value Now ten lines that look almost identical actually are identical Furthermore we don t have to worry about assigning unique names or even about index numbers as in other programming languages SuperCollider does this for us 9 This still won t work because we need to adjust the rest of the function to work with this array The scheduling commands be changed to look something like this t c sched 1 soi 181 Chapter 11 SuperCollider 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 sinosc
71. is a blue place marker between the transport and the end of 48 Transport Controls the last region in the session the transport will skip to the blue place marker Press the button again to skip to the next blue place marker or the end of the last region in the session The single right pointing arrow is commonly called play but it actually moves the transport forward in real time When it does this if the transport is armed for recording any armed tracks will record Whether or not the transport is armed pressing the play button causes all un armed tracks to play all existing regions The circular button arms the transport for recording It is conventionally red in colour In Qtractor the transport can only be armed after at least one track has been armed to show this the transport s arm button only turns red if a track is armed 49 50 Chapter 7 Ardour Ardour is a feature rich application designed for multi track recording situations 7 1 Requirements and Installation 7 1 1 Knowledge Requirements The Ardour user interface is similar to other DAWs We recommend that you read Section 6 4 User Interface if you have not used a DAW before 7 1 2 Software Requirements Ardour uses the JACK Audio Connection Kit You should install JACK before installing Ardour Follow the instructions in Section 2 3 1 Installing and Configuring JACK to install JACK 7 1 3 Hardware Requirements
72. is much more efficient than actually running Qsynth multiple time or even than running FluidSynth directly from a terminal Each such instance is represented in Qsynth by a tab displayed at the bottom of the Qsynth window To create an additional instance of FluidSynth 1 Press the green button in the bottom left corner of Qsynth s main window 2 Adjust the settings as desired by using the Setup window that pops up 3 Press OK to start the additional instance 4 To close an additional instance use the red X near the lower right corner Each instance of the FluidSynth engine has its own settings in the Setup window Qsynth supports a theoretically unlimited number of FluidSynth instances but your computer s memory will probably not allow many more than ten depending on the SoundFonts used 112 Chapter 11 SuperCollider SuperCollider is many things but above all An audio synthesis engine A flexible programming language and An interpreter to transform the programming language into synthesis instructions 11 1 Requirements and Installation 11 1 1 Knowledge Requirements SuperCollider is by far the most difficult program described in the Fedora Musicians Guide The SuperCollider applications themselves are easy to use and they work very well but they are merely tools to help you accomplish something useful SuperCollider has an extremely powerful and flexible programming language with librar
73. mixing and mastering techniques to create a real song Instructions to get the tutorial files are available in Section 7 3 Files for the Tutorial 7 4 1 Add Tracks and Busses The program used to record these tracks was configured to record onto a separate track for the left and right channels so Ardour will also have to be configured this way It requires more setup more memory and more processing power but it offers greater control over the stereo image and level balancing We will use one track for vocals clarinet and strings and two tracks for the marimba This needs to be doubled to handle the stereo audio so a total of ten tracks are needed It might still be useful to manipulate the stereo tracks together so we re going to combine them with five busses This gives us the option of modifying both stereo channels or just one you ll see how it works as the tutorial progresses All of these actions take place within Ardour 1 There is already a master bus named master All audio being outputted should be fed through this bus 2 Create five new busses a From the menu select Track gt Add Track Bus b Adjust the options to add five stereo busses c Click Add d Five busses should appear in the canvas area named Bus 1 through Bus 5 underneath the master bus 3 Change the busses names a Atthe left most side of the canvas area each bus has a space with controls including a box with the bus name b
74. mme menn 12 4 3 Articul tioris 2 5 ud up ed gn red Lo te ides doge re ree dod ies 12 4 4 Simultaneity n saaria aeaa i De ar aaa adaa th nnt ie trn hannis nn nnn nn as 12 4 5 Chords 32 0002 indu ren tT e dE RE e noui ode Dee de bes ud t a 12 4 6 Commands wy ee Ee eee eats 12 4 7 Source Files and Their Formatting sssssm 12 4 8 AVOIGING EO S iiit betae recle dad be a aaia an 12 5 Working on a Counterpoint Exercise Tutorial sse 125 1 Files for the Tutorial oit oen e e i b ede e n edes 12 5 2 Starting the Score cs ere n eo Hen sere ies 12 5 3 Adjusting Frescobaldi s Output sssssseem eme inei E 12 5 5 Formatung the SCOIe i eoe ed tet de HER HERE LIE LUE rk de tin 12 6 Working on an Orchestral Score Tutorial ssssssee 12 6 1 Files for the Tutorial enoii eect eter etter reese Hee 12 6 2 Starting the Score sessssssssssssssseeene nennen hehehe ennemis 12 6 3 Adjusting Frescobaldi s Output sssssssem Hem 1 2 6 4 Inputting e oreet eret reet ex ER Aaaa RR ER FERRE EE ER ERR RO IRET ements 12 7 Working on a Piano Score Tutorial ssssssssee mem 12 7 1 Files Tor the Tutorial oin e etes pae Pp eed 12 7 2 Starting the SCOre i i tee pee edet ie reac aer E ele phage rend 12 7 3 Adjusting Frescobaldi s Output sssssssseeem me 12 74 Inputtlfigus s iei et Lo He e dati
75. one rather than beat zero We ll let it play for 60 seconds the first time and 30 seconds the second time d In order to schedule the second appearance of FirstPart we need to know how long secondPart will take Let s inspect the function and calculate how many beats it will take 1 beat of silence at the beginning 5 beats between the entrance of each SinOsc 10 SinOsc s 5 beats after the last SinOsc until the function stops 187 Chapter 11 SuperCollider This givesus1 5 9 5 51 Why5 9 Because although there are ten SinOsc s there are only nine spaces between them the last five second space happens after the last SinOsc e This gives us the following schedule 1 beat start FirstPart 61 beats stop FirstPart 61 beats start secondPart 113 beats start FirstPart 143 beats stop FirstPart 7 Try to schedule the events for yourself then test your program to make sure that it works as you intended Here s what wrote c sched 1 sound Synth new FirstPart c sched 61 sound free c sched 61 secondPart value nil c sched 113 sound Synth new FirstPart c sched 143 sound free Why is the nil required after secondPart Because that function returns a number As you know any scheduled function which returns a number will re schedule itself to run that many beats after the previous execution began Since secondPart retu
76. or displayed text that changes depending on circumstance For example To connect to a remote machine using ssh type ssh username domain name at a shell prompt If the remote machine is example com and your username on that machine is john type ssh john example com The mount o remount file system command remounts the named file System For example to remount the home file system the command is mount o remount home To see the version of a currently installed package use the rpm q package command It will return a result as follows package version release Note the words in bold italics above username domain name file system package version and release Each word is a placeholder either for text you enter when issuing a command or for text displayed by the system Aside from standard usage for presenting the title of a work italics denotes the first use of a new and important term For example Publican is a DocBook publishing system 1 2 Pull quote Conventions Terminal output and source code listings are set off visually from the surrounding text Output sent to a terminal is set in mono spaced roman and presented thus books Desktop documentation drafts mss photos stuff svn books tests Desktop1 downloads images notes scripts svgs Source code listings are also set in mono spaced roman but add syntax highlighting as follows package org jboss book jca ex1 import javax naming InitialContext xii
77. priority There is only one SystemClock AppClock These clocks always run in seconds They are to be used for graphic events and other non musical things not discussed in this guide These clocks do not run with a high priority so they can be temporarily side lined by a TempoClock or the SystemClock if one of those has something to do urgently 11 3 13 2 Default Clocks The SuperCollider interpreter provides two default clocks and one default pseudo clock The SystemClock always operates in seconds and it can be used to schedule musical events but usually this isn t necessary The TempoClock default runs at 60 beats per minute by default equal to one beat per second Since it S accessible from anywhere within a program any tempo changes will have an effect on the scheduling of the entire program so be careful If you don t want something to be effected by tempo changes you can create a new TempoClock just for that part of the program If you will be using this clock frequently you can assign it to a variable like this var t TempoClock default The thisThread clock is not really a clock in itself but refers to the clock which is responsible for scheduling the part of the program where the command is written It can be a little bit tricky working with this clock since it may be either the SystemClock or a TempoClock 11 3 13 3 Finding the Current Time Using the beats method on a clock will return that clock s current
78. quite complex make comments about what seems to be going on At this point also added the Dynamics Context commands as described below in the Piano Dynamics section 12 7 4 Inputting Piano scores present some unique challenges with LilyPond but they re easy to overcome with some careful thought This tutorial will avoid step by step instructions on how to input particular notes instead focussing on those unique piano challenges presented in this particular composition The LilyPond Notation Reference provides a section dedicated to keyboard and piano music Most of the situations described there are not present or discussed in this score which gives this tutorial unique material 12 7 4 1 Order of Inputting Choosing the right order to input your scores can make things much easier to troubleshoot Here are some suggestions 1 Input music in small sections at a time Two four or eight measures is usually a good size but it depends on the size of the composition the size of its sections and the form of the music It 211 Chapter 12 LilyPond doesn t make sense to input a passage of 9 whole notes in stages of two measures but two measures may be too long for passages composed primarily of 128th notes 2 Input one staff at a time then check its accuracy using Frescobaldi s preview function press the LilyPond button on the toolbar Input the pitch and rhythms first then slurs articulations ties
79. regardless of how many times it appears in the timeline or if it s even used at all 2 To add a region to the canvas area simply click on the region s name and drag it onto a track The cursor will change as you do this so that the vertical line of the cursor shows the point where the region will begin in the timeline Adding regions is just that easy You guessed it though there s more to it than that and it mostly has to do with the setup of this particular file You will notice that the region list has many similarly named regions and that most of the names correspond to particular tracks and a bus The files are named so that you know what s on them They are given a number so that you know the sequence in which they re to be added Chapter 7 Ardour Marimba_1 regions before Marimba 2 and a letter L or R at the end to signify whether the region is the left or the right channel Furthermore the regions that start with ens belong on the voice tracks ens is short for ensemble meaning that those regions contain a small vocal ensemble whereas the Voice regions contain just one singer The Here Is How regions belong before the Create the Inconceivable regions Remember there is no technical reason that the regions are named as they are The names are there to help you edit and mix the song We don t need to use the marimba2 tracks or bus yet so just add all of the Marimba regions to the marim
80. removeAt index pretends the LinkedList is an Array and removes the element located at the given index number 11 3 6 3 3 Example This example uses a LinkedList as a queue adding numbers to the tail and removing and printing from the head var tL LinkedList new tL add 42 tL add 89 tL popFirst postln prints 42 tL add 256 tL popFirst postln prints 89 tL add 900 tL popFirst postln prints 256 tL popFirst postln prints 900 nil 11 3 6 4 Other Collections As mentioned previously the SuperCollider language provides for many more kinds of data structures The following Collections are useful but much more complex than those listed above For usage instructions refer to the SuperCollider documentation Dictionary stores and allows retrieval of data by arbitrary Objects for example by symbols rather than by index numbers Library a type of Dictionary Objects inserted can be used by any Object in the program like books in a real world library can be used by anybody who walks in Set an unordered Collection of like Objects where no two elements are identical SortedList a List where all elements are kept in a sorted order regardless of how they are added The inserted Objects should have a useful ordering method numerical or lexicographic alphabetic for example 11 3 7 Repeated Execution Repeating boring tasks is one of the main uses of computers which don t mind doing
81. select a shelf before choosing a book Each bank offers between one and one hundred and twenty seven programs also called patches which are the sounds themselves If a MIDI instrument is a library and a bank is a shelf thena program is a book Programs need not necessarily be related but banks with a large number of programs like the General MIDI bank usually follow some sort of order It is the program alone which determines the sound of the synthesized audio the bank and instrument simply limit the possible choices of program 10 1 3 MIDI Channels A MIDI synthesizer will accept input on multiple channels Although each instance of the synthesizer can only have one MIDI instrument assigned to it each channel can be assigned a program independently This allows the synthesis of a virtual instrumental ensemble The General MIDI GM standard used partially by the default FluidR3 SoundFont and by FluidSynth itself further specifies that there will be 16 channels and that channel 10 will be used for mostly unpitched percussion instruments Any program change message sent to channel 10 will be ignored and although FluidSynth can be configured to use a non percussion program on channel 10 this use is discouraged For cases where FluidSynth does not adhere to the General MIDI standard it is adding functionality rather than removing it 10 2 Requirements and Installation 10 2 1 Software Requirements FluidSynth requi
82. set out to reflect those used in hand engraved notation After assigning each possibility a score representing how closely it resembles to the aesthetic ideal LilyPond then chooses the better possibility 12 3 Requirements and Installation 1 Use PackageKit or KPackagekKit to install the 1ilypond package 2 Review the dependencies Many packages called lilypond fonts are installed 3 LilyPond is run from the command line with the command lilypond We recommend that you use the Frescobaldi text editor which is designed specifically for LilyPond It has many features that enhance productivity when editing LilyPond files and that greatly speed up the learning process Refer to Chapter 13 Frescobaldi for more information 12 4 LilyPond Basics The syntax of LilyPond files offers the most flexibility through the most diverse musical conditions Over time you will realize that features which seem too complex at first are really a very powerful and simple way to solve complex problems that commercial programs cannot 12 4 1 Letters Are Pitches One letter is all that s required to create a note in LilyPond There are additional symbols and letters that are added to indicate further details like the register and whether the note is sharp or flat Although it can be changed the default and recommended way to indicate sharp or flat is by using Dutch note names is to indicate a sharp and es to indicate a flat For exampl
83. share soundfonts 4 Select the SoundFonts that you would like to use The default is the FluidR3 GM SoundFont but you can choose multiple SoundFonts to use simultaneously 5 Close the Instruments window to return to the main Qtractor window 8 3 Using Qtractor The Tutorial section teaches you how to use Qtractor by example This section is designed to serve as a reference while you complete the tutorial and for refreshing your memory afterwards 8 3 1 Using the Blue Place Markers In addition to the transport Otractor provides two other place markers They are blue Here are some things you can do with the blue place markers Mark a range 1 Move the cursor to the place where you want the left most marker 2 Left click and hold 3 Drag the cursor to the location where you want the right most marker 4 Release the button 5 The blue markers should mark the particular range Mark one particular place 1 Move the cursor to the place you want to mark 2 Left click and hold on the location 3 Drag the cursor to the right just a little bit 87 Chapter 8 Qtractor 4 Two blue markers will appear 5 Instead of leaving them separate move the second blue marker over top the first one 6 Release the mouse button 7 The arrows should be converged Move one of the markers 1 Place the cursor over the triangular top of the marker located in ruler at the top of the track pane 2 The cu
84. slowly pulsating volume is part of the acoustic result of this many frequencies being so close together it is not a hidden effect by SuperCollider 11 3 9 2 Arrays of Arrays There is another way to combine many UGen s into two channels for stereo output rather than sending the Array s to the Mix class combine them into a two element Array 1 SinOsc ar 440 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 880 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 1660 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 440 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 880 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 1660 0 0 1 l 3 play Here a two element Array is the result of a Function which gets sent the play message Each of the elements is an equivalent three element Array where each element is a UGen This representation also offers another benefit each UGen can have a different mul value which will be preserved 1 SinOsc ar 440 0 0 2 SinOsc ar 880 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 1660 0 0 05 SinOsc ar 440 0 0 2 SinOsc ar 880 0 0 1 SinOsc ar 1660 0 0 05 l play This sounds much less harsh than the first example Try it with the Mix Class Even with the different mul values it sounds the same as the first example This helps Mix to ensure that the total level doesn t exceed 1 0 but it has the disadvantage that careful level balancing on your part will be erased 11 3 9 3 Addition This method of combinine UGen s into two channels uses the addition operator SinOsc ar 440 0 1 SinOsc ar 880
85. spread from north to north east allowing the soloist to remain in the same place This will mostly require fader adjustment to make the ensemble seem closer The lower marimba will be in the outer row to the north west This may not require any adjustment but perhaps a slight move to the left The higher marimba will be in the outer row to the north east This requires a slight move to the left The clarinet will be in the outer row to the north This will require significant adjustment to the right chose that particular layout because it requires relatively minimal adjustment and it makes a certain amount of sense in terms of traditional instrumental ensemble seating patterns Also the notes played by the clarinet in this song seem suitable to appear as if from far away and the passages are played with good expression so I think it will be relatively easy for me to acheive that effect The most important consideration was the placement of the vocal ensemble and the solo vocalist within it Although the solo vocalist sings the highest part in the ensemble soprano the stereo recording seems to indicate that she was not standing at the left most position in the ensemble I 80 Make Further Adjustments with an Automation Track also know this because was present during the recording This adds an extra difficulty in that the fader and panner settings for the whole voice track must be based on the moment in the
86. still to use the fair queueing system by default This is good because most processes don t need to have consistently low latencies Only specific processes are designed to request high priority scheduling Each process is given or asks for a priority number and the real time kernel will always give processing time to the process with the highest priority number even if that process uses up all of the available processing time This puts regular applications at a disadvantage when a high priority process is running the rest of the system may be unable to function properly In extreme and very rare cases a real time process can encounter an error use up all the processing time and disallow any other process from running effectively locking you out of your computer Security measures have been taken to help ensure this doesn t happen but as with anything there is no guarantee If you use a real time kernel you are exposing yourself to a slightly higher risk of system crashes A real time kernel should not be used on a computer that acts as a server for these reasons 3 4 Hard and Soft Real Time Finally there are two different kinds of real time scheduling The Linux kernel even at its most extreme uses only soft real time This means that while processor and other scheduling algorithms may be optimized to give preference to higher priority processes no absolute guarantee of performance can be made A real time kernel helps to gr
87. that are members of the bicycle class are also members of the vehicle class That is real world bicycles share certain characteristics with other real world objects that are classified as vehicles The bicycle class is a sub class of the vehicle class and it inherits certain properties from the vehicles class SuperCollider allows this behaviour too and calls it inheritance In SuperCollider since all classes define Objects they are all automatically considered to be a sub class of the class called Object All classes therefore inherit certain characteristics from the Object class like knowing how to respond to the post1n message equivalent notation 5 postln versus postln 5 You still don t know how to write new Classes and Objects in SuperCollider but knowing how to use them is more than enough for now By the time you need to write your own Classes you will probably prefer to use the official SuperCollider help files anyway 11 3 3 4 Choosing a Paradigm At this point you may begin worrying about which programming paradigm you should choose and when The answer is unhelpful Whichever seems best for the task Let s expand on this If you are primarily a programmer then you probably already know how to choose the best paradigm and algorithm for the task If you are a musician then you probably just want your program to produce the output that you want in this case a particular set of sounds Part of the beauty of SuperCo
88. the last time the function is run it receives a 9 because the function has already been executed 9 times Since our ten element array is indexed from O to 9 this works perfectly for us The code to free is shorter 19 do arg index t c sched 51 so index free This can look confusing especially written in one line like it is If it helps you might want to write it like this instead 10 do 1 arg index t c sched 51 so index free 35 Now it looks more like a typical function The next step is to simplify the original scheduling calls in a similar way but it s slightly more complicated because we have to schedule a different number of measures for each call With a little math this is also not a problem it s just a simple linear equation number of measures 5 array index 1 Try to write this loop by yourself before going to the next step If you missed it my solution is 10 do arg index t c sched 5 index 1 so so add sinosc index play which includes some extra parentheses to ensure that the math is computed in the right order The code is already much shorter easier to understand and easier to expand or change There is one further optimzation that we can easily make get rid of the sinosc array This simply involves replacing sinosc index with what all of its elements are func value The resulting program is a little different from what ended up in FSC met
89. the audio out of a session to a useful format 7 6 1 Ways to Export Audio There are three ways to export audio from an Ardour session 1 byregion 82 Using the Export Window 2 by range or 3 by session To export a region 1 Ensure the region is placed in the canvas area 2 Right click on the region 3 Select the region name s menu then Export 4 Continue with the Export window To export all audio in a range on the timeline 1 Select the range with the Select Move Ranges tool Regardless of which track you select all tracks can be exported 2 Right click on the range 3 Select Export from the menu 4 Continue with the Export window To export all audio in a session 1 From the menu select Session Export Export Export session to audiofile or on the keyboard press Ctrl Alt e 2 Continue with the Export window 7 6 2 Using the Export Window Regardless of which export method you choose the Export window is similar When you export a region you do not get to choose which tracks to export by definition you are only exporting that region s track 7 6 2 1 Choose Which Tracks to Export By default Ardour will export all audio in the range or session being exported What it actually exports is all audio routed through the master output bus You can see the list of tracks to export on the right side of the Export window If you click the Specific Tracks button
90. the closest duration that is an eighth note multiple For example a sixteenth note would be adjusted to an eighth note Swing This regularizes a swing effect on the rhythm You will have to experiment with the settings to find one that works for you Common settings described in simple meter where a quarter note gets the beat Beat quarter note duration Beat 2 eighth note duration Beat 3 eighth note triplet duration Beat 4 sixteenth note duration Beat 6 sixteenth note sextuplet duration Beat 8 thirty second note duration 88 Using JACK with Qtractor Transpose This tool adjusts either the pitch vertical axis or the time horizontal axis of the selected MIDI notes Pitch Transposes the notes by this many semitones Positive values transpose to a higher pitch level while negative values transpose to a lower pitch level Time Adjusts the starting time of MIDI notes without affecting duration or pitch This is most usefully measured as BBT meaning Bars Beats and Ticks each is separated by a decimal point but can also be measured as time or frames Normalize This adjusts the loudness of the selected MIDI notes called velocity There are three ways to use the tool The value specified in the MIDI Tools window is used as the highest allowable velocity all other velocity values are adjusted proportionally Adjust Percent only This allows you to set the velocity t
91. the plugin you can edit this file so that it contains enabled 0 This allows you to keep the priorities as set in the repository configuration files You can set priorities for some or all repositories To add a priority to a repository edit its respective file in the etc yum repos d directory adding a line like priority N where N is a number between 1 and 99 inclusive A priority of 1 is the highest setting and 99 is the lowest You will need to set priorities of at least two repositories before this becomes useful 4 3 3 Prevent a Package from Being Updated This is optional and recommended only for advanced users yum normally installs the latest version of packages This plugin prevents certain packages from being updated If you wish to prevent packages from a particular repository from being used then Section 4 3 2 Set Repository Priorities is better suited to your needs 1 2 Install the yum plugin versionlock package Use a text editor or the cat or less command to verify that etc yum pluginconf d versionlock conf exists and contains the following text enabled 1 Add the list of packages which you do not want to be updated to etc yum pluginconf d versionlock list Each package should go on its own line For example jack audio connect kit 1 9 4 qjackctl 0 3 6 24 Part Il Audio and Music Software asdf Chapter 5 Audacity Audacity is a high quality sound recording applicati
92. the same thing over and over again More importantly writing code once and using it many times is much more 139 Chapter 11 SuperCollider intelligent than writing the same code many times Repetition of the same code is often problematic and repetition with subtle differences is even worse Errors in this kind of code are difficult to find in the first place and more difficult to solve effectively Thankfully as with most other things SuperCollider offers a wide variety of ways to repeat code without re writing it The code structure used to create repetition is normally called a loop Do loops are SuperCollider s most versatile and useful repetition structure and there are a few different ways to think about and write it The while loop is a standard of most programming languages 11 3 7 1 Do This to Everything in This Collection One way to write a do loop is basically the same as telling the interpreter to do this Function to every element in this Collection The syntax looks like this do aCollection aFunction number number Or like this aCollection do aFunction number number This causes aFunction to be executed once for each element in aCollection which can be any kind of Collection Each time aFunction is run it is given two arguments in this order an element of aCollection and the elements index number For Collection s that don t have index numbers it returns what the element s index number
93. then another transition and repeat the first part It doesn t need to be long but it can be Make a variations form repeat the part that you ve already created several times but make it slightly different every time Try several different ways of modifying it add another melody to go along with the one you have add extra notes to the existing melody change the percussion track write a new bassline expand the melody so it takes twice as long combinations of these Making a variation of an existing section is a common way of making it take more time Make an expanded version of the existing material by following your intuition to add more music nstead of adding a different melody of a repeating bassline and percussion segment try repeating the melody over and over creating a new bassline and percussion segments 104 Chapter 10 FluidSynth FluidSynth is a software based MIDI synthesizer FluidSynth accepts MIDI input from programs like Qtractor and Rosegarden and uses SoundFont technology to create audio signals This makes FluidSynth a very flexible tool it can be used even on low power computers doesn t require specialized hardware and can take advantage of a wide selection of high quality MIDI instruments When used with the Qsynth graphical interface FluidSynth becomes even more powerful users can easily control basic effects like chorus and reverb and they can start multiple FluidSynth synthesizers each
94. to be played at once and they are both notated in the same voice This is solved in the piano example like this g g You can copy and paste this as needed 9 Youcan now finish inputting the horn part 207 Chapter 12 LilyPond 12 6 4 4 Moving on to the Strings After correctly finishing all of the wind and timpani parts you can move on to the strings Input all of the pitches and note lengths first then return to fill in the other markings f you get stuck then put in some filler notes and finish the rest of that part Make a note for yourself as a comment in the source file so that you know to return later to finish the part f twenty measures at once is too many then break it into smaller chunks and input those Here are some tips to help you through this passage Use the LilyPond help files if you need further assistance Tuplets Triplets e To write any tuplet use the formula times x y notes in here where x is the number of notes actually space to use and y is the number of notes to let you display For an eighth note triplet that takes up one beat you might use this Ntimes 2 3 c8 d e because in the space of 2 eighth notes you want to fit three instead This is much more powerful than it seems at first You might want to make it seem as though the measures have stopped being marked and write something like times 4 40 which will allow you to fit forty of something int
95. to calculate it so added a variable to store the value after it s calculated This also allows us to return it as a convenience to the Function that called this one so that it knows how long until this Function is finished Try adding this yourself then testing the Function to ensure that it works got this var t c TempoClock default var secondPart t arg number of SinOscs 10 pitch low 200 pitch high 800 pause length 5 var so Array new number of SinOscs var when to stop 1 pause length number of SinOscs var func t var freq pitch low pitch high pitch low rand SinOsc ar freq freq mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq freq mul 0 01 F number_of_SinOscs do arg time t c sched 1 time 5 so so add func play H t_c sched when_to_stop number_of_SinOscs do arg index so index free nil 3 when to stop F 185 Chapter 11 SuperCollider decided to invert the free ing of the SinOsc s Rather than scheduling number of SinOscs Function calls at some point in the future decided to schedule one thing a do loop that does the work The indentation looks strange but sometimes there s not much you can do about that The when to stop variable must be the last thing in the Function so that the interpreter returns it to the Function s caller In order to retain the bare minimum robustness to be used elsewhere we can t rely on the Te
96. to the interpreter after program execution completes so that the last message is not repeated Since every argument has a name SuperCollider allows you to use that name when executing the function This example executes the greeter function from the last example greeter value name Myung Whun This is more useful if there are many arguments and you do not remember the order that they appear in the Function s definition SuperCollider also allows you to specify default values for arguments so that they do not need to be specified This allows optional customization of a Function s behaviour and is therefore very powerful This example modifies the one above by adding default value arguments and by calling arguments with their name As you can see I ve been tricking you a bit post1n is actually a Function but a special kind explained later var greeter arg name greeting Hello postln greeting name NH 123 Chapter 11 SuperCollider greeter value Samantha greeter value Jermain Goodbye greeter value name Myung Whun greeter value greeting Bienvenue name Marcel nil Any value can be used as a parameter as long as the Function expects it In fact even Functions can be used as parameters for Functions 11 3 2 5 Function Return Values All SuperCollider Functions return a value to the interpreter when they have finished execution As with programs the value retu
97. trivial and pointless to you especially since the use of a UGen to control frequency has already been illustrated in other examples For this particular program a control rate UGen would probably have been a better choice but remember that this is just an example Here are some advantages to using a control rate Bus over a UGen The signal can be changed without sending the set message to the audio rate UGen simply by changing the input to the bus Input to the bus can be produced by any number of control rate UGen s The signal in the bus can be received by more than one UGen as it is in this example One thousand audio rate UGen s powered by 25 control rate UGen s is a much better solution than if each audio rate UGen were powered by its own control rate UGen Busses can be accessed quickly and efficiently from any place in the program that has access to the variable holding the Bus It s easier and safer less error prone than making all of your UGen s equally accessible Some of these advantages could be seen as disadvantages Whether you should use a Bus or a UGen depends on the particular application The simpler solution is usually the better one as long as you remember to avoid repetition 11 3 11 4 3 Special Note about Control Rate Busses Control rate Bus ses are a great way to enhance the flexibility of your program The best part is that in order to use a control rate Bus the UGen doesn t even need to have been writ
98. with their own settings and MIDI instrument assignments Finally because Qsynth was created and is maintained by the same developers as Qtractor and QjackCtl it provides a familiar interface and integrates well with these other applications 10 1 SoundFont Technology and MIDI SoundFont technology was developed in the early 1990s and comprises a file format and certain hardware technologies designed to allow the creation of MIDI instruments that sound like acoustic instruments It would be virtually impossible to make an electronically synthesized instrument sound identical to an acoustic counterpart but SoundFont technology enables the gap to narrow considerably Heard in the right context most people would not notice that music was recorded by a SoundFont capable MIDI synthesizer but results can vary widely What FluidSynth enables users to do is eliminate the hardware component of using SoundFonts so that any computer becomes capable of synthesizing from SoundFont files which are often simply referred to as a SoundFont As fonts change the look of text characters SoundFonts change the sound of MIDI notes the overall meaning is the same when conveyed by any font or SoundFont but the particular nuance is changed Fedora offers a few SoundFonts in the default repositories By default FluidSynth installs the FluidR3 General MIDI GM SoundFont which contains a wide array of conventional and some non conventional patches To
99. you make a mistake while starting the program that s okay We can always edit the recording after it s recorded Listen to the recording as it goes along Use QjackCtl to make sure that you don t encounter a buffer underrun and Ardour to make sure that you do not record a distorted signal When SuperCollider has finished playing your program switch to Ardour and stop the transport When you are ready to export use the Ardour menu Choose Session Export gt Export session to audio file The audio file will be created in the export sub directory of the session s directory 189 190 Chapter 12 LilyPond LilyPond is a notation engraving program with a focus on creating a visually appealing product LilyPond is text based and allows you to focus on the semantic content of your musical scores rather than on their visual appearance Conventional commercial notation engraving programs allow users to edit the score visually While this approach has its benefits especially because it s very easy to see exactly what the printed score will look like it also has disadvantages chief among these is the fact that users of those programs are constantly worrying about what their score looks like This is where LilyPond comes in users don t need to worry about how their score will work because they know that the expertly crafted methods of LilyPond will automatically configure the objects on the score so that they look
100. 1 5 Recommended Installation sejrin aana ATARE EER 115 11 2 Using GEdit to Write and Run SuperCollider Programs ssssssse 115 11 2 1 Enable and Configure SCEd in GEdit sssssssssssss 115 11 2 2 Enable SuperCollider Mode and Start a Server sesser 116 11 2 3 Executing Code in GEdit ssssssssssee em 116 11 2 4 Other Tips for Using GEdit with SuperCollider 117 11 3 Basic Programming in SuperCollider sssssssseee 117 11 3 1 EIS Ste DS oio edere edi Re pae eei 117 11 3 2 Variables and Functions ssssssseeee eH 120 11 3 3 Object Oriented SuperCollider ssssssese 126 11 3 4 Sound Making Functions ssssssssseen mene 129 11 3 5 Multichannel Audio rna i aE AR een 130 11 3 6 Coll ctlols arse 5 4e hh tren trs 132 11 3 7 Repeated Execution ssssssssssssssssesss eese eene hne 139 11 3 8 Conditional Execution imiraa patea arae AN Ro ETAt ene 142 11 3 9 Combining Audio the Mix Class ssssseeemm mH 151 11 3 10 SynthDef and Synth ssssssssssssssee eee eene 153 11 3 11 BUSSES 3 Sarn ten Dor esure e Ep ual statue ben dane a aed ev a a LI SUE 161 11 3 12 Ordering and Other Synth Features ssssssssem 166 11 313 Scheduling ite a e eR DAP ea eee 169 11 3 14 How to Get Help ae e eter ete eredi ied 171 11 3
101. 14 2 2 Instruments Tempo Changes the speed at which examples are played Default Applies to everything that isn t an Arpeggio Arpeggio Applies to arpeggios which are by default played at three times the speed of the default tempo This is standard practice Preferred Instrument This MIDI instrument will be used when playing examples Chord Instruments For polyphonic voices these MIDI instruments will be used for the highest middle and lowest voices above the bass voice which takes the preferred instrument Percussion instruments Count in This MIDI instrument will be used to give count in beats that precede musical examples involving rhythm Rhythm This MIDI instrument will be used to dictate rhythm only examples 14 2 3 External Programs Solfege uses external programs to perform many tasks On this tab you can provide the command to be used as though being run from a terminal Converters MIDI to WAV WAV to MP3 WAV to OGG f you use in s and out s Solfege will substitute the filename it wants inputted and outputted Audio File Players each with Test buttons WAV e OGG e MP3 MIDI Solfege will substitute s with the name of the file to be played 220 Interface Miscellaneous e CSound Solfege uses CSound for intonation exercises It is an optional component See the Optional Installation section above MMA Solfege uses MMA for certain harmon
102. 15 Legal AttribUtlon cic cic rien ted tr aaia Eiaa rH dI ERR E rS 172 11 4 Composing with SuperCollider ssssseem m 172 11 41 Files for the Tutorial 2 eee ere een eed 172 12 42 InSplIratiOr o eoe o Petre Db n pee dere tabe 173 11 4 3 Designing the First Part ssssssssse men 173 11 4 4 Designing the Second Part sss 175 11 4 5 Creating Ten Pseudo Random Tones sss 175 11 4 6 Scheduling the Tones ssssssssee meer 178 11 4 7 Optimizing the Code sssssessss emm ee ener 180 11 4 8 Making a Useful Section out of the Second Part sssssssssss 183 11 4 9 JOMING the TWO PariS essiant Pre f t eed ode 187 11 5 Exporting Sound Files cnt e ed Re e o seid er b b See edi od 188 11 5 1 Non Real Time Synthesis eesessssssseeseeeeee n enne enne 188 vii Musicians Guide 11 5 2 Recording SuperCollider s Output Tutorial 0cccceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeaaees 12 LilyPond 12 1 How LilyPOnd WOrKS 1 tte t oe e ee Td kd eec idee d dtd 12 2 The LilyPond Approach ssssssssee mm mene nennen 12 3 Requirements and Installation ssessssem mem 12 4 LilyPond BASICS ise tto pee ERE ERAT E e EHE EORR ERR dens seed ce E ERA ER Ree navies 12 41 Letters Are PItCheS n cii erected dir Le Cerdo RELATERAT er Rep ouo vu 12 4 2 Numbers Are Durations erea aeaiee aE a me
103. 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 var frequency 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 3 play It doesn t work you ll also have to rename your frequency setting variable each time var frequency1 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency1 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency1 mul 0 01 var frequency2 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency2 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency2 mul 0 01 var frequency3 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency3 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency3 mul 0 01 var frequency4 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency4 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency4 mul 0 01 var frequency5 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency5 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency5 mul 0 01 var frequency6 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency6 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency6 mul 0 01 var frequency 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency7 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency7 mul 0 01 var frequency8 200 600 rand 176 Creating Ten Pseudo Random Tones 7 10 11 SinOsc ar freq frequency8 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency8 mul 0 01 var frequency9 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency9 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency9 mul 0 01 var frequencyO 200 600 rand SinOsc ar fr
104. 200 600 rand var frequency9 200 600 rand var frequencyO 200 600 rand var sinosci SinOsc ar freq frequency1 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency1 mul 0 01 Y var sinosc2 SinOsc ar freq frequency2 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency2 mul 0 01 Y var sinosc3 SinOsc ar freq frequency3 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency3 mul 0 01 Y var sinosc4 SinOsc ar freq frequency4 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency4 mul 0 01 Y var sinosc5 SinOsc ar freq frequency5 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency5 mul 0 01 Y var sinosc6 SinOsc ar freq frequency6 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency6 mul 0 01 Y var sinosc7 SinOsc ar freq frequency7 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency7 mul 0 01 Y var sinosc8 SinOsc ar freq frequency8 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequencys mul 0 01 Y var sinosc9 SinOsc ar freq frequency9 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequencyg mul 0 01 Y var sinoscO SinOsc ar freq frequencyO mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequencyo mul 0 01 Y var sol s02 so3 so4 so5 so6 so7 so8 so9 so0 t c sched 1 soi sinosci play t c sched 6 so2 sinosc2 play t c sched 11 so3 sinosc3 play t c sched 16 so4 sinosc4 play t c sched 21 so5 sinosc5 play t c sched 26 so6 sinosc6 play t c sched 31 so7 sinosc7 play t c sc
105. 3 When you ve finished recording a region use the Regions box thing on the right of the interface to rename the region a Find the region that you just recorded by default they are named like Audio 1 1 which is the name of the recording track followed by a hyphen then a number in ascending sequeuence representing the take Select it b Click on the title and a box should surround it c Change the name to what you want d Press enter to finish editing the name 7 2 8 Recording More After you have recorded one region you will probably not have everything that you want There are many ways to continue recording depending on what still remains to be recorded 7 2 8 1 To Continue the Same Session This is what you ll want to do if for example you were recording a session and decided to take a ten minute break It will work for any situation where you want to continue a session that already started recording 1 move the transport to somewhere after what you ve already capture You can do this either by using the forward reverse and play stop buttons on the transport or by finding the point in the timeline where you want the transport to be and then left clicking somewhere in the time line 2 Verify that the connections and levels are still set correctly 3 Verify that the recording tracks are still armed 4 Arm the transport 5 Startthe transport when ready to record 7 2 8 2 To Capture an Additional Part of
106. 7 Intonation In order to use the Intonation exercises you must install the Csound application See Section 14 1 4 Optional Installation Csound for instructions to install Csound 1 Click on Intonation 2 Allofthe exercises test an ascending perfect fifth The closer the number is to 1 0 the less the difference when it is out of tune 3 Click New to get a new question 4 Theinterval will automatically play 5 Click Repeat to repeat the interval 6 You must choose whether the second tone is flat the interval is too small in tune the interval is the right size or sharp the interval is too large 229 Chapter 14 GNU Solfege 7 When you are sure of your answer click the corresponding button 8 To get the next question click New 230 Appendix A Revision History Revision 0 0 Tue Jul 27 2010 Christopher Antila crantila fedoraproject org Initial creation of book by publican Revision 0 1 Mon Aug 2 2010 Christopher Antila crantila fedoraproject org First publically available draft in DocBook format Revision 0 2 Tue Aug 3 2010 Christopher Antila crantila fedoraproject org Revised section headings Improved and consistent ified Requirements and Installation for DAWs Revision 0 3 Wed Aug 4 2010 Christopher Antila crantila fedoraproject org Significantly revised Audacity chapter Updated JACK installation slightly Revision 0 4 Thu Aug 5 2010 Christopher Antila crantila
107. Because we re creating a new Synth Object we should assign it to a variable for later reference SynthDef new playMe Out ar 0 SinOsc ar freq 440 mul 0 2 send s var mySynth Synth new playMe Recall that the interpreter automatically uses the Synth and SynthDef Classes when we send the play message to a Function We can actually capture and use the Synth Object created from play ing a Function too This example is almost the same as the previous one var mySynth SinOsc ar freq 443 mul 0 2 play 156 SynthDef and Synth The difference is subtle after the second example we have no control over what name the interpreter gives to the SynthDef that it sends to the server so we can t re use the SynthDef On the other hand because we assign the name NsillyTutorialSD to the SynthDef in the first example we know what it s called and we can re use it Theoretically we can make an infinite number of synths from this single definition Realistically it s limited by the amount of memory the server can use for most modern computers this number is so high that we don t ever need to worry about it As usual the interpreter provides us with an optional short cut var mySynth SynthDef new playMe Out ar SinOsc ar freq 440 mul 0 2 play This automatically sends the synthesis information to the server creates a synth and plays it What minor functionality is lost when we use th
108. By default everything that you export from Ardour is sent to a master bus Busses do not contain regions but function as a batch collecting zone where you can subject the whole project to a particular filter or volume adjustment Procedure 7 1 Add a track for recording 1 Click Track Add Track Bus 2 ensure that Tracks is selected 3 set the number probably 1 4 select the number of input channels probably Stereo meaning 2 5 select the mode Normal creates a new Region for each recording take Tape destructively records over whatever is already recorded like a tape 6 Click Add to create the track Procedure 7 2 Rename tracks to identify them 1 Click the existing track name in the label to the far left of the track area 2 Type over the existing name 3 press Enter 7 2 6 Adjusting Recording Level Volume It is important to properly set the level of the inputs betfore recording The nature of audio equipment is such that it can only perceive sound pressures perceived as volume within a certain range If a sound is too quiet it will not be perceived and if it is too loud it will not be perceived accurately Furthermore and this is most important when thinking about your own ears if a sound is far too loud it may permanently damage the audio instrument The nature of digital audio is such that there is a distinct number of volume levels at which something can be recorded If a sound is either below or ab
109. CCRMA at Home The Planet CCRMA at Home software is hosted stored on a server at Stanford University It is separate from the Fedora Linux servers so yum the command line utility used by PackageKit and 22 Installing the Planet CCRMA at Home Repositories KPackageKit must be made aware that you wish to use it After installing the repository Planet CCRMA at Home software can be installed through yum PackageKit or KPackagekKit just as easily as any other software 4 3 1 Installing the Planet CCRMA at Home Repositories The following steps will install the Planet CCRMA at Home repository intended only for Fedora Linux based computers 1 Update your computer with PackageKit KPackagekit 2 Run the following command in a terminal window su c rpm Uvh http ccrma stanford edu planetccrma mirror fedora linux N planetccrma 13 i386 planetccrma repo 1 1 2 fc13 ccrma noarch rpm This works for all versions of Fedora whether 32 bit and 64 bit Note that the command is a single line broken here for presentation purposes 3 Update your computer again 4 You may receive a warning that the RPM database was altered outside of yum This is normal 5 Your repository definition will automatically be updated 6 Some packages are available from Fedora repositories in addition to other repositories like Planet CCRMA at Home If the Planet CCRMA repository has a newer version of something than the other repositories that you
110. Click the buttons above the Play button to input the rhythm units in order from start to finish Use paper to work it out If you make a mistake inputting use the Backspace button You can Repeat to hear it again not too many times You can change the difficulty by increasing the number of beats per question on Config tab If you get a question wrong you will have a chance to correct it the incorrect parts are underlined for you in red For Rhythmic Tap Back see above section Singing Exercises 14 4 5 Dictation These dictation exercises are for melodic dictation There is not a great variety of examples here and they are either easy or difficult with no middle ground 1 2 Click Dictation Choose a level Volkslieder 1 German folk songs easy Volkslieder 2 German folk songs easy Parts of 2 Bach inventions only 2 the hardest of the four categories Norwegian children songs only 3 easy The clef key and time signatures are given for you along with the starting note and title The quarter note buttons allow you to play only part of the melody Play the whole music plays both parts of the music Back and Forward shifts through the excerpts for dictation It s best to Play the whole music as many times as needed 5 7 or less maximum depending on the excerpt It s best to avoid playing only part of the music 228 Harmonic Progressions 9 Write down the excerpt on p
111. Collider can be treated as an object oriented language 11 1 2 Software Requirements SuperCollider uses the JACK Audio Connection Kit You should install JACK before installing SuperCollider Refer to Section 2 3 1 Installing and Configuring JACK for instructions to install JACK SuperCollider is not available from the Fedora software repositories You must enable the Planet CCRMA at Home repository to install SuperCollider See Section 4 3 1 Installing the Planet CCRMA at Home Repositories for instructions ti enable the Planet CCRMA at Home repository The Planet CCRMA at Home repository contains a wide variety of music and audio applications 113 Chapter 11 SuperCollider 11 1 3 Hardware Requirements You need an audio interface to use SuperCollider You do not need a microphone to use SuperCollider 11 1 4 Available SuperCollider Packages The SuperCollider packages are all held in the Planet CCRMA at Home repository and there are a lot of them Many of them have standard Fedora suffixes but many are other kinds of optional components Most of the optional features add libraries to SuperCollider allowing you to use them in your audio programs The specific features available in each additional package are not described here supercollider ambiem Optional Library Ambisonics classes for SC supercollider debuginfo Decodes the debugging information provided by SuperCollider supercollider devel Co
112. Fedora 14 Musicians Guide A guide to Fedora Linux s audio creation and music capabilities fedorcP Christopher Antila Musicians Guide Fedora 14 Musicians Guide A guide to Fedora Linux s audio creation and music capabilities Edition 1 Author Christopher Antila crantila fedoraproject org Copyright 2010 Red Hat Inc and others The text of and illustrations in this document are licensed by Red Hat under a Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 3 0 Unported license CC BY SA An explanation of CC BY SA is available at http creativecommons org licenses by sa 3 0 The original authors of this document and Red Hat designate the Fedora Project as the Attribution Party for purposes of CC BY SA In accordance with CC BY SA if you distribute this document or an adaptation of it you must provide the URL for the original version Red Hat as the licensor of this document waives the right to enforce and agrees not to assert Section 4d of CC BY SA to the fullest extent permitted by applicable law Red Hat Red Hat Enterprise Linux the Shadowman logo JBoss MetaMatrix Fedora the Infinity Logo and RHCE are trademarks of Red Hat Inc registered in the United States and other countries For guidelines on the permitted uses of the Fedora trademarks refer to https fedoraproject org wiki Legal Trademark guidelines Linux is the registered trademark of Linus Torvalds in the United States and other countries
113. Gen stands for unit generator UGens are special Objects that generate either an audio or a control signal The UGen that will be used for most of the experimentation in this Guide and which was primarily used to generate the Method One program that goes with this Guide is called SinOsc which generates a sine wave The class name SinOsc means sine oscillator The example at the beginning of this chapter SinOsc ar 440 0 0 2 produces an instance of the SinOsc class which continuously outputs a signal based on the parameters given in parentheses This instance produces an audio rate signal which means that it is of sufficient quality to eventually become sound A slightly modified version of that code will give us a control rate signal SinOsc kr 440 0 0 2 There is only one small difference between the two examples for us but for SuperCollider the difference is huge A control rate signal will not be of sufficient quality to become sound it is used to control other UGens that do become sound Unlike other Classes UGen Classes should not be instantiated with the new message They should always be instantiated as either audio rate by passing the ar message or control rate by passing the kr message Control rate signals are calculated much less often than audio rate signals which allows the SuperCollider interpreter and server to save processing power where it wouldn t be noticed 11 3 4 2 The play Functi
114. How to use this shell is beyond the scope of the Musicians Guide but you can get basic help by running the help command from the FluidSynth command line 10 4 Configuring Qsynth When you quit Qsynth all settings are preserved and re used when Qsynth is re started This includes settings for additional instances of Qsynth described below which are also re created when Qsynth is re started 10 4 1 Starting FluidSynth 1 Start Qsynth from the Applications menu or the K Menu 2 The FluidSynth engine will be started automatically 3 The row of buttons at the right of the Qsynth window control Qsynth The other settings control FluidSynth 4 You can use the Messages button to display a window containing FluidSynth s output If FluidSynth doesn t work as expected you can use this window to view any error message that might have been produced 10 4 2 SoundFont Configuration The default FluidR3 SoundFont installed with Qsynth is automatically configured To configure an additional Soundfount 1 Click on the Open button and navigate to the path of the SoundFont you wish to add This should be usr share soundfonts if installed to the standard location specified in Section 10 2 5 Installation of SoundFont Files 108 JACK Output Configuration 2 Select the additional SoundFont then click the Open button 3 To change the SoundFont ID SFID use the Up and Down buttons to change the positio
115. IDI project with Qtractor Its interface offers simple intuitive point and click interaction with clips integrated control of JACK connections MIDI control integration with external devices and other MIDI aware software and support for LADSPA DSSI native VSTi and LV2 plug ins With development progressing very quickly Qtractor is becoming more stable and usable by the minute The simple interface allows you to focus on creating music to suit your creative needs Beginners and advanced users alike will be pleased to see how Qtractor can work for them 8 1 Requirements and Installation 8 1 1 Knowledge Requirements Qtractor is easy to use and its user interface is similar to other DAWs We recommend that you read Section 6 4 User Interface if you have not used a DAW before 8 1 2 Software Requirements Qtractor uses the JACK Audio Connection Kit You should install JACK before installing Qtractor See Section 2 3 1 Installing and Configuring JACK for instructions to install JACK 8 1 3 Hardware Requirements You need an audio interface to use Qtractor If you will record audio with Qtractor you must have at least one microphone connected to your audio interface You do not need a microphone to record audio signals from other JACK aware programs like FluidSynth and SuperCollider 8 1 4 Other Requirements You need a MIDI synthesizer to use Qtractor as a MIDI sequencer You can use hardware based and software based s
116. If you have a suggestion for improving the documentation try to be as specific as possible when describing it If you have found an error please include the section number and some of the surrounding text so we can find it easily xiii xiv Part I Linux Audio Basics asdf Chapter 1 Sound Cards and Digital Audio This chapter introduces the technical vocabulary used for computer audio hardware 1 1 Types of Sound Cards A sound card is a hardware device which allows a computer to process sound Most sound cards are either audio interfaces or MIDI interfaces These two kinds of interfaces are described below 1 1 1 Audio Interfaces An audio interface is a hardware device that provides a connection between your computer and audio equipment including microphones and speakers Audio interfaces usually convert audio signals between analog and digital formats signals entering the computer are passed through an analog to digital convertor and signals leaving the computer are passed through a digital to analog convertor Some audio interfaces have digital input and output ports which means that other devices perform the conversion between analog and digital signal formats The conversion between analog and digital audio signal formats is the primary function of audio interfaces Real sound has an infinite range of pitch volume and durational possibilities Computers cannot process infinite information and requir
117. L out 1 marimba2 L out 2 ff marimba2 R out 1 ff marimba2 R out 2 ff master out 1 ff master out 2 strings L out 1 strings L out 2 strings R out 1 strings R out 2 voice L out 1 ff voice L out 2 f voice R out 1 voice R out 2 PE JB Mil SA WOES PINS TT w 3 Disconnect All Writable Clients Input Por v Y ardour AN Bus clarinet in 1 XQ Bus clarinet in 2 Bus marimbal in 1 Bus marimba1 in 2 Bus marimba2 in 1 Bus marimba2 in 2 XQ Bus strings in 1 AN Bus strings in 2 Q Bus voice in 1 XX Bus voice in 2 EN clarinet L in 1 Q clarinet R in 1 Q EXAMPLE in 1 XQ EXAMPLE in 2 XQ marimbal L in 1 XQ marimbal R in 1 marimba2 L in 1 Q marimba2 R in 1 EN master in 1 AN master in 2 Q strings L in 1 strings R in 1 voice L in 1 voice R in 1 Y system playback 1 playback 2 playback 3 playback 4 playback 5 playback 6 playback 7 playback 8 Refresh Figure 7 6 Connections in Ardour 7 4 3 Add Regions to Tracks The next step is to add the regions into the tracks It would be faster if we also cropped the regions at this point but there are many reasons that it can be helpful to have longer regions or rests nearly silent space within a region so we ll keep them in tact for now 1 Inthe session sidebar to the right of the canvas area select the Regions tab This list contains all of the regions in the session Each region is listed once
118. LilyPond 218 Chapter 14 GNU Solfege 14 1 Requirements and Installation 14 1 1 Hardware and Software Requirements It is assumed that prior to using GNU Solfege users have already correctly configured their audio equipment In addition the timidity package is required by Solfege which requires the installation of a large approximately 140 MB SoundFont library This library is shared with the FluidSynth application which has its own section in this guide and is used by several other software packages timidity also requires the installation of the JACK Audio Connection Kit If you have installed the Planet CCRMA at Home repository and have not yet followed the instructions to correctly install and configure its version of JACK then it is recommended that you do so before installing GNU Solfege Refer to Section 2 3 1 Installing and Configuring JACK for installations to install JACK 14 1 2 Other Requirements Solfege requires knowledge of Western musical notation and basic music theory terms and concepts 14 1 3 Required Installation Please review the Requirements section above before installation Use Packagekit KPackagekKit to install the so fege package 14 1 4 Optional Installation Csound Csound is a sound synthesis program similar to SuperCollider It is older quite well developed and has a broader range of features To install Csound first close Solfege then use PackageKit or KP
119. Osc to change it periodically added a SinOsc variable called volumeL which I used as the argument to mul for the frequencyL SinOsc in the left channel And now the sheer boredom of the drone in the left channel becomes obvious decide to make it more interesting by adding a series of overtones an overtone is decide to add six then experiment with which frequencies to add But every time adjust one frequency I have to re calculate and change all the others So decide to add a variable for the drone s frequency frequencyL drone This way after finding the right intervals can easily adjust all of them just by changing the variable I ve decided on drone 1 2 5 13 and 28 These are more or less arbitrary and arrived on them through experimentation Of course the drone will be way too loud Writing 174 Designing the Second Part SinOsc ar frequencyL drone 2 frequencyL drone 5 frequencyL drone i13 frequencyL drone 28 frequencyL mul 0 1 in your program is not easy to read and actually it doesn t work out volume balance wise for me at least the high frequencies are too loud and the lower ones are not loud enough In retrospect should have created a variable for the mul of these drones so could adjust them easily in proportion But didn t 13 A constant drone isn t as much fun as one that slowly changes over time So changed the frequencyL drone value to a SinOsc kr UGen Becau
120. Ws is one of the reasons for their success Although each individual track can play only one region at a time the use of multiple tracks allows the DAW s outputted audio to contain a virtually unlimited number of simultaneous regions The most powerful aspect of this is that audio does not have to be recorded simultaneously in order to be played back simultaneously you could sing a duet with yourself for example 41 Chapter 6 Digital Audio Workstations Region clip and segment are synonyms different software uses a different word to refer to the same thing A xmultitrack or clip or segment is the portion of audio recorded into one track during one take Regions are represented in the main DAW interface window as a rectangle usually coloured and always contained in only one track Regions containing audio signal data usually display a spectrographic representation of that data Regions containing MIDI signal data usually displayed as matrix based representation of that data For the three DAW applications in the Musicians Guide Ardour calls them regions Qtractor calls them clips and Rosegarden calls them segments 42 Transport and Playhead The transport is responsible for managing the current time in a session and with it the playhead The playhead marks the point on the timeline from where audio audio would be played or to where audio would be recorded The transport controls the playhead
121. You need an audio interface to use Ardour If you will record audio with Ardour you must have at least one microphone connected to your audio interface You do not need a microphone to record audio signals from other JACK aware programs like FluidSynth and SuperCollider 7 1 4 Installation Use PackageKit or KPackagekKit to install the ardour package Other required software is installed automatically 7 2 Recording a Session Recording a session usually happens all at once but sometimes recording can happen over several days or even weeks Mixing and mastering happen after a session has been recorded Remember that JACK must have the same sample rate and sample format settings each time you open a session 7 2 1 Running Ardour 1 Ardour uses the JACK sound server Use QjackCtl to start JACK before Ardour or Ardour starts JACK for you 2 Ardour asks you to choose a location to save your new session Ardour automatically creates a directory to store the session s files You can also open an existing session 7 2 2 The Interface This section explains some of the graphical interface components that are unique to Ardour Components that are consistent through most DAWS are explained in Section 6 3 Interface Vocabulary 51 Chapter 7 Ardour ide Edit E gt t c No Grid 3 Mouse tn marines clarinet L clarinet A ETT Mute Sola 4 2 ens Create the Inconceiy eate the Inconcem eate the Inc s
122. a SinOsc In order to fill up time decided to employ a three part rounded binary form ABA or something something new then the first thing again This is kind of like a sine oscillation too 11 4 3 Designing the First Part 1 Istarted with something simple a single SinOsc SinOsc ar j play 2 This is not exciting it just stays the same forever and it only uses one channel So added another SinOsc to the right channel using the array notation The result is SinOsc ar SinOsc ar play 3 Now it sounds balanced at least like it s coming from the middle But it s still boring so added a frequency changing SinOsc to the right channel resulting in SinOsc ar SinOsc ar SinOsc kr 1 50 300 play 4 Since that s difficult to read and since know that I m just going to keep adding things expand the code a little bit to make it more legible This gives me var left SinOsc ar var right SinOsc ar SinOsc kr 1 50 300 left right play define a variable holding everything want in the left channel then the same for the right still use the array notation to create a stereo array Remember that SuperCollider functions return the last value stated so it might look like the stereo array is ignored but because this array is what is returned by the function contained between and it is this array that gets played by the following play 5 I also ad
123. a sub mixing bus when you are using one two channels per bus called bus name out 1 and bus name out 2 These will usually be connected to the master bus unless you are using two levels of sub mixing busses two channels for the auditioner called auditioner out 1 which represents the channels used to audition a region when you want to import it for example or in the Regions box on the right side when you select one and right click and choose Audition These should not be connected to the master bus but to an output device that you want to use when auditioning regions two channels for the click track called click out 1 which represents the channels used to play the click track when recording These should not be connected to the master bus but to an output device that you want to use for the click track two channels for the master bus called master out 1 which represents the output used by the master output bus These should be connected to an output device that you wish to use for listening to the session when the transport is moving Ardour offers the following input ports for a stereo two channel setup two channels per track called track name in 1 and track name in 2 These should both be connected to the same input device If you are using a recording bus then these should be connected to that bus two channels per bus called bus name in 1 and bus name in 2 These should be connected to
124. a variable or else you have no way to use the bus later var myBus Bus audio s 2 The interpreter also keeps track of which bus numbers are used for which Bus Objects so the signals will never get confused Of course you can still route signals through those bus numbers without using the Bus Object but the Bus Class helps us to keep things straight The following messages functions can also be used with Bus Objects Table 11 5 Some Functions of the Bus Class Message Function Example Return Value index b index The lowest bus number used by this Bus object numChannels b numChannels The number of busses used by this Bus object Either audio or control 162 Busses Message Function Example Return Value server b server The name of the server used by the Bus object The default server is localhost When you are done with a Bus you can release the channels for use by other Bus Objects lt replaceable gt myBusVariable lt replaceable gt free lt replaceable gt myBusVariable lt replaceable gt nil Like when sending the free message to a Synth Object you should set the variable name of a free d Bus to nil This will prevent you from accidentally sending audio there after the Bus is released 11 3 11 4 Using Busses Control Rate Example The best way to understand how and when to use a bus is to see them in action execute first prepare the server var busAud
125. ackagekKit to install the csound package When Solfege is restarted you will be able to use the Intonation exercises 14 1 5 Optional Installation MMA MMA stands for Musical MIDI Accompaniment and it is not available for Fedora in a prepackaged format The software can be found on the MMA Homepage at http www mellowood ca mma where you can download the source code and compile it if desired MMA is only used by some of the harmonic dictation questions so its installation is not required 14 2 Configuration It is not necessary to configure Solfege The simple first time configuration will help to customize the application for your needs but it is not required The other configuration options are explained for your reference These configuration options are not required but you may wish to change them They are all available from the Preferences window accesible through Solfege s main menu File gt Preferences 219 Chapter 14 GNU Solfege 14 2 1 When You Run Solfege for the First Time These steps allow Solfege to automatically customize some questions for you 1 Start Solfege 2 From the menu select File gt Preferences 3 Select the User tab 4 Input your vocal range if you know it Solfege uses this information to assign questions in a comfortable pitch range 5 Input your biological gender in the Sex field Solfege uses this information to assign questions in the correct octave
126. ake an adjustment stop the transport and adjust the range as desired iii To listen again right click on the range and select loop range iv You may need to zoom in so that you can adjust the range with sufficient detail Hold the Ctrl key on the keyboard and use the scrollwheel to zoom in 72 Compare Multiple Recordings of the Same Thing v When you re done with the looping function remove the looping markers from the timeline They look like green triangles with the word Loop written beside Move the cursor over a triangle so that it changes colour Then press the Delete button on the keyboard When you are happy with the range that you ve selected right click on the range and choose Consolidate range from the menu Ardour will create a region from the range that you selected leaving it in place It will also divide the space in the region before and after the new region leaving you with many smaller regions all conveniently collected in the session toolbar s Regions list under the blue coloured Voice 2 L and Voice 2 R regions Trim the rest of the original Voice 2 region so that it starts with golden and does not contain any of the previous word flax You don t need to use the range tool but you can if you wish Then push the two regions together so that it sounds like I have your flax golden tails to This isn t going to sound perfect but you might prefer it to simply trimming the beg
127. al The ruler displays the time since the start of the file in minutes and seconds The timeline is the main area of the main window of Audacity The leftmost point is the beginning of the audio file Each track contains two channels of audio signal data Audacity stacks tracks vertically in the main window Audacity plays back all tracks simultaneously Each track has a track info area which holds settings like the fader panner and mute and solo buttons Chapter 6 Digital Audio Workstations contains more information about the Audacity user interface That chapter defines the purpose and use of many user interface components 5 5 Recording This section explains possible ways to use Audacity to record 5 5 1 Start to Record This procedure can be used whether you want to record from microphones or from another application on your computer 32 Continue to Record 1 Prepare your computer to record Connect the microphones you want to use and test them See Section 5 2 5 Post Installation Test Playback and Section 5 2 6 Post Installation Test Recording for instructions to test your equipment 2 Check the sample rate and sample format See Section 5 3 3 Setting the Project s Sample Rate and Format for instructions to change the sample rate and sample format 3 The Record button shows a red circle When you are ready to record click the Record button 4 The Stop button shows an orange squ
128. al devices to split or combine the signals 1 4 8 Multichannel Audio An audio channel is a single path of audio data Multichannel audio is any audio which uses more than one channel simultaneously allowing the transmission of more audio data than single channel audio Audio was originally recorded with only one channel producing monophonic or mono recordings Beginning in the 1950s stereophonic recordings with two independent channels began replacing monophonic recordings Since humans have two independent ears it makes sense to record and reproduce audio with two independent channels involving two speakers Most sound recordings available today are stereophonic and people have found this mostly satisfying 11 Chapter 1 Sound Cards and Digital Audio There is a growing trend toward five and seven channel audio driven primarily by surround sound movies and not widely available for music Two surround sound formats exist for music DVD Audio DVD A and Super Audio CD SACD The development of these formats and the devices to use them is held back by the proliferation of headphones with personal MP3 players a general lack of desire for improvement in audio quality amongst consumers and the copy protection measures put in place by record labels The result is that while some consumers are willing to pay higher prices for DVD A or SACD recordings only a small number of recordings are available Even if you buy a DVD
129. always in lower case 12 4 2 Numbers Are Durations A number appended to a letter is understood by LilyPond to indicate that particular note s note value A whole note is indicated with a 1 and all other durations are indicated with a number representing the fraction of a whole note that they occupy half notes are 2 like 1 2 note quarter notes are 4 like 1 4 note eighth notes are 8 like 1 8 note and so on To add a dot to a note thereby increasing its length by one half you simply include a period after the number For example e4 means dotted quarter note on E To add a tie from one note to the next thereby continuing its duration across a measure line add a tilde after the pitch and duration After indicating a duration it is assumed that all subsequent notes have the same duration until indicated otherwise 12 4 3 Articulations Many different symbols are used to tell LilyPond to add articulation signs to a note They are all appended after the pitch and if included duration and many have a position indicator too A full list of articulation markings is available in the LilyPond manual and Frescobaldi remembers most of them for you they are stored in the left side panel These are some of the most common articulation marks which use a position indicator unless specified otherwise to begin a slur no position indicator to end a slur no position indicator to begin a tie
130. an move Qtractor s transport to a particular point in a session by holding Shift as you use the mouse to click on that point You can choose whether or not you want the track pane to automatically scroll as the transport moves by clicking Transport gt Follow Playhead 8 3 5 2 MIDI When creating a MIDI track you can use the omni check box to allow the track to respond to input from any MIDI channel If the check box is unselected the track will respond only to signals on its assigned MIDI channel In the matrix editor window you can adjust the velocity loudness of a note by using the Resize MIDI Tool see Section 8 3 2 Using the MIDI Matrix Editor s Tools above 90 Creating a MIDI Composition Tutorial If you find it difficult to work with Qtractor s matrix editor but you find it easy to work with LilyPond you can use this to your advantage LilyPond will output a MIDI format representation of your score if you include a midi section in the score section It should look something like this Nscore Wo eo You can import LilyPond s MIDI output by clicking Track gt Import Tracks gt MIDI in Qtractor 8 4 Creating a MIDI Composition Tutorial We ve created a demonstration of what a first time user might try for their first project with Qtractor The following sequences demonstrate the decision making and the various features that could be learned This does not attempt to show a generic method
131. and fingerings It s easier to correct errors with pitch and rhythm and register before the extra markings are added To help make sixteenth note passages easier to read you can use double or triple spaces to separate beats Such passages often feature repeated patterns before copy and pasting make sure that the pattern repetition is truly exact 3 When you progress to a new four measure section or two or six etc input the less difficult staff first if there is one This way you will have a better visual reference when verifying the more difficult part It s easier to see differences if your score looks closer to the original 4 The same idea applies for multi measure polyphonic passages in the same staff input the easier part first so you have a visual reference 5 To help ensure that you don t get lost write measure numbers in the source file every five measures or so See the example source file to see how this is done Even if you don t want to have measure numbers in the final score it can be helpful to include them during inputting and error checking 6 Save the dynamics and pedal markings for last Sometimes they can help you to keep your place in the score while double checking that it s correct but don t usually put them in with the rest of the notes for reasons described below in the Piano Dynamics section Most importantly remember that these are just suggestions The order in which you do things shoul
132. and you will not be using a notebook or netbook computer for audio you should consider an internal PCI or PCI Express connection If you want an external sound card you should consider a FireWire connection If FireWire connected sound cards are more too expensive you should consider a USB connection The connection type is not the most important consideration when choosing a sound card The subjective quality of the analog to digital and digital to analog convertors is the most important consideration 1 3 Sample Sample Rate Sample Format and Bit Rate The primary function of audio interfaces is to convert signals between analog and digital formats As mentioned earlier real sound has an infinite possibility of pitches volumes and durations Computers cannot process infinite information so the audio signal must be converted before they can use it Sample source pcm svg available from http commons wikimedia org wiki File Pcm svg Figure 1 1 A waveform approximated by computer The diagram in Figure 1 1 A waveform approximated by computer illustrates the situation The red wave shape represents a sound wave that could be produced by a singer or an acoustic instrument The gradual change of the red wave cannot be processed by a computer which must use an approximation represented by the gray shaded area of the diagram This diagram is an exaggerated example and it does not represent a real recording The conversion betwe
133. annel Expansion You can automatically create multiple UGens by providing an Array as one of the parameters The SuperCollider interpreter will automatically create multichannel UGens as a result The following two examples produce equivalent output SinOsc ar 440 0 0 2 SinOsc ar 440 0 2 J play SinOsc ar 440 440 0 0 2 play The second example can be easier to read because it is obvious that only the frequency is changing or in this case that nothing is changing This technique is more useful in a situation like the following SinOsc ar 440 445 450 455 460 465 440 445 450 455 460 465 9 0 2 play That s not exactly easy to read but it s easier to figure out than the most obvious alternative SinOsc ar 440 0 0 2 SinOsc ar 445 0 0 2 SinOsc ar 450 0 0 2 SinOsc ar 455 0 0 2 SinOsc ar 460 0 0 2 SinOsc ar 465 0 0 2 SinOsc ar 440 0 0 2 SinOsc ar 445 0 0 2 SinOsc ar 450 0 0 2 SinOsc ar 455 0 2 SinOsc ar 460 0 2 SinOsc ar 465 0 2 J 3 play More importantly multichannel expansion gives us another tool to avoid repetition Repetition is the enemy of correctness it s so much more difficult to find a mistake in the second example than in the first 11 3 5 3 Method One Believe it or not you now know enough to understand a slightly modified version of the first part of Method One a S
134. annels as you need Each set of 16 channels will be indicated in JACK with an additional MIDI input device The name of the device indicates which channels are listening channels 1 through 16 listen to the device ending in 0 channels 17 through 32 listen to the device ending in 1 channels 33 through 58 listen to the device ending in 2 and so on To change the number of MIDI input channels follow these instructions 1 Open the Qsynth Setup window 2 The Enable MIDI Input setting must be enabled 3 Input the number of channels that you wish to use between 1 and 256 110 Saving and Reusing Channel Assignments 10 5 2 Saving and Reusing Channel Assignments QSynth allows you to save multiple sets of program assignments which you can restore later This means that you will not have to re configure all of the channels every time you want to change them To save the settings for later 1 Ensure that Qsynth is correctly configured and working with the program assignments as desired 2 In Qsynth s Channels window erase the contents of the Preset Name text field and replace it with whatever name you would like 3 Click Save to preserve the settings under that name To restore settings from earlier 1 Open Qsynth s Channels window 2 Search through the Preset Name drop down box to find the name of the preset that you wish to restore 3 Selectit and verify that the correct channel assignments were rest
135. aper then when you re sure that you ve finished it correctly click Show 10 This exercise is self policing and does not track progress 14 4 6 Harmonic Progressions These dictation exercises are for harmonic dictation You will be asked to guess the harmonic progression but users should also notate at least the outer voices lowest and highest It should be noted that these progressions do not follow Common Practice Period harmonic procedures 1 Click Harmonic progressions 2 Some harmonic progressions require MMA as indicated See below for instructions on installation 3 The Non MMA Categories contain the following chords Easy harmonic progressions Il IV V VI with Inverisons add IV6 and V6 Three chords root position I Il III IV V VI 4 Choose a category 5 Click New to get a question 6 The passage will automatically play once but you will not get a key signature If you are notating the dictation and you do not know which pitches are being used then you may wish to guess the key using sol fa equivalents to know if you re correct 7 Click the chord buttons to input the series of chords that you hear in order from first to last 8 To hear the example again click Repeat 9 If you make a mistake click the Backspace button to erase the last input chord 10 When you are sure that your answer is correct click Guess answer 11 To get another question click New 14 4
136. appens when you remove the first semicolon which marks the end of the first statement The SuperCollider interpreter produces an unhelpful error message and tells you that an error occurred after the forgotten semicolon This is why it is important to always remember statement concluding semicolons 11 3 1 5 Data Types Numbers and Strings In many programming languages it is the programmer s responsibility to determine the type of data that is being used and how it should be stored The SuperCollider interpreter takes advantage of the power of modern computers and deals with this on our behalf This greatly simplifies basic tasks because there are only two kinds of data to worry about and they make perfect sense Numbers These are numbers written simply as numbers Anything that can be done with real world numbers can also be done with SuperCollider s numbers They can be as large or small positive or negative as you want They can have any number of digits on either side of the decimal point Strings These are a string of characters written between two double quote characters like this The double quote characters are required so that SuperCollider knows where to begin and end the string of characters A string of character can contain as many characters as you like including one character and no characters If you want to include a double quote character in a string you should put a blackslash before it The following is interpreted
137. ar test true false choose pseudo randomly chooses one of the elements in the List test if It s true postln nil In this example the alternate if syntax is used where the boolean expression is placed before the parentheses If structures can also be nested which is like telling the interpreter If this is true do this otherwise if this is true do this otherwise if this is true do this In this relatively simple example of nesting the interpreter evaluates each if structure only if the previous one was false var test 1 2 3 choose pseudo randomly chooses one of the elements in the List if 1 test It s one postln if 2 test It s two postln if 3 test It s three postln nil This is a more complex example of nesting var testA var testB 1 2 3 choose pseudo randomly chooses one of the elements in the List 1 2 3 choose if 1 testA 1 testB if It s one and one postln 2 testB if It s one and two postln 3 testB if It s one and three postlin if 2 testA 1 testB if It s two and one postln 2 testB if It s two and two postln 3 testB if It s two and three postlin if 3 testA 1 testB if It s three and one postin 2 testB if It s three and two postln 3 testB if It s thre
138. aradigm mode of thought almost everything in SuperCollider is thought of as an abstract Object In this way it allows programmers to make compelling comparisons to the real world where all tangible things are objects and where it is not hard to conceive of most intangible things as objects too With object oriented programming computer science takes a break from mathematics and is influenced by philosophy Class names always begin with an uppercase letter Anything can be represented as an Object like a bicycle for instance Let s pretend that we have an Object called a Bicycle We don t yet have a particular bicycle just the abstract class containing everything that is true about all bicycles If a Bicycle class exists in SuperCollider you generate 127 Chapter 11 SuperCollider a specific instance like this var bike Bicycle new All SuperCollider Objects can be instantiated in this way you get a specific Bicycle from the generic class and you can then modify and work with your own Object as you choose The specific properties associated with a particular instance of a class are called instance variables There are certain things that Bicycles are designed to do turn the wheels turn the handlebar raise and lower the seat and so on You can cause these things to happen by providing a certain input to a real world Bicycle if you want to turn the wheels you might push the pedals In SuperCollider you cause things to
139. are Click the Stop button to stop the recorder 5 Audacity displays the recorded audio in the timeline of a track as a blue sound wave like shape that represents the volume level Audacity sometimes displays the blue shape immediately and sometimes only after you click Stop When Audacity does not show the blue shape immediately it does not have enough processor power and decides to process the audio instead of the blue shape 5 5 2 Continue to Record You can record more audio after the first recording in one of these ways 1 You can continue to record from the end of the already recorded audio 1 Press Shift then click Record 2 Audacity starts to record from the end of the already recorded audio The new audio is put in the previously selected track 2 Youcan record new audio that will play at the same time as the already recorded audio 1 Choose Transport Skip to Start or press Home to move the transport head to the start of the file 2 Click Record 3 Audacity starts to record from the beginning The new audio is put in a new track and does not erase existing audio 3 You can record new audio that will play at the same time as the already recorded audio but start after the beginning 1 Find the timeline position when you want to record new audio Click on an existing track at that time 2 Click Record 3 Audacity starts to record from the position of the transport head The new audio is put in a
140. are not included in the final mix To do this 1 Record the first part The order in which to record parts is up to the recording engineer that means you It will probably be easier to record whoever plays the most or whoever plays the most rhythmically consistent part before the others 2 Add the track s onto which you will next record 3 Setup the connections for the new track 4 Doalevel check to ensuer that the new track is neither too loud nor soft 5 Setthe transport to the beginning of the passage where you want to begin recording the next track You do not need to set up the start of the track very precisely since you can change that later You will need to make sure that the next player has enough time after the transport is started to hear where they are supposed to enter and at what tempo 6 You will need to set up some way for the performers or somebody conducting leading them to hear the already recorded material It is probably best to do this with headphones 7 Arm the tracks that you want to record Make sure that already recorded tracks are no longer armed especially if they are in tape mode 8 Arm the transport 9 When you are ready to record start the transport rolling 7 2 8 3 To Capture a Better Recording of Something That Is already Recorded If you have already recorded all or most of a session you can re record part of the session in order to fix up any issues Ardour allows you to rec
141. are two approaches to letting Ardour know how we want to connect the tracks and busses They will both be demonstrated and you will be left to fill in the rest 1 One way to connect tracks and busses is more suitable for small scale connection changes a b Select the marimba1 L track by clicking in the track s control area underneath the controls The editor mixer to the left of the canvas area should display the track s name near the top and the track s colour probably green in this case If you can t see the editor mixer open it by using the menu Click View gt Show Editor Mixer so that it is checked You can also press Shift E on the keyboard to toggle its display After confirming that the editor mixer is showing the control for the marimba1 L track look at the button on the bottom of the editor mixer above Comments It should say master which means its output is connected to the master bus This is not what we want so click the master button When you click the master button a menu pops up allowing you to choose a different output We want to connect the track to the Bus marimba1 bus which isn t in the list so choose Edit from the menu The connection window that appears looks confusing but it isn t Here s how it works The left side labeled Outputs contains two output channels out 1 and out 2 along with a list of everything to which those outputs are connected The Add
142. aring each exercise try to make a correct identification 9 If you need to hear the exercise again do it 10 It is good to limit the number of times you listen 11 Select what you think is the correct choice 12 Goto the next question which may be automatic for some questions You may want to pre select a number of seconds to wait before progressing to the next question 14 4 2 Singing These are Sing intervals 1 Select Sing intervals 2 Choose which ones you want to focus on 3 The exercise will begin playing the first of the tones you are to sing 4 You must sing the first and the second tone or to make it harder only the second tone tip use sol fa syllables 5 Solfege does not know whether you sang the interval correctly so you must tell it Tap generated rhythm 1 Select Tap generated rhythm 2 Choose a subcategory they correspond to those in the dictation but there is no compound metre available See below 3 Click New 4 It will play you a rhythm listen carefully and conduct the beat if you can 5 as with rhythmic dictation you will be given an intro 6 You must repeat the rhythm by click on the Tap here button 7 Bestto use the space bar to tap in here s how 8 The accuracy may be set too high I like 0 30 9 On Config change Number of beats in question to adjust the difficulty Sing chord 1 Select Sing chord 2 Choose the type of chords you want to sing 3 Click N
143. as starting after the higher track If you don t believe me try it out 5 To solve this problem the original editor Esther had the upper marimba start a bit later than the lower marimba If you were to listen to the session so far you would notice that the marimba is way too loud compared to the singers and that everything sounds very narrow This is because we re only arranging regions and we haven t done any of the mixing yet 7 4 6 4 Align the Strings Regions 1 Slide the Strings 1A regions so that they start playing at about 00 00 28 00 which should leave plenty of room for the sound of the chairs if you decided to keep it 76 Listen 2 The Strings 4 region begins in the same way that the Strings 1A regions end Listen to both and choose which you prefer then use the position of the sounds in the Strings 1A region to guide your trimming and alignment of the Strings 4 region 3 The other two strings regions contain the same musical material as the Strings 1A region We can t decide between them yet so move them both past the end of the concluding marimba regions so they won t be heard 7 4 6 5 Align the Clarinet Regions As with the Strings regions we will simply pick a suitable clarinet region and move it into place leaving the choice between multiples until later When you re moving regions a long distance like this it helps to zoom out for a bit 1 Slide the Clarinet 1A region so that th
144. at approximately 00 03 20 000 with Marmiba 3 in the marimba1 tracks We will find a final alignment later Move the Marimba 4 regions so they start at approximately the same time as the Marimba 3 regions but in the marimba2 tracks We will find a final alignment later 7 4 6 2 Continue with the Voice Regions Throughout this section you will need to move un placed regions out of the way farter down the session so that they don t interfere with the alignment process Remember to lock the regions once you put them in place They can be unlocked and re aligned later if you choose Finally it will help if you place a marker like the marimba start marker that we placed earlier where each region will 75 Chapter 7 Ardour start When you place a marker you can click on it and move the blue place marker line This will help you to align the start of sound in a region to the place where you want it to be 1 Enable solo mode on the voice bus so that you can hear it as well as the marimba busses 2 Slide the Voice_1 regions so that the singer starts at about the same time as the higher marimba 3 Slide the Voice 2 regions so that the singer starts at about 00 00 48 00 4 Slide the ens Here Is How 1 regions so that they start singing at about 00 01 33 300 5 Slide the ens Here Is How 2 and the adjoined ens Here Is How 3 regions so that they start singing at about 00 02 11 500 6 After playing closer
145. ating MIDI tracks If you are unsure of where to start then you may not need a DAW at all f you are looking for a high quality recording application or a tool for manipulating one audio file at a time then you would probably be better off with Audacity This will be the choice of most computer users especially those new to computer audio or looking for a quick solution requiring little specialized knowledge Audacity is also a good way to get your first computer audio experiences specifically because it is easier to use than most other audio software To take full advantage of the features offered by Ardour Qtractor and Rosegarden your computer should be equipped with professional quality audio equipment including an after market audio interface and input devices like microphones If you do not have access to such equipment then Audacity may be a better choice for you f you are simply hoping to create a MIDI recording of some sheet music you are probably better off using LilyPond This program is designed primarily to create printable sheet music but it will produce a MIDI format version of a score if you include the following command in the score section of your LilyPond source file Nnidi There are a selection of options that can be put in the midi section refer to the LilyPond help files for a listing 6 2 Stages of Recording There are three main stages involved in the the process of recording something and prepar
146. attention to Voice 3 and Voice 4 you realize that the singer misses a word plan in you spider s ear in Voice 4 Because Voice 3 doesn t contain the second part of Voice 4 we ll need to trim the Voice 4 region and use both a The singer should start singing in Voice 3 at about 00 02 24 500 b The signer should start singing and here is how in Voice 4 at about 00 02 43 000 7 Slide the ens Create the Inconceivable regions so that they start singing at about 00 02 59 000 7 4 6 3 Align the Marimba at the End Now that we have roughly placed all the singers regions we can figure out where to put the concluding marimba passage 1 Listen to the ens Create the Inconceivable regions We re going to start the marimba s ending regions somewhere after the highest singer has said if you know what I mean but before she stops singing the word mean 2 It s up to you exactly where to re start the marimba Pick a place and move the two Marimba 3 region to that place in the marimba1 bus and the Marimba 4 region in the marimba2 bus 3 You may need to set up a range and use the transport s looping function to get the alignment exact 4 This particular entry is going to be difficult because the low marimba enters quietly and blooms into sounding while the higher marimba has a hard attack that dies This means that if you start both marimba tracks at the same time the listener will perceive the lower track
147. b evaluates to true a b evaluates to false The operator evaluates to true because a and b represent equivalent Objects they are equal The operator evaluates to false because a and b represent different instances of the Objects they are not identical var a 12 24 48 var b a a b evaluates to true a b evaluates to true In this case the operator still evaluates to true The operator also evaluates to true because a and b both represent the same Object When the interpreter evaluates var b a inthe example above it actually assigns b the same value that a stores not a copy of it 144 Conditional Execution 11 3 8 2 4 Logical And and Or The logical And and Or operators must receive two boolean arguments Logical And returns true if both of its arguments are true Logical Or returns true if one of its arguments are true The following table illustrates how the SuperCollider interpreter will evaluate each of the following situations Table 11 3 Truth Table If the left sub and the right sub then logical and logical Or expression is expression is And evaluates to evaluates to The interpreter evaluates the expression on the left first and then the expression on the right only if it will influence the outcome This means that if the left side expression of a logical Or operator evaluates to true the interpreter w
148. ba1 tracks As you add the regions you will learn a lot about manipulating regions in Ardour Here are some tips to help Use the mouse s scrollwheel if you have one to scroll vertically seeing all the tracks Hold down the Ctrl button on the keyboard and use the mouse s scrollwheel to adjust the amount of time visible in the canvas window Hold down the Alt button on the keyboard and use the mouse s scrollwheel to scroll horizontally moving along the timeline After placing a region you can move it around anywhere in the canvas area You ll need to use the Select Move Objects tool click the pointing hand icon in the toolbar underneath the transport controls f you are moving a region be sure to click and drag from the large area above the coloured bar If you click in the coloured bar at the bottom of the region you will reduce the region s size When you re just adding tracks like this it s not important that they are synchronized perfectly But you can use the magnetic snapping feature to automatically align the beginning of tracks to the second As you slowly drag a region when the start nears a second indicated by vertical lines through the canvas area the region will seem to stick to the second Later you may want to turn off this feature Since we re just adding the regions imprecisely for now put them into the appropriate track as tightly as possible without overlapping 7 4 4 Cut the Reg
149. ber that you re just aiming for most of the session to be balanced at this point a single fader setting is unlikely to be acceptable for the entire session 6 You can adjust the fader setting in two ways a Click and drag the vertical dotted control strip to the left of the level meter which lights up as a track is playing b Use the indicator box as a text field click in the box erase the number that it shows and write in a new number Press enter on the keyboard to set the new value 7 You might wish to change the order of tracks and busses in the canvas area which will change the order in the mixer window Putting all of the busses together makes it easier to see them 8 You could also choose to not display the tracks again allowing you to focus on the busses that you will be changing Do temporarily hide a track or bus in the mixer window use the toolbox on the left side of the mixer window Un check the Show box for each of the tracks or busses that you want to temporarily hide 9 The maximum level indicator on the fader tool might help you to judge how loud each track is This indicator is located above the meter underneath the Solo button The indicator displays the highest level produced by the track since the indicator s last reset You can reset the indicator by clicking on it 7 5 3 Set Initial Panning Setting up the initial panning takes quite a bit more thought than setting the initial levels Differen
150. button adds an output channel We re outputting the signal to a stereo bus so two is enough The Remove button removes an output channel The Disconnect All button removes all of the track s output connections Clicking a connection in this list will remove it 65 Chapter 7 Ardour The right side labeled Available connections contains a list of all of the inputs offered by JACK Each JACK aware application has a tab with its connections listed underneath Clicking a connection in this list will add it to the last selected output channel g Click the Disconnect All button h Click in the empty out 1 list i From the Available connections list click on the Bus marimbat in 1 connection It will be added to the out 1 list j Then click on the Bus marimba1 in 2 connection It will be added to the out 2 list k The appearance of the connection lists will change to indicate that you ve added a pair of connections I Click Close to enable the connection change m Note that the master button now says something like Bus ma because the track s output connection has changed The other way to change connections is much faster for large scale changes like the ones required here a Choose Window Track Bus Inspector The Track Bus Inspector window will appear It has a list of the tracks and busses on the left side and four tabs of information on the right side The Inp
151. by adding this to the output mul controls volume level sets the deviation from add For an audio rate SinOsc UGen you set the frequency and the volume level For a control rate UGen you set the mid point of oscillation with add the extremes of oscillation which will be add mul and add mul and the speed of oscillation with f req The end result is very different numbers There is a handy UGen designed specifically for replacing pseudo randomness in Functions The following example restores the ten different pitches to the example from the last section var myRandFunc var frequency Rand 440 880 produces an integer between 440 and 880 Out ar 0 SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 025 u SynthDef new myRandFunc myRandFunc send s 10 do Synth new myRandFunc If you run this multiple times you will again hear ten different pitches Depending on audio hardware previous musical experience and other factors some people may have difficulty hearing that the pitches are different Try reducing the number of synths created in the loop 158 SynthDef and Synth 11 3 10 8 SynthDef with Arguments There are some siutations where you simply cannot pre determine all of the material that you re going to use when creating a synth It might be easier to resort to using a Function rather than a SynthDef but there is yet another solution creating an argument in your SynthDef Function
152. by trimming the region Use the range tool to select the range which includes the take that you prefer Use the transport s looping mechanism if you wish to be sure that you selected the right range 73 Chapter 7 Ardour 4 Right click on the range then choose Crop region to range which will automatically trim the region for you 7 4 5 8 Marimba Regions The marimba regions do not need adjustment 7 4 6 Arrange Regions into the Right Places We re going to start by arranging the marimba since it plays a relatively consistent rhythm throughout most of the song It is a good idea to start with something like this so that the following tracks and regions can be related to it All of the times here are given in minutes and seconds The tutorial file is configured to use this unit by default but if you have changed it you will need to keep that in mind Also have not cropped or trimmed the Marimba 1 region and it is located in the marimba1 track starting at 00 00 00 000 If you have modified that region suggest restoring it to the original size 7 4 6 1 Start with the Marimba Regions 1 When you have made sure that the Marimba 1 regions are not cropped or trimmed and that they start at 00 00 00 000 we can lock it in place a Right click on the regions and navigate to the Selected regions menu then click Lock from that menu b Notice that Ardour puts and around the name of the region in
153. by SuperCollider as a string with only a double quote character N Here are some examples of numbers and strings 5 119 Chapter 11 SuperCollider 18920982341 e 0 00000000000001 e characters e Q e ng Is the last example a number or a string You and recognize that it is a number inside a string but SuperCollider treats it as a string You can do string things with it but you cannot do number things with it You cannot add 6 to something for example Try executing the following single line programs Think about why the SuperCollider interpreter produces the output that it does 6 3 e ng 3 Six 3 11 3 1 6 Consecutive Execution Complex SuperCollider programs contain many parts which all do different things Sometimes executing all of these together doesn t make sense and it can be difficult to know which portions of the program are supposed to be executed when To help with this the interpreter allows you to mark portions of your program between and so that you will know to execute them together Here is an example Hello Fred postin Hello Wilma postin Goodbye Fred postin Goodbye Wilma postln It doesn t make sense to say hello and goodbye at the same time so separating these sections with parentheses will serve as a reminder In case we try to execute all of the code at once the SuperCollider interpreter will give us an error 11 3 2 Variab
154. c routed to the bus given as an argument Can also be given a frequency the value produced by the synth is intended to be used to control pitch The centre pitch of the oscillation is freq and the range of oscillation is one twentieth the size of freq one fourtieth both higher and lower than freq SynthDef These commands are straight forward They send the synthesis definitions to the server e b Bus control s This should also be straight forward A single channel control bus is created and assigned to the pre declared variable b For synth creation x is assigned a control rate synth while y and z are assigned audio rate synths Each synth is given the variable b which refers to our control rate bus z is also given an argument for freqoffset which makes its frequency 200 Hz higher than the synth assigned to y Don t worry about the after message for now It s explained in Section 11 3 12 1 Ordering 11 3 11 4 1 Why Use Global Variables Since this is just an example and not an actual program the program uses four automatically declared global variables b x y and z Because these variables are shared with everything it s especially important to set them to nil when you re done If this were going to be written into a real program it would be a good idea to change the variables to something which can t be accessed by other programs 11 3 11 4 2 Why Use a Bus The control rate bus in this example might seem
155. c may use three Because the dynamics are usually meant to apply to both staves they are usually notated between the two staves This is similar to notation beneath the upper staff but in truth piano dynamics tend to be placed in the middle between the staves entering the dynamics as belonging to the upper staff in LilyPond will not produce that effect There is a way to notate dynamics between two staves in LilyPond and it involves a little bit of thought to get it right It also requires the addition of a significant number of commands and the creation of a new context This process looks difficult and may seem daunting It s not necessary to understand all of the commands in the PianoDynamics Context in order to use the context so there is no need to worry 12 7 6 1 Preparing the PianoDynamics Context It is probably easier to add these commands before inputting most of the score but there is no reason why this context cannot be added to any score at any time Follow these steps to create a PianoDynamics Context 1 Between the left and right staves of the PianoStaff add new PianoDynamics dynamics dynamics For the Schubert score this looks like 214 Formatting the Score Piano Dynamics 2 3 new PianoStaff with instrumentName Piano H lt lt new Staff right right new PianoDynamics dynamics dynamics new Staff left clef bass left gt gt To the lay
156. ch will help to reduce the risk of a buffer overrun or underrun which cause an audible break in audio If you are viewing this 188 Recording SuperCollider s Output Tutorial 10 11 12 13 document in a web browser you may want to copy and paste it into a simple text editor or GEdit if you are already using that Use QjackCtl to set up JACK with the right audio interface and configuration options In order to get a clean start restart the SuperCollider interpreter in GEdit then start the server Open Ardour with a new session and set up the rulers and timeline as desired Seconds is usually the most appropriate unit with which to measure a SuperCollider recording Add a stereo track or however many channels desired and rename it it SuperCollider Use Ardour the Track Bus Inspector window or QjackCtl to connect the SuperCollider track to SuperCollider s outputs You ll want to make sure that the SuperCollider output is also connected to your audio interface so that you can hear the program as you progress This is an example of multi plexing Changes to your audio interface s volume control will not affect the recording in Ardour Arm the track and transport in Ardour When you are reagy start the transport It is not important to start SuperCollider as quickly as possible since you can cut out the silence after the recording is made Switch to GEdit and play the program that you want to record If
157. cheduling If you ve ever opened the System Monitor application you will probably have noticed that there are a lot of processes running all the time Some of these processes need the processor and some of them are just waiting around for something to happen To help increase the number of processes that can run at the same time many modern CPUs have more than one core which allows for more processes to be evaluated at the same time Even with these improvements there are usually more processes than available cores my computer right now has 196 processes and only three cores There has to be a way of decided which process gets to run and when and this task is left to the operating system In Linux systems like Fedora Linux the core of the operating system called the kernel is responsible for deciding which process gets to execute at what time This responsibility is called scheduling Scheduling access to the processor is called processor scheduling The kernel also manages scheduling for a number of other things like memory access video hardware access audio hardware access hard drive access and so on The algorithm procedure used for each of these scheduling tasks is different for each and can be changed depending on the user s needs and the specific hardware being used In a hard drive for example it makes sense to consider the physical location of data on a disk before deciding which process gets to read first For a process
158. cided to combine the idea of this first variation with the idea of that Next Part As you see the result here is much like measures 52 to 75 but with more simultaneous pitches as in the Next Part At this point my MIDI accompaniment really begins to take on its own rhythm and personality competing with the audio file representing Beethoven s idea Compared to the Beethoven the randomized pitches of the MIDI part sound child like and trivial This might send listeners the message that MIDI is simply trivial and child like when compared to real classical music and this is a perfectly valid interpretation However what intended to communicate was this Beethoven wrote a lot of piano music much of which is still enjoyed by people today Nobody will ever be able to re create the magic of Beethoven and feel that it would be silly to try this is why I let the music sound silly rather than attempting to make it sound serious also feel that taking inspiration from composers such as Beethoven is an excellent way to create new art for ourselves which is why am deriving certain cues directly from the music mostly vague stylistic ones but ignoring others like the idea that pitches should be somehow organized 8 4 11 Qtractor s Measure 97 This is a three beat transitional passage which added for no particular reason but to fill a pause in the audio track 8 4 12 Qtractor s Measures 98 to 119 used one new technique while
159. ck with a setting of 0 0 dB 8 Add one point at about 00 00 15 000 with a setting of 0 0 dB 9 Addone point at about 00 00 16 500 where the singer starts with a setting of 10 0 dB or whatever you set earlier 81 Chapter 7 Ardour 10 Now you ve set up an automation plan but the fader is still in Manual mode so the automation track will have no effect Change the automation track s setting by clicking on the mode button in the track s control box The button currently says Manual 11 From the menu select Play which will cause the automation settings to be played In Manual mode you have to adjust all settings manually In Write mode changes that you make as the session plays will be recorded into the automation track over writing previous settings In Touch mode changes that you make as the session plays will be incorporated into the pre existing automation settings 12 Finally listen to confirm that you like the automated panner change If you don t you can always adjust it now or later Now here s the difficult part Use automation to change the fader and panner settings throughout the session In particular ensure that the voice tracks are consistent 7 5 5 Other Things You Might Want to Do The mixing stage involves a lot of minor and major tweaking Here are some things that you might want to do which aren t adjusting the fader and panner settings Re align tracks to ensure that they re sy
160. cks each is separated by a decimal point but can also be measured as time or frames 8 3 3 Using JACK with Qtractor Qtractor and QjackCtl are programmed and maintained by the same developers For this reason Qtractor offers a QjackCtl like interface to modify JACK s connections Furthermore Qtractor preserves all of the connections with every Qtractor file so there is no need to use QjackCtl s patch bay feature which does the same thing However if you wish to change JACK s settings you will need to use QjackCtl To view the JACK connections window within Qtractor press the F8 key or click View gt Connections Pressing F8 again will hide the window Qtractor s MIDI tab displays the devices on QjackCtl s ALSA tab Qtractor automatically starts JACK unless it is already running 89 Chapter 8 Qtractor 8 3 4 Exporting a Whole File Audio and MIDI Together Qtractor can export all of a session s audio clips as one audio file but it cannot export the MIDI clips directly into that audio file This is because Qtractor does not synthesize audio from MIDI signals but uses an external MIDI synthesizer to do this Thankfully there is a relatively simple way to overcome this allowing both audio and MIDI to be exported in the same audio file use Qtractor to record the audio signal produced by the MIDI synthesizer This procedure only works if you use a MIDI synthesizer like FluidSynth which outputs its audio sig
161. core context Does it belong on a staff No so it doesn t belong in a Staff context Does it belong in a voice No since it would have to be on a staff to be in a voice The composition s title doesn t belong on a staff or in a voice but it does belong on the score so we say that it happens in the Score context 2 Where does a clef belong Does it belong on the score Yes because it is a part of notation Does it belong on a staff Yes because it wouldn t make sense to have a clef off a staff Does it belong in a voice No because it s not related to a specific line or voice Clefs usually belong on the staff at the beginning of every line so we say that they happen in a Staff context 3 Where does a note head belong Does it belong on the score Yes because it is a part of notation 195 Chapter 12 LilyPond Does it belong on a staff Yes even if it s on a ledger line note heads are meaningless unless they re on a staff Does it belong in a voice Yes because one particular musical line is indicated primarily with note heads Note heads belong to a particular voice so we say they happen in a Voice context To help further clarify consider the following As in the real world objects in LilyPond can potentially happen in any context like a doorknob on a door like a bus driver sitting in a bus drivers seat like a person buying groceries at a supermarket like a flat s
162. ct and Edit tool which looks like a mouse cursor on the toolbar You can also select that tool by pressing F2 on the keyboard Select the segment you just created by clicking on it Create a copy of it by holding the Ctrl key on the keyboard as you click and drag the segment Place the copy in the same track immediately after the first segment Create a few more copies like this Use the transport to move the playhead to the start click the button that looks like a vertical bar with a single direction arrowhead pointing towards it Name the newly created track by double clicking on its name A window will pop up allowing you to rename the track If you don t know what to call it try Bass line 9 4 2 Add a Percussion Track 1 2 Select the second track and rename it to Percussion or something else if you prefer In the Instrument Parameters portion of the toolbox on the left side of the editor window check the Percussion check box Play the transport for just a second so that Rosegarden synchronized the re assignment with FluidSynth Press F3 on the keyboard or click on the Draw tool which looks like a pencil Create a one measure segment in the second track then right click on the segment and select Open in Percussion Matrix Editor a The percussion matrix editor is like the matrix editor but each pitch is labeled with the instrument it triggers b Experiment with the different instrument
163. ctions in relative entry mode it is a good idea to use the octave check mechanism at least at the beginning of the lower voice This is because when judging the relative starting pitch of the first note of the lower voice LilyPond judges from the last note of the upper voice not the last note before the polyphonic section began 12 7 4 7 Octave Change Spanners 8ve Signs Ottava Brackets Musical Definition In order to most conveniently notate over large ranges composers and editors sometimes use text spanners to indicate that a passage should be played one or two octaves higher or lower than written This allows the notes to stay mostly within the staff lines thereby decreasing the number of ledger lines required LilyPond Notation The ottava command is used to notate all five states of transposition 15va play two octaves higher than written is engaged with Nottava 2 213 Chapter 12 LilyPond 8va play one octave higher than written is engaged with Nottava 1 loco play in the octave written is engaged with Nottava 0 which also cancels another sign 8vb play one octave lower than written is engaged with Nottava 1 15vb play two octaves lower than written is engaged with Nottava 2 12 7 5 Troubleshooting Errors It can be difficult to troubleshoot inputting errors especially when you find them days or weeks after originally inputting that section of a score The best way to fix errors is to i
164. ctures for data management in computer science They are more efficient than arrays for many tasks particularly when it s impossible to know how many elements will be required in an array until the program is run SuperCollider s List Class is implemented with arrays and it offers nearly the same functionality as the LinkedList class A true linked list is accessed most efficiently from the start called the head of the list or the end called the tail Each element is linked to the one before it the one after it or both SuperCollider s LinkedList Class has elements which are linked both to the preceding and following elements so it is called a doubly linked list Knowing when to use a LinkedList over a List is a question of efficiency and for small collections of information it isn t going to make a big difference you might as well use a basic List When you plan to store hundreds or thousands of elements choosing the right Class becomes more important and can save a lot of processor time Here is how to know which Class you should use f you re going to be adding elements to the start or end of the list and accessing from the start or end of the list the LinkedList Class will be more efficient f you re going to be adding elements at arbitrary index numbers inside the list and accessing elements at arbitrary index numbers inside the list the List Class will be more efficient f you re going to be adding elements t
165. d change depending on what suits you best Different kinds of scores will require different strategies 12 7 4 2 Chords There are two ways to input chords but one will be used much more often This style of chord notation is more common as ces 4 Notice how only the pitches are notated inside the lt brackets and everything else attached to the end There is one exception to this fingering should be indicated on the pitch associated with that finger lt as 1 ces 3 gt 4 _ Not only does this help you to sort out what was probably intended but it allows LilyPond to stack the fingering in the right order When using relative entry mode it is the lowest note of the chord that is taken into consideration when placing the next note This style of chord notation is less common lt lt as4 gt ces gt gt Notice how everything must be notated inside the lt lt gt gt brackets This can make it more difficult to read the chord in the source file but it also allows much greater flexibility only some chord members can have ties certain chord members can last for longer than others certain chord members can break out into or out of polyphonic passages This notation is rarely needed but you may be inclined to over use it if you are trying to exactly copy the look of a hand engraved score Like the times command for tuplets this is one of LilyPond s deceptively powerful techniques When using relative entry mode it is the last not
166. d points to show the settings changes Automation tracks can in effect be recorded but we re going to use a more basic editing method Automation tracks can be assigned to busses and tracks Here s how to create an automation track and fill it in We re going to adjust the fader on the lower marimba so that it is louder in the introduction and becomes quieter as the higher marimba and solo vocalist join in 1 Inthe canvas area click the a button on the Bus marimba1 bus control box to open the automation menu 2 Click Fader in the automation menu 3 An automation track which controls the fader will appear underneath the bus 4 If you click in the automation track a point will appear Each point represents an absolute setting for the control After the point appears if you click and drag it the yellow numbers by the cursor will tell you the fader s setting at that point 5 If there are two or more points in the automation track lines will appear to connect them The fader will be moved gradually between absolute settings as shown by the line connecting the points 6 If you make a mistake and want to start over you can press the clear button on the automation track s control box Unfortunately you can t remove a single point This isn t really necessary anyway if you accidentally add too many points simply use the extra one to keep a setting constant 7 Add one point to the beginning of the automation tra
167. d be something like this RESULT 0 Welcome to SuperCollider for help type ctrl c ctrl h Emacs or SChelp vim or ctrl U sced gedit If this window gives a non zero value for RESULT then an error has probably occurred and you should scroll up to see what it is and try to fix it If you receive the following warning The GUI scheme swing is not installed then you will not be able to run any SuperCollider prorams that use a GUI graphical user interface The GUI components are not used anywhere in this Guide and they are highly optional 5 You will probably also want to start a server at this point so from the menu select SuperCollider gt Start Server 6 After the server starts you should see messages from JackDriver If a JACK server is not already started then SuperCollider will start one automatically 7 Ifthe SuperCollider server started successfully you should see a message similar to this SuperCollider 3 server ready JackDriver max output latency 46 4 ms notification is on 11 2 3 Executing Code in GEdit You can execute code directly from GEdit without having to use sclang from the command line 1 Ensure that SuperCollider mode is enabled and that a server has been started 2 Select the code that you wish to execute A single line of code may be executed simply by placing the text input cursor on that line 3 Press Ctrl E on the keyboard or from the menu select SuperCollider gt Eval
168. d dtu te ea uae 6 3 2 Track and Multitrack 0 0 eect erent Hee 6 3 3 Region Clip or Segment cece ec cece eee ee eee ee tense eaeeee emen 6 3 4 Transport and Playhead 0 ccceeeeccc anana b a anaa anaana 6 3 5 AULOMATION se ecce Ce te Lee EU E eder Eon e REC Lo debe 6 4 User Interface tiie e ct oerte he e ol ue Punt 6 4 1 Messages Pane none iE petet prn ERR de Deia yr aadi doia cselum 6 4 3 Track Info Pane exei ee ub ex e te e EU HER 6 4 4 Track Pare iie RISE cost ide betas ae terio tad 6 4 5 Transport ControlS ne e dei eo ER haa iieiaeie eod 7 Ardour 7 1 Requirements and Installation ssssssssse mmn 7 1 1 Knowledge Requirements ssssesssssseseee meme ener 7 1 2 Software Requirements ssssssssssese eene mene nenne 7 1 3 Hardware Requirements ssssssssssssseem eee nennen nnn FLA IniStallatiQniz c iiec iae E LEE Iu eM La E Rd ur ee site 4 2 Recording a Session ote beitragen Ll pea d 1 2 1 Running ATQOULE irre ne t e ea aaa caduceus ERE ER Ee HEAR ERA 4 22 The Interface te Lettere tn vetta Len veta Un Eae veg Age He E 7 2 3 Setting up the Timeline sssessssesee meme 7 2 4 Connecting Audio Sources to Ardour ssssssssssee 7 2 5 Setting up the Busses and Tracks sssssssseseee 7 2 6 Adjusting Recording Level Volume sssse 2 1 Recording a RegiOl
169. d the trend that started with a finishing flourish that picks up sustained notes 8 4 13 Qtractor s Measures 119 to 139 This passage does not introduce new techniques but uses some trick manipulation of volume that are explained at the end of the section 96 Qtractor s Measures 139 to 158 This passage sounds much busier because increased the space between primary notes from three beats to two divided the octaves into four approximate ranges The lowest has randomized pitches lasting one beat which begin on beats that don t have a primary note There is no parallel in Beethoven s music at this point The next higher range is meant to mirror the melody in this part of the audio file which is slightly lower than it was before The highest range is connected to this because Beethoven wrote some parts of the melody much higher than the other parts The second highest range reflects the quickly moving accompaniment part in the upper register of the piano Sorting out the volumes for this passage posed a small challenge because of the much greater number of notes than in previous passages Thankfully the parts are mostly well separated from each other in the matrix editor was able to use click and drag selection to select each range separately and adjust its volume using both the Resize MIDI tool and Control drag in the volume adjustment space at the bottom of the matrix editor window My sustained note flourish at
170. d under the Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike 3 0 Unported Licence accessible on the internet at http creativecommons org licenses by sa 3 0 This usage should in no way be construed as an endorsement of the Fedora Project the Musicians Guide or any other party by the SuperCollider development team 11 4 Composing with SuperCollider This section is an explanation of the creative thought process that went into creating the SuperCollider composition that we ve called Method One for which the source and exported audio files are available below It is our hope that in illustrating how we developed this composition from a single SinOsc command you will learn about SuperCollider and its abilities about how to be creative with SuperCollider and how a simple idea can turn into something of greater and greater complexity As musicians our goal is to learn enough SuperCollider to make music we don t want to have to memorize which parameters do what for which functions and in which order to call them We want to know what they do for us musically Explicitly calling parameters and making comments about what does what so that we can return later and change musical things are going to help our musical productivity at the expense of slowing down our typing 11 4 1 Files for the Tutorial The following files represent complete versions of the program You should try to complete the program yourself before reviewing these vers
171. ded a frequency controller to the left SinOsc and realized that it s getting a bit difficult to read again especially if wanted to add another parameter to the SinOsc ar objects So placed the SinOsc kr s into their own variables frequencyL and frequencyR This results in var frequencyL SinOsc kr freq 10 mul 200 add 400 var frequencyR SinOsc kr freq 1 mul 50 add 150 var left SinOsc ar frequencyL 173 Chapter 11 SuperCollider 10 11 12 var right SinOsc ar frequencyR left right play Now I can experiment with the frequency changing SinOsc s to make sure that get things just right When I realize what the parameters do make a note for myself see FSC method 1 sc so that it will be easy to adjust it later also explicitly call the parameters This isn t necessary but it also helps to avoid future confusion Most programmers would not explicitly call the parameters but we re musicians not programmers The left channel has something like a melody so decided to add a drone like SinOsc to it This is easy of course because any SinOsc left alone is automatically a drone But where should it be added Into the left variable of course We ll create an array using array notation There are two things that would do at this point to help with future readability a Align all of the left channel SinOsc s vertically using tabs and spaces so that each line
172. depending on their input For whatever reason the input accepted by a Function is called an argument SuperCollider s 122 Variables and Functions Functions can accept any number of arguments zero one or many Argument values called parameters are provided to a Function by adding them in parentheses after the name of the Function separated with commas like this exampleFunction 5 7 9 Argument variables are declared as the first statement in a Function like this arg oneNumber twoNumber This program is significantly more complicated than previous examples but it shows how useful Functions can be Notice how the braces in that example are on different lines than the rest of the Function which gives us more space within the Function to complete some useful work var greeter t arg name Hello name postln Jm greeter value Samantha greeter value Jermain nil Here is how the program works 1 Avariable named greeter is declared and assigned a Function 2 The Function contains an argument called name and outputs Hello plus the name given to it 3 The parentheses here Hello name ensure that the two strings are added together before the post1n message prints them out 4 The greeter variable is used to call the Function with two different names 5 The nil statement is optional and does not affect the operation of the program What it does is return a nothing value
173. der widely used settings like tempoMark and global individual parts score formatting The specific ordering will become more obvious to you as you get used to LilyPond Here are some of the things that do before inputting notes Use section dividers like NOTES for individual parts to demarcate sections Use different levels of dividers like OBOE for the oboe to show sub sections Add blank lines between large sections to separate them more obviously Begin braces on new lines like header 203 Chapter 12 LilyPond title Symphony instead of on the same line like header title Symphony This is simply a matter of personal taste resulting from prior experience with C and C like programming languages Familiarize myself with the sections and commands created by Frescobaldi getting a sense of what the section command does even if don t understand what each specific command does This makes it easier to sort out problems and customization down the road Sometimes when the setup is quite complex make comments about what seems to be going on Change the instrument names to replicate what my score indicates You don t necessarily need to do this so long as the people using your score will understand what the instruments are Since my goal is to replicate this Dover edition score will change the names 1 Inthe PARTS section each xPart section has an
174. dnojD upg siousdeus sessng sx2ed sxunu Here Is How 3 1 The editor mixer 2 The session sidebar 3 The main toolbar Figure 7 1 The Ardour interface Figure 7 1 The Ardour interface illustrates three graphical interface components specific to the Ardour interface the editor mixer the session sidebar and the main toolbar 52 The Interface Mute Sole 4 12 0 init 1 The fader 2 The fader control 3 The fader level meter 4 The panner 5 The output connection button Figure 7 2 The Ardour editor mixer Figure 7 2 The Ardour editor mixer shows the editor mixer located at the left of the main Ardour window The editor mixer shows only one mixer strip at a time It shows the fader and its controls 53 Chapter 7 Ardour in the middle of the mixer strip the panner and its controls at the bottom of the mixer strip and the Comments and outgoing connections buttons clarinet L 0 bounce 1 clarinet R 0 bounce 1 suoibay sassng SyDeIL ens Create the Inconceiv sjoysdeus ens Create the Inconceiv ens Create the Inconceiv ens Create_the_Inconceiv ens Here Is How 1 L ens Here Is How 1 L 1 m a e e i ge u ens Here Is How 1 R ens Here Is How 1 R 1 syunu ens Here Is How 2 L ens Here Is How 2 R ens Here Is How 3 L ens Here Is How 3 L 1 ens Here _Is_How 3 R ens Here Is How 3 R 1 1 The tab strip 2 The region list Figure
175. dow and verify the following Onthe Audio tab Osynth s output ports are connected to the system input ports f you plan to use audio in Rosegarden in addition to MIDI then you will need to connect its output ports to the system input ports too The ports labeled record monitor are to be used to monitor audio while it is being recorded The ports labeled master out will be used during 99 Chapter 9 Rosegarden regular file playback Rosegarden does not need to be connected directly to the system output ports if you are only using MIDI If you plan to record audio in Rosegarden then you will need to connect an output port probably from system to Rosegarden s input port Be aware that Rosegarden can record from two independent sources 1 and 2 with two channels L for left and R for right from each to produce a stereo recording e On the MIDI tab Nothing On the ALSA tab a Rosegarden s output ports must be connected to the FLUID synth input port e 1 sync out sends MIDI control messages 2 external controller for the first set of MIDI instruments in the session 3 0Ut 2 General MIDI Device for the second set of MIDI instruments in the session b To make Rosegarden take commands from another MIDI device you ll need to connect its output ports to Rosegarden s input ports don t know what they are for yet e O record in e 2 external controller If a connection is n
176. e can definitively say that one is better than the other and there are a few occasions where it depends on your personal taste This section covers techniques that can be used to further cut up the audio in this case with the end goal of comparing and choosing preferred sections Not all choices will be made yet 7 4 5 1 Clarinet 1 and Clarinet 2 Regions 1 Listen to the Clarinet 1 and Clarinet 2 regions They re the same musical material and they re nearly identical so it s too early to decide which one to use But let s label them so that we know they re the same a Selectthe Clarinet 1 L region from the region list in the session toolbar by left clicking on the triangle to the left of the blue name so the white name appears and left clicking once on the white name Remember that the white region was created when you trimmed the empty area out of the original blue region b Thenclick again on the white name and a text box will appear c Change the textbox so it says Clarinet 1A L d Press Enter on the keyboard to set the name e Rename the following regions as shown e Clarinet 1 R becomes Clarinet 1A R e Clarinet 2 L becomes Clarinet 1B L e Clarinet 2 R becomes Clarinet 1B R f Since Clarinet 1 and Clarinet 2 represent the same musical material we ve renamed them to show it Now they re both Clarinet 1 with two versions A and B 2 There will be some naming inconsistencies at this point
177. e the following command would create b double flat b flat b b sharp and b double sharp beses bes b bis bisis Getting used to these names happens quickly and they take less time to input than the English alternative Furthermore with these names it becomes possible to sing note names when you are ear training Pitch can be entered either absolutely or relative to the preceding notes Usually for music without frequent large leaps it is more convenient to use the relative mode The symbols and comma and apostrophe are used to indicate register When entering absolute pitches the register is indicated mostly as in the Helmholtz system see Helmholtz Pitch Notation Wikipedia at http en wikipedia org wiki Helmholtz pitch notation octaves begin on the pitch C and end eleven tones higher on the pitch B The octave below middle C octave 3 in scientific pitch notation see Scientific Pitch Notation Wikipedia at http en wikipedia org wiki Scientific pitch notation Scientific Pitch Notation has no commas or apostrophes The octave starting on middle C octave 4 has one apostrophe the octave above that octave 5 has two apostrophes and so on Octave 2 starting two octaves below middle C has one comma the octave below that has two commas and so on It is usually not necessary to understand how to use this in LilyPond or to be able to use it quickly because most scores will use relative mode 192 Numbers
178. e and three postin 3 5 nil As you can see this type of nesting is not easy to figure out from the standpoint of the original programmer or somebody else who wishes to use your code In writing this example it took me several attempts before getting the parentheses and braces right Usually if you have a long list of possibilities to test like the nine in this example it is better to use a case or Switch structure Not only does this help to make the code easier to understand but the SuperCollider interpreter can apply optimizations that make the code run marginally faster 11 3 8 4 Switch Execution to This Path A switch structure can be most easily understood by comparison to a switch in a railway line As a train approaches a railway switch an operator inspects the train and decides whether it should be going to the passenger station the freight station or the garage for storage A switch structure like a railways switch can only act on one Object at a time but the Object can be a Collection allowing 147 Chapter 11 SuperCollider you to compare multiple things at once Each case is tested with the boolean equality operator before being executed Here is the syntax of a switch statement case compareThis toThisi doThis toThis2 doThis toThis3 doThis You can include any number of cases Notice that there is no comma after the last case and that I ve put t
179. e beginning of a List 11 3 6 2 3 Accessing a List These are instance methods meaning that they operate on a specific list 134 Collections e at index returns the Object assigned to the index index number If index is greater than the last element in the List returns nil e clipAt index returns the Object assigned to the index index number If index is greater than the last element in the List returns the last element in the List e wrapAt index returns the Object assigned to the index index number If index is greater than the last element in the List returns an element based on a wrap around index number For a three element List 0 will return element 0 1 returns 1 2 returns 2 3 returns 0 4 returns 1 5 returns 2 6 returns 0 and so on foldAt index returns the Object assigned to the index index number If index is greater than the last element in the List returns an element based on a fold back index number Whereas wrapAt always continues from the lowest to the highest index number foldAt changes every time low to high high to low low to high and so on 11 3 6 2 4 Removing from a List One way to remove an element from a List is to re assign that element s index number the value nil These two Functions also remove elements from a List They are instance methods meaning that they operate on a specific list popreturns the last element in a List and removes it from the List
180. e is a folder containing an Ardour file and the associated audio files required to start the tutorial The tutorial itself comprises the following sections about editing mixing and mastering or exporting The program used to record the audio files split the left and right channels into separate files so they are imported into Ardouras separate regions Therefore the setup is more complex than it would be if the song were originally recorded in Ardour but this gives the opportunity to learn in greater detail about busses creating and using the stereo image and volume level adjustments The unique setup also means that none of the audio regions are in the right place on the timeline and most of them require extensive editing This would be bad if the objective of the tutorial were to create a finished version of the song as quickly as possible but the objective is to learn how to use Ardour and this is almost guaranteed EL Links to the files I don t know where to put them 7 4 Editing a Song Tutorial This section covers the basics of preparing Here Is How The focus is on trimming the regions and placing them in the right position on the timeline Since the goal is to replicate the form of the original song there is little room for artistic freedom To get the most out of this section you should use the tutorial files provided above By following the instructions with the tutorial file you will be able to use real editing
181. e names are symbols representing data stored by the interpreter here we are using the symbol data type to refer to data stored on the server Symbols are a better way to name SynthDef s than strings Not only do symbols take up less memory they aren t actually the interpreter doesn t actually think of them as Objects and neither should you Symbols are universally unique only one instance of a symbol with the same characters can exist On the other hand an infinite number of strings with the same characters can exist When we use a symbol we are defining it universally When we use a string the server pretends that all strings with the same characters are the same philosophical object even though they aren t This isn t a technical problem but it can be difficult to think about and is cognitively dissonant If all this seems a little abstract and ontological that s because it is 155 Chapter 11 SuperCollider 11 3 10 4 1 Symbols the Easy Way Symbols are things that you should use to identify a SynthDef sent to the server 11 3 10 4 2 Writing Symbols There are two ways to write out a symbol between single quotation marks and after a back slash Symbols given between single quotation marks can contain any characters but a single quotation mark Symbols given after a back slash can contain any characters but a space Neither type of symbol name can cross onto a new line The following example contains some valid symbols
182. e of knowledge of computer based music and audio research and art Where do these two goals meet If you want to use your computer for both day to day desktop tasks and high quality audio production one good solution is to dual boot your computer This involves installing Fedora Linux twice on the same physical computer but it will allow you to keep an entirely separate operating system environment for the Planet CCRMA at Home software Not only will this allow you to safely and securely run Planet CCRMA applications in their most optimized state but you can help to further optimize your system by turning off and even removing some system services that you do not need for audio work For example a GNOME or KDE user might choose to install only Openbox for their audio optimized installation Alternatively there is the possibility of going half way installing only some Planet CCRMA applications but not the fully optimized kernel and system components This would be more suitable for a computer used most often for typical day to day operations email word processing web browsing etc If you wanted to use SuperCollider but did not require other audio software for example then this might be the best solution for you Ultimately it is your responsibility to ensure that your computer and its data is kept safely and securely You will need to find the best solution for your own work patterns and desires 4 3 Using Software from Planet
183. e of the chord that is taken into consideration when placing the next note 12 7 4 3 Fingering LilyPond allows you to indicate fingering by attaching the digit number to a note as an articulation mark a16 5 will show a 5 as a fingering mark As with all other articulation marks indicated in this 212 Inputting way you can use or _ to instruct LilyPond to put the mark above or below the note respectively It is usually better to let LilyPond decide for itself by using a When entering chords it is recommended that you enter the fingering with the note to which it is attached like lt as 1 ces 4 gt 4 _ It is possible to enter this as as ces gt 4 1 4 gt but this not only looks confusing it may confuse LilyPond as to which digit is intended for which note Because the extra digits look like they indicate note lengths it is recommended to mark them consistently For this same reason it is also recommended that fingering marks be added to source files only after the pitch and rhythm have been double checked The source file included with this tutorial puts fingering marks after any other articulation and length marking 12 7 4 4 Cautionary Accidentals Musical Definition This score makes some use of cautionary accidentals These are accidentals which don t change the pitches to be played but rather are used as a precaution against forgetting that they are there This usually happens when an accidental in the written ke
184. e score If you really must customize some setting then keep in mind these two points 1 Tinkering with LilyPond can become as complex as you want 2 Ultimately all tinkering takes the form of commands Searching the internet for LilyPond tips and tricks can be a life saver but it can also lead to needlessly complex solutions Sometimes this is the result of poor solutions being posted on the internet but more often it is the result of the ongoing development of LilyPond which makes better solutions available regularly For this reason it is recommended to search the official LilyPond documentation first then the LilyPond Snippet Repository LSR link here and then Google 12 4 6 2 Contexts Another aspect of LilyPond that often confuses beginners is the idea of contexts It is an essential concept for modifying default behaviour Like everything in LilyPond it makes perfect sense context means context The three primary contexts are Voice Staff and Score Everything that happens in a score happens in a context it s just that simple everything happens in a context Everything that happens in a score happens in Score context everything that happens on a staff happens in a Staff context and everything that happens in a voice happens in a Voice context To help clear things up a little here are three examples 1 Where does the title of a composition belong Does it belong on the score Yes so it belongs in the S
185. e sound according to instructions sent to it by the interpreter Library these contain commands and the instructions to be executed when you call the commands the interpreter looks up commands in the library when you call them This modular design allows for several advanced capabilities and features Any particular element could theoretically be replaced without affecting other elements as long as the methods of communication remain the same As long as the programming language is the same portions of the library can be modified removed or added at will this happens often and Planet CCRMA at Home provides a collection of library extensions One of the most exciting capabilities is the ability to run the interpreter and server on different physical computers The networking component is built into these components they always communicate by UDP or TCP even when run on the same computer Although this ability is not used in this Guide it is not difficult The most important thing to remember is that the SuperCollider interpreter is what deals with the programs you write The SuperCollider server is controlled by the interpreter but is an independent program For simple things like the Hello World Programs below the server is not even used after all there is no audio for it to synthesize 11 3 1 2 Hello World The first program that one traditionally makes when learning a new programming language is called The Hello World Pr
186. e sound begins just after 00 01 06 200 2 Slide the Clarinet 3A region so that the sound begins just after 00 01 35 000 7 4 7 Listen Before moving on to the mixing stage listen to the whole song to make sure that the ordering makes sense When you re listening remember that the volume levels and balances will sound off and that the whole session will sound very centred in the stereo image 7 5 Mixing a Song Tutorial The next stage is called mixing and it primarily involves two tasks setting volume levels and adjusting the stereo pan settings We ll use automation to store our fader and panning adjustments and see how handy it can be to have left and right channels recorded on separate tracks combined with sub master busses In terms of producing a recording of a live musical performance it is the mixing stage where the audio engineer in this case you has the most creative influence Careful adjustment and tuning of the tracks will greatly affect the listeners experience Finally it should be noted that moreso than in the editing stage the mixing stage should not be understood as progressing in a linear manner This means you should not be following the tutorial from start to finish but jumping between sections are desired You should set up the tracks for stereo output first and then read through all the sections and follow their advice as you wish but sometimes returning to previous activities to re tune those set
187. e sound to be converted to a digital format Digital sound signals have a limited range of pitch volume and durational possibilities High quality analog to digital and digital to analog convertors change the signal format in a way that keeps the original analog signal as closely as possible These quality of the convertors is very important in determining the quality of an audio interface Audio interfaces also provide connectors for external audio equipment like microphones speakers headphones and electric instruments like electric guitars 1 1 2 MIDI Interfaces Musical Instrument Digital Interface MIDI is a standard used to control digital musical devices Many people associate the term with low quality imitations of acoustic instruments This is unfortunate because MIDI signals themselves do not have a sound MIDI signals are instructions to control devices they tell a synthesizer when to start and stop a note how long the note should be and what pitch it should have The synthesizer follows these instructions and creates an audio signal Many MIDI controlled synthesizers are low quality imitations of acoustic instruments but many are high quality imitations MIDI powered devices are used in many mainstream and non mainstream musical situations and can be nearly indistinguishable from actual acoustic instruments MIDI interfaces only transmit MIDI signals not audio signals Some audio interfaces have built in MIDI interfaces allowi
188. e used when inputting larger scores is writing measure numbers into the source file as comments usually write measure numbers every five measures but it depends on the speed of the music and what seems like it s useful 208 Working on a Piano Score Tutorial 12 6 4 5 To Continue to the Fast Section If you want to finish inputting the first movement as an exercise then you will also need to know how to write a tempo change in an orchestral score 1 In order to continue we ll need to include a special measure line barline and a change of tempo indicator This would be easy and would display correctly if we simply inputted the change in one particular voice However if we did that the change would only appear in one of the orchestral parts exported from the score 2 We re going to define a new whatever thing like the global section created for us by Frescobaldi and include it in all of the parts 3 The code needed for this is a little bit complicated but you don t need to write it yourself just take it from the tempoMark section created by Frescobaldi All you need to do is change Adagio to Allegro spiritoso and add the barline indicator This is also easy because of Frescobaldi LilyPond gt Bar Lines gt Repeat start 4 You end up with startExposition once override Score RehearsalMark self alignment X LEFT once override Score RehearsalMark break align symbols time si
189. ea b There are five tabs to choose Regions Tracks Busses Snapshots Edit Groups and Chunks Select Tracks Busses 64 Connect the Tracks and Busses All of the tracks and busses are shown in a list along with a check box that will show or hide that track or bus in the canvas area Now you can see why it s a good idea to keep the word bus in the names of the busses To change the ordering of tracks and busses use the mouse to click and drag the name of the track or bus that you want to move When you start dragging a track or bus a line will appear in the list marking where the track or bus would go It can be helpful to move the track or bus that you are dragging to the side a bit so that you can see the list itself The interface makes it seem like you can move a track or bus on top of another track or bus This is not the case If it looks like a track or bus is going to be put on top of another track or bus it will actually be placed into the list just above that track or bus For editing it is helpful to have each bus next to the tracks it will control This can always be changed later 7 4 2 Connect the Tracks and Busses Although we have created a system of busses in our mind we still have not told Ardour about it You can use QjackCtl to confirm this all of the additional tracks and busses are connected to output audio to the master bus Worse still the additional busses have no input signal at all There
190. eat a segment of audio that is already recorded 1 Click Selection Tool then select a portion of audio 2 Choose Edit gt Copy or press Control c 3 Click in a track near where you want the copy to start playing 4 Choose Edit Paste or press Control v 5 Click Time Shift Tool then adjust the timeline position of the new audio clip We repeated the end of a segment twice to make the end of the startup sound more interesting 5 6 10 Add a Special Effect the Phaser Audacity has many effect plugins and you can add more The Phaser adjusts reverberation panning and frequency to create a spinning like sound 1 Select a portion of any track when only one track is playing 2 Choose Effect gt Phaser then experiment with the settings Click Preview to hear the effect of your settings Audacity does not modify the audio file when you preview your settings 3 The tutorial uses the phaser at the end with these settings e Stages 2 36 Conclusion Dry Wet 128 LFO Frequency 0 4 LFO Start Phase 0 Depth 128 e Feedback 90 5 6 11 Conclusion Your startup file sounds different than the one that we completed The tutorial instructions are intentionally vague You used your own creativity to complete the tutorial You also learned how to use these tools for many different purposes 5 7 Save and Export Audacity saves its data in a format that only Audacity can use Audacity saves more informatio
191. eatly reduce the chance of an audio process running out of data but sometimes it can still happen A hard real time computer is designed for specialized purposes where even the smallest amount of latency can make the difference between life and death These systems are implemented in hardware as well as software Example uses include triggering airbag deployment in automobile crashes and monitoring the heart rate of a patient during an operation These computers are not particularly multi functional which is part of their means to accomplishing a guaranteed low latency 3 5 Getting a Real Time Kernel in Fedora Linux In Fedora Linux the real time kernel is provided by the Planet CCRMA at Home software repositories Along with the warnings in the Planet CCRMA at Home chapter see Section 4 2 2 Security and Stability here is one more to consider the real time kernel is used by fewer people than the standard kernel so it is less well tested The changes of something going wrong are relatively low but be aware that using a real time kernel increases the level of risk Always leave a non real time option available in case the real time kernel stops working 18 Getting a Real Time Kernel in Fedora Linux You can install the real time kernel along with other system optimizations by following these instructions 1 Install the Planet CCRMA at Home repositories by following the instructions in Section 4 3 1 Installing the P
192. ece cece eeee ce ee cena nese eee eee nennen nennen ena 92 8 4 4 Import the Audio File cccecece cece cece eee e cece ae eeee ee ee mH 92 8 4 5 Marking the First Formal Area sssssse meme 92 8 4 6 Creating our Theme cece ceceee cece cece ee cee ceca ee eeaaeeaeae essa nnnn hh esni rsen nnne 92 8 4 7 Repeat the Theme 2 0 0 0 ccccccee cee cece ee cee ee ea eeeeaaeeeea essa eeesaaeesaeeesaaeeaaaaes 94 8 4 8 Compose the Next Part 0 cccececeee cece eee eee eres eee ee eene nennen nennen 95 8 4 9 Qtractor s Measures 52 tO 75 sss eene enne nennen 95 8 4 10 Qtractor s Measures 75 tO 97 sssssssssseee mee ennemis 96 8 4 11 Qtractor s Measure 97 oo cecceccceceeceec secu ee nenne nenne nnne nnn rennen re senis rennen 96 8 4 12 Qtractor s Measures 98 to 119 sss mener 96 8 4 13 Qtractor s Measures 119 to 139 sssssssssee mene 96 8 4 14 Qtractor s Measures 139 to 158 sssssssssseen memes 97 8 4 15 Qtractor s Measures 158 to 176 ssssssssssseen memes 97 8 4 16 Qtractor s Measures 177 to the End sseseeeme 97 9 Rosegarden 99 9 1 Requirements and Installation sssssse eeeeeeeeaeeeeeeeeeaaeeeeaeeesaeees 99 9 1 1 Knowledge Requirements ssssesssssses eene meer 99 9 1 2 Software Requirements sssssssssssssseeee mene mene nnne nnne 99 9 1 3 Hardware Requirements
193. echanic knows what tools to use how to prepare the tools and how to fix your car faster than you can fix it LilyPond uses many programs that you can use by yourself but LilyPond is specialized LilyPond knows what programs to use what settings to use and most importantly LilyPond takes much less time than if you use the programs directly We give instructions to LilyPond in specially formed text files LilyPond input files describe the music to notate LilyPond decides how the music will look then creates an output file The input file does not contain instructions about how the music looks Sometimes you must make an adjustment to how the output file looks so LilyPond lets you change the settings of its internal tools 12 2 The LilyPond Approach For an extensive explanation of the following section please see the LilyPond Website at http www lilypond org about automated engraving from where this was sourced 191 Chapter 12 LilyPond LilyPond works by separating the tasks of what to put and where to put it Each aspect of an object s position is controlled by a specific plug in You can think of the plug ins as tools LilyPond knows how and when to use each tool if it doesn t know enough about a tool then it isn t used Before LilyPond places an object it first considers many different possibilities for the specific alignment and layout of that object Then it evaluates the possibilities according to aesthetic criteria
194. ecific words and phrases These conventions and the circumstances they apply to are as follows Mono spaced Bold Used to highlight system input including shell commands file names and paths Also used to highlight keycaps and key combinations For example To see the contents of the file my next bestselling novelin your current working directory enter the cat my next bestselling novel command at the shell prompt and press Enter to execute the command The above includes a file name a shell command and a keycap all presented in mono spaced bold and all distinguishable thanks to context Key combinations can be distinguished from keycaps by the hyphen connecting each part of a key combination For example Press Enter to execute the command Press Ctr l Alt F2 to switch to the first virtual terminal Press Ctr 1 Alt F1 to return to your X Windows session The first paragraph highlights the particular keycap to press The second highlights two key combinations each a set of three keycaps with each set pressed simultaneously If source code is discussed class names methods functions variable names and returned values mentioned within a paragraph will be presented as above in mono spaced bold For example File related classes include filesystem for file systems file for files and dir for directories Each class has its own associated set of permissions Proportional Bold This denotes words or phrases encountered on a
195. edora 14 Musicians_Guide files LilyPond Piano source ly PDF Output File at http docs fedoraproject org en US Fedora 14 Musicians_Guide files LilyPond Piano result pdf 12 7 2 Starting the Score 1 Open Frescobaldi with a new document 2 Startthe Setup New Score tool by clicking LilyPond Setup New Score in the menu 3 Fill in the following fields on the Titles and Headers tab Title Impromptu Compuser Schubert Franz Opus Opus 90 4 4 Switch to the Parts tab a From the Available parts list select Keyboard instruments b Select Piano c Click Add d Onthe right hand side of the window it s possible to add multiple voices from the start We won t be using this feature because most of the score is not polyphonic It is especially convenient in fugues 5 Switch to the Score settings tab and adjust the following settings Key signature As Major Time signature 3 4 Tempo indication Allegretto Remove default tagline checked Adjust other settings as desired itis recommended to keep the default pitch name language 12 7 3 Adjusting Frescobaldi s Output These steps are useful in establishing a consistent input style for LilyPond The things suggested here are also useful for getting used to working with large scores which can be a challenge in any text editor Thankfully careful and consistent code organization goes a long way in helping you to quickly find your way arou
196. elodies and words for thousands of different songs An oboe player in an orchestra might wish to make their own reeds from cane tree bark Most musicians need to be able to listen to music and perceive certain structures that other musicians use to describe their work These structures are explained by music theory and the skill set used to hear these things in music is called aural skills Musicians train their aural skills by a set of procedures known as ear training or aural skills training Musical sensibility is developed when aural skills are used to help a musician gain an understanding of how and why their music and other people s music works and sounds the way it does This understanding is key to having a sense of the procedures and conventions that an audience will expect of a performer and therefore to the performer s ability to produce aesthetically pleasing music Having a well developed musical sensibility and set of aural skills are both important aspects of being a musician but they are by no means the only aspects More than anything a musician or an aspiring musician should be talking and listening to other musicians 14 3 2 Exercise Types Solfege s exercises are arranged in six broad categories ntervals which tests your ability to perceive and identify melodic and harmonic intervals Rhythm which tests your ability to perceive and notate rhythms played with a single pitch and to perform such a rhythm b
197. en analog and digital signals distinguishes low quality and high quality audio interfaces The sample rate and sample format control the amount of audio information that is stored by the computer The greater the amount of information stored the better the audio interface can approximate the original signal from the microphone The possible sample rates and sample formats only partially determine the quality of the sound captured or produced by an audio interface For example an audio interface integrated into a motherboard may be capable of a 24 bit sample format and 192 kHz sample rate but a professional level FireWire connected audio interface capable of a 16 bit sample format and 44 1 kHz sample rate may sound better 1 3 1 Sample A sample is a unit of audio data Computers store video data as a series of still images each called a frame and displays them one after the other changing at a pre determined rate called the frame rate Computers store audio data as a series of still sound images each called a sample and plays them one after the other changing at a pre determined rated called the sample rate The frame format and frame rate used to store video data do not vary much The sample format and sample rate used to store audio data vary widely 1 3 2 Sample Format The sample format is the number of bits used to describe each sample The greater the number of bits the more data will be stored in each sample Common
198. enable all users of the computer system to access the files you will not lose them if you forget where they are stored and you help to minimize the potential security risk of using software downloaded from the internet The following steps move a SoundFont file called myFont sf2 to the default folder usr share soundfonts and correctly set the security settings Note that you will need the system administrator s password belonging to the root account to complete this operation If you do not have this password it is best to ask the system administrator to install the files for you Alternately you may simply use the SoundFont file from your a sub folder in your home folder 1 Starta shell or terminal and navigate to the folder where the SoundFont file is currently stored 2 Runsu c cp myFont sf2 usr share soundfonts a Modify the command as necessary to copy your SoundFont file rather than myFont sf2 b You will be asked for the password to the root account 3 Runcd usr share soundfonts to change to the directory of the SoundFont 4 Runsu c chmod 644 myFont sf2 a Modify the command as necessary to refer to your SoundFont file rather than myFont sf2 b This will set the file system permissions to read write for the owner the root user in this case and read only for all other users This way only the system administrator should be able to change the file but all users will be able to use it 5 Runll m
199. eq frequencyO mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequencyO mul 0 01 3 play It still doesn t work The error given in the SuperCollider output window is not easy to understand but it means You have to put all of your variable declarations before everything else var frequency1 200 600 rand var frequency2 200 600 rand var frequency3 200 600 rand var frequency4 200 600 rand var frequency5 200 600 rand var frequency6 200 600 rand var frequency7 200 600 rand var frequency8 200 600 rand var frequency9 200 600 rand var frequencyO 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency1 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency1 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency2 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency2 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency3 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency3 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency4 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency4 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency5 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency5 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency6 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency6 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency7 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency7 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency8 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency8 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency9 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency9 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequencyO mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequencyO mul 0 01 3 play It still doesn t work Sup
200. equal to WAV or AIFF formats Capable of carrying metadata so information like title artist and composer will be preserved Widely supported in Linux by default For other popular operating systems refer to Download Extras FLAC Website at http flac sourceforge net download html extras for a list of applications and programs capable of playing FLAC files This is usually the best choice for distributing high quality audio to listeners Ogg Vorbis An open source compressed format A lossy format meaning some audio information is lost during compression and decompression Audio quality is less than WAV or AIFF formats but usually better than MP3 Capable of carrying metadata so information like title artist and composer will be preserved Widely supported in Linux by default For other popular operating systems following the instructions on the Vorbis Website http www vorbis com This is a good choice for distributing good quality audio to listeners A higher setting for the sample format explained in Section 1 3 2 Sample Format allows a greater amount of audio information to be stored per sample 32 bit support is virtually non existant but and you will probably not need to use this format in the near future The float format stores samples in a different internal format and you will need it only rarely If you are exporting audio for high end equipment or for further processing choose the 24 bit format Otherwise choose
201. er path so that the Play MIDI button will work The program pmidi is available from the Planet CCRMA at Home repositories and is a command line MIDI player install it with yum run pmidi l to see which ports are available then put pmidi p 14 0 in the MIDI Player field where 14 0 is instead whatever port you want to use you ll need a MIDI synthesizer like FluidSynth listening Or you can use timidity You can change the Default Directory to the place where you store your LilyPond files You can change LilyPond documentation if you don t want the right side bar LilyPond Documentation thing to internet it every time install the lilppond doc package it s 44 MB put usr share doc lilypond doc 2 12 2 index html in the field or in another language if that s what you want this will need to be updated when LilyPond is updated if you don t update it then the built in LilyPond Documentation tab will simply show up blank instead of with the user guide so its harmless if you forget to update 5 options for the Editor Component are the same as those for KWrite recommend going to the Editing tab then Auto Completion and ensuring that both boxes are un checked You may want to change other settings here highly flexible customizable powerful applies only in Frescobaldi 13 4 Using Frescobaldi The practical use of Frescobaldi for editing LilyPond source files is described in Chapter 12
202. er durations than before There is no particular reason that included this chord like incident but it felt like the right thing to do 1 Listen to the next portion of the audio file and mark off the next formal section that you want to use mine is from Qtractor s measure 25 to beat to of measure 38 The portion that chose is also repeated like the first part 2 Place the blue markers at the beginning and end of the segment that you chose 3 Create a new MIDI clip 4 Create the notes separated by three beats as in the last segment This time be sure to add two notes at the same time by ensure that they are aligned vertically Again it doesn t matter which pitches you choose because they will be randomized 5 Select all of the pitches and randomize them by using the Randomize MIDI tool 6 Depending on how the pitches are randomized each pair of notes will probably end up in one of the following situations They are too close or share a particular intervallic relationship that makes them sound like one note They are too far or share a particular intervallic relationship that makes them sound like two notes They share a particular intervallic relationship that makes them sound like one chord built of two equal chords Depending on your aesthetic preferences you may wish to change some of the notes so that one or some of these situations are avoided 7 I created the tone cluster at the end by clicking arbitra
203. erCollider is confused because was been lazy and didn t include enough semicolons The error we get is Index not an Integer which is a clue as to what SuperCollider is trying to do but it s irrelevant The real problem is that SuperCollider interprets our ten stereo arrays as all being part of the same statement We don t want them to be the same statement however because we want ten different stereo arrays to be played Fix this problem by putting a semicolon at the end of each stereo array You do not need to include one at the end of the last statement because SuperCollider assumes the end of the statement when it encounters a end of function marker after it Since we re still building our code we might move these around or add something aftwards so it s better to include a semicolon at the end of each stereo array Now the file plays successfully but with a disappointing result If you can t already see the problem try to think of it before continuing to read Only one SinOsc array gets played and it s the last one This is because the last statement is returned by the function that ends at and it is that result which gets sent to the following play To fix this and ensure that all of the stereo arrays are played you should remove the play from the end of the function and add a play to each stereo array statement You end up with 1 var frequency1 200 600 rand var frequency2 200 600 rand var frequency3 200
204. ery bar and inputting only one bar on every line so that errors are easier to find This example is correct and will not trigger a warning time 4 4 c4ccc c4 eee There are four quarter notes between each bar check symbol which is the right number of beats This example is incorrect and will trigger a warning time 4 4 ce2 ceee c4ccc The first bar has four half notes which is twice as many beats as are allowed LilyPond will print a warning at the first bar check symbol You should always fix the first warning printed by LilyPond then reprocess the file and fix remaining warnings One mistake sometimes triggers more than one bar check warning so if you fix the first warning the rest may disappear 12 5 Working on a Counterpoint Exercise Tutorial Imagine you re in Counterpoint class and you ve been asked to submit a very clean copy of your next assignment Since you don t want to pay 450 000 for a commercially available engraving solution and a fruity computer to use it you decide that LilyPond is the solution for you 12 5 1 Files for the Tutorial You do not need these files to do the tutorial They are example completions LilyPond Input File at http docs fedoraproject org en US Fedora 14 Musicians_Guide files LilyPond Counterpoint source ly PDF Output File at http docs fedoraproject org en US Fedora 14 Musicians_Guide files files LilyPond Counterpoint result pdf 12 5 2 Starting the Score
205. es as you need to be sure that you are singing it correctly Only after you sing the excerpt perfectly should you play it on a fixed pitch instrument to confirm that you are correct You should build your ear with as little help from external sources pianos and so on as possible A significant amount of research shows that this gives you a more flexible musical mind and that while the initial learning curve is very steep you will ultimately be able to learn new concepts faster Aural Skills Books Ben Crowell Eyes and Ears an Anthology of Melodies for Sight Singing 2004 Ben Crowell http www lightandmatter com sighUsight html Anne Hall Studying Rhythm 2004 Prentice Hall Paul Hindemith Elementary Training for Musicains 1984 Schott Music Corp Hoffman The Rhythm Book 2009 Smith Creek Music Gary Karpinski Manual for Ear Training and Sight Singing 2007 Norton Gary Karpinski Anthology for Sight Singing 2006 Norton 14 4 Using the Exercises 14 4 1 Listening 1 Open the software 2 Itis at the Front Page 3 Decide which type of exercise to do 4 Decide which sub section to focus on 5 Click New or New Interval or whatever to get the first question 6 On some exercises you need to click new whenever you want a new one 225 Chapter 14 GNU Solfege 7 Some exercises can be configured to automatically provide a new question when you correctly answer the previous one 8 After he
206. es to confirm that the configuration is correct You will see many choices in the list of playback and recording devices When configured with the default device Audacity lets ALSA determine which sound card to use When configured with the pulse device Audacity lets PulseAudio determine which sound card to use Audacity works most efficiently when configured with a specific sound card so you should not use the default or pulse devices unless the other choices do not work 5 3 3 Setting the Project s Sample Rate and Format You can change the sample rate and sample format see Section 1 3 Sample Sample Rate Sample Format and Bit Rate for definitions You should set the sample rate and sample format when you begin working on a project You should not change the sample rate or sample format after you record audio If you will use audio files that already exist you should use the sample rate and sample format of the existing files 1 Choose File gt Preferences to open the Preferences window 2 Click Quality in the list on the left of the window 3 Change the settings as you need We recommend a sample rate of 44 100 Hz and a sample format of 16 bits for most projects 30 The Interface 5 4 The Interface 5 0 7 0 8 0 9 0 10 0 11 0 12 0 13 0 14 0 15 0 PUE z TM LL i m stun Add wall dll TTC iu i L ai udi d TH WN mM IT TN ddl YT mr 1 The transport controls play stop or pause playback of audio
207. ew 4 Solfege will automatically play an A for you and you can hear it again by clicking 440hz 226 Configure Yourself 5 Sing the chord ascending 6 Verify that you sang correctly by clicking Play answer and hearing whether the pitches are the same 7 Click New for another question 8 Onthe Config tab it allows you to change how far it will transpose the built in models best to leave this as itis key 5 5 9 Solfege does not know whether you sang the interval correctly so you must tell it Sing chord tone 1 Select Sing chord tone 2 Select which chordal member you want to practise singing 3 Click New 4 Solfege will display and play a chord in blocked form and you must sing the chord member that it tells you to sing 5 Youcan repeat the chord in blocked form Repeat or in arpeggio form Repeat arpeggio It is much easier to hear a chord played in arpeggio form so we recommend that you practice both ways 6 When you are sure that you correctly sang the chord member click Play answer 7 Forthe next question click New 14 4 3 Configure Yourself These exercises allow you to choose the focus of your training rather than using a Solfege preset When you enter an exercise you are given a default setup which is then customized on the Config tab in the activity The following things are customizeable in Configure Yourself exercises but not in the other counterparts
208. ewSynth will often be the same as the variableHoldingSynth ToReplace but not always When you use this Function the synth being replaced is freed from the server equivalent to running free so that variable should always be assigned something 11 3 12 4 Pausing and Restarting a Synth The server allows you to temporarily pause and later re start a synth without freeing and re creating it To pause a synth variableHoldingSynth run false To re start a synth 168 Scheduling variableHoldingSynth run true 11 3 13 Scheduling The practice of scheduling allows you to making things happen in a pre determined amount of time Scheduling is very different from ordering ordering is a primarily technical consideration to ensure that the server synthesizes the sound in the right order scheduling is a primarily musical consideration that allows you to control the perceived time that things happen 11 3 13 1 Clocks SuperCollider s clocks have two main functions they know what time it is and they know what time things are supposed to happen There are three types of clocks which each do slightly different things TempoClock These clocks are aware of metre time signature changes and have an adjustable tempo They are to be used for scheduling musical events and they run with a high priority SystemClock This clock always runs in seconds It can be used to schedule musical events since it runs with a high
209. fault var secondPart t var so Array new 10 var func t var frequency 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 u 10 do arg index t c sched 5 index 1 so so add func value play 10 do arg index t c sched 51 so index free This Function is the perfect solution if you want ten pseudo random pitches between 200 Hz and 800 Hz and a five second pause between each one If you want nine or eleven pitches if you want them to eb between 60 Hz and 80Hz if you want a six second pause between each you would have to modify the Function If you don t remember how it works or if you give it to a friend you re going to have to figure out how it works before you modify it This is not an ideal solution 183 Chapter 11 SuperCollider Let s solve these problems one at a time starting with allowing a different number of SinOsc synths to be created We know that we ll have to create an argument and that it will have to be used wherever we need the number of SinOsc s Also to preserve functionality we ll make a default assignment of 10 Try to accomplish this yourself making sure to test your Function so that you know it works Here s what did var t_c TempoClock default var secondPart arg number_of_SinOscs 10 var so Array new number_of_SinOscs var func var frequency 200
210. fore arming any tracks for recording Unfortunately you can never know that you have chosen 57 Chapter 7 Ardour the best input level until after a region is recorded It takes both instinct and experience to be able to choose good input levels reliably 1 Setup all microphones as required 2 Setup connections in JACK as required 3 Setup any recording busses as required see above 4 Onthe audio tracks being recorded set the metering point to input here s how to do that 5 Askthe performers to demonstrate the loudest passages they will be doing in the session Adjust the input level so that the maximum level falls between 3 dB and 6 dB by looking here You can reset the maximum level seer by clicking on it 6 Askthe performers to demonstrate the quietest passages they will be performing in the session Adjust the input level so that this does not fall below 40 dB it should probably be between 30 dB and 20 dB 7 Askthe performers to demonstrate an average passage from what they will be performing in the session This is usually less important than the previous two checks but if most of the performance will be quieter it may be worth risking a higher input level in order to capture more detail Nevertheless a moderate volume level should result in and input level reading of 20 dB to 10 dB 8 When you are more experience both with the kind of group you are recording and the software and equipment bei
211. formation about what you want it to do Just like using a letter to indicate a note commands are simply another way for you to tell LilyPond how you want your score to be rendered For example time 2 4 and clef bass are two commands that you are likely to use quite often They happen to do precisely what it seems like they should time changes the time signature and metre and Nclef changes the clef they belong to differen contexts Xt ime applies for the whole Score but clef for only one Staff 194 Commands It can take some time to remember even these basic commands and the way you should format their input and this is where Frescobaldi s built in documentation viewer can help out All of the official LilyPond documentation is made available in Frescobaldi which makes it easy for you to view the documentation and make changes to your score in the same window of the same application 12 4 6 1 Customization It is rarely necessary to customize the output in a way that is very specific and not allowed for in the standard LilyPond syntax As a beginner this can happen quite often when you are trying to exactly emulate the look of a pre existing score Remember that LilyPond provides a content focussed way to express music and that it will usually produce meaningful output without advanced interference If in doubt about whether a customization is really necessary ask yourself this will it change the music that is played from th
212. ft for standard wav files AIFF Apple SGI for standard aiff files or the preferable FLAC Lossless Audio Codec format FLAC is an open source lossless compressed format for storing audio signals and metadata See the FLAC Website http flac sourceforge net for more information You will also be asked to select a quality setting for lossy compressed formats or a sample format for all lossless formats If you do not know which sample format to choose then Signed 16 Bit is a good choice for almost all uses and will provide you with CD quality audio Most non speciality hardware is incapable of making good use of higher sample formats See Section 1 3 Sample Sample Rate Sample Format and Bit Rate for more information about sample formats Setting the Transport mode will allow you to adjust the behaviour of the transport None allows Qtractor s transport to operate independently Slave allows Qtractor s transport to accept instructions sent by JACK s transport which can be controlled by QjackCtl or another application Master allows Qtractor s transport to send instructions to JACK s transport which can be viewed by QjackCtl or used by another application Full is equivalent to Master and Slave modes simultaneously Qtractor s transport will both send and accept instructions If you are using Qtractor alone or if you don t know which to choose then None is a good choice This setting can be adjusted a
213. ften fade out after a song while the audience applauds Fading out avoids an abrupt stop at the end of the recording because the volume level is decreased gradually to silence 35 Chapter 5 Audacity You generally fade in at the beginning of an audio segment and fade out at the end of an audio segment You can use Audacity to create special effects if you fade in or fade out in the middle of an audio segment You can make a surprising effect by setting Audacity to fade in or out over a few second then adding the opposite fade inside the first fade 1 Click Selection Tool then select a portion of audio to fade in or out 2 Choose Effect Fade In or Effect Fade Out We created a long fade out in one of our tracks so that the track is quieter We then adjusted the spacing of the other tracks moving them closer 5 6 8 Remove Some Audio You can remove portions of a track This procedure removes audio at the end of a track You can use a similar method to remove audio in other ways 1 Click Selection Tool then place the editing cursor at the point where you want the track to end 2 Choose Edit Select Cursor to Track End There are many other choices in the Edit gt Select menu 3 Press Delete The selected audio is deleted 4 If you make a mistake you can undo the previous action Choose Edit Undo We removed the end of the lowest track 5 6 9 Repeat an Already Recorded Segment You can rep
214. function This way if we want to write another function later then it can also access t c The default TempoClock has a default tempo of one beat per second 1 Hz This will be good enough for us If you wanted to change the tempo remember that you can enter a metronome setting which is beats per minute by dividing the metronome setting by 60 So a metronome s 120 beats per minute would be given to a new TempoClock as TempoClock new 120 60 Even though you could do that ahead of time and just write 2 inputting it as 120 60 makes it clearer what tempo you intend to set You can schedule something on a TempoClock by using t c sched x f wheref isa function to execute and x is when it should be done measured as the number of beats from now So we can schedule our SinOsc like this t c sched 1 SinOsc ar freq frequency1 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency1 mul 0 01 j play j Schedule the rest in intervals of five beats which is five seconds They will all be scheduled virtually instantaneously that is the computer will notice the slight delay between when each one is scheduled but humans will not started at one beat from now to insert a slight pause before the sound begins If you ve done this correctly then we should get a build up of ten pitches But they never stop This is going to take some more ingenuity to solve because we can t just make a stereo array play it then throw it away We need to
215. ginal While it seems like Ardour stores multiple copies of the region it actually just stores one copy and the information required to make it seem like there are many Adjust the end of the region so that there isn t too much silence after the clarinet Be extra careful with this so that you don t cut out any of the clarinet which gets very quiet at the end of the region There isn t much to cut off Note that you cannot click in the coloured bar when adjusting the end of a region so you ll have to click and drag Here are the instructions to edit the rest of the regions As you trim the regions you may find it helpful to move them all towards the start of the session Remember to change the bus that s in solo mode when you move to different tracks or else you won t be able to hear the tracks you re trying to edit You may also notice that some of these regions contain identical or nearly identical music which we ll deal with later Clarinet Clarinet 2 Starts with sound but it s not useful so cut it out along with the silence after it End has a good chunk of silence to cut out Clarinet 3 Clarinet 4 the silence at the beginning and end can be removed but leave the silence in the middle e Strings Strings 1 Starts with grumbling noise which was not intended to be captured You can keep it or discard as you please Esther decided to keep it in and so will I Strings 2 3 4 Silence at the beginning b
216. gnature key signature mark markup bold Allegro spiritoso War 5 Add the reference to this in all of your parts Because of how named it this also serves as a handy way to find your way through the LilyPond markup file r4 r r fermata startExposition R2 4 6 The barline and tempo change will not appear unless you write some music after them so put in some or all of the rests that follow just to test it 12 7 Working on a Piano Score Tutorial Scenario At a used music store you encounter a 60 year old hand engraved copy of a Schubert Impromptu but it s been badly damaged by a flood The store s owner says that if you can use the Score you can keep it for free The score is barely legible so you decide to prepare a copy with a computer notation program I m using Schubert s Impromptu Op 90 D 899 Nr 4 in A flat major Published by Edition Peters 10463 edited by Walter Niemann We ll be setting the A section from the beginning to the Trio When following this tutorial it is recommended that the reader follows along creating their replica of this tutorial s PDF 12 7 1 Files for the Tutorial You do not need the LilyPond input file to do the tutorial You should use the input file if you encounter problems and to compare your completion You do need the PDF output file to do the tutorial 209 Chapter 12 LilyPond LilyPond Input File at http docs fedoraproject org en US F
217. good and are easy to read LilyPond s users focus on what needs to be displayed rather than on how it is going to be displayed As with any particular approach the LilyPond approach is not for everybody However once you have become accustomed to working with the software and once you have learned methods to help deal with problems and organize your scores source files you will probably realize that LilyPond is both much faster and much more flexible than traditional commercially available music engraving programs LilyPond offers many other features too Some of these features include Putting scores into LaTeX or HTML documents Putting scores into OpenOffice org documents with the ooolilypond program Being compatible with all major operating systems Managing parts and full scores for large compositions Allowing new musical symbols with the Scheme programming language It is the goal of this guide to help users more quickly overcome the initial learning handicap incurred because of the text based approach Making use of tools such as the Frescobaldi text editor will help to increase productivity to make trouble shooting easier and to ease the memory burden associated with the text based approach 12 1 How LilyPond Works Think of LilyPond as an automobile mechanic When your car breaks down the mechanic knows which tools to use You can buy tools to fix your car by yourself but the mechanic is specialized The m
218. h ssssssss mH 106 10 2 4 Installation without Qsynth ssssssmH He 107 vi 10 2 5 Installation of SoundFont Files eeeeenR Hmm 107 10 3 Using FluidSynth in a Terminal sssssse mem 108 10 4 Configuring Qsynth ee t ee t tdeo RE Read dap RR EE s e eh Da 108 10 4 1 Starting FluidSynth eerie ei eit Rn 108 10 4 2 SoundFont Configuration ssssssessem eene 108 10 4 3 JACK Output Configuration ssssssseem m 109 10 4 4 MIDI Input Configuration sssssssee mm Hem 109 10 4 5 Viewing all FluidSynth Settings sssssm 110 10 5 Assigning Programs to Channels with Qsynth sssssseeeee 110 10 5 1 Changing the Number of MIDI Input Channels s es 110 10 5 2 Saving and Reusing Channel Assignments ssssseseese 111 10 6 Using Reverb and Chorus with Qsynth sssssssseeHH 111 10 7 Multiple FluidSynth Instances with Qsynth sssse 112 11 SuperCollider 113 11 1 Requirements and Installation sssssss Hem 113 11 1 1 Knowledge Requirements ssssssssseeeemmene eene 113 11 1 2 Software Requirements ssssssssssee mener 113 11 1 3 Hardware Requirements sssssssssssseeeeeneeer enne nennen nnne 114 11 1 4 Available SuperCollider Packages sssssmemm 114 11
219. hannel and the green line should be all the way right The mixer control located above the panner is called the fader and it allows you to adjust a track s level 7 5 2 Set Initial Levels As with editing the point here is to get the levels set into the right general area so they work for most of the track When you start using an automation track later the levels can be fine tuned and changed within the session Here is one possible procedure to use for an initial level adjustment 1 Open the mixer window with the menu by choosing Window gt Mixer As mentioned earlier it can be convenient to put the mixer window on another monitor or virtual desktop Set all of the faders to O dB They are probably already set to this level unless you changed them earlier Take the quietest track when set to O dB as the limiting factor on how loud the other tracks should be Since it s generally safer to avoid amplifying audio signals if we use the quietest track as the base line then we ll have to adjust the level of the other tracks down to suit In this case the voice tracks are the quietest At this point it s best to stick with adjusting the busses faders If you adjust the faders on the tracks this will affect the panning and could lead to confusing problems later 78 Set Initial Panning 5 Play through the session and adjust the faders of the busses so that all of the tracks can be heard equally well Remem
220. happen by sending a message to the Object that tells it what you want if you have a Bicycle you might turn the wheels like this bike turnTheWheels When you do this you actually execute the turnTheWheels function which is defined by the abstract Bicycle class Because it doesn t make sense to turn the wheels of all bicycles in existence you don t call the method a synonym for Function from the Bicycle class itself but from the particular instance whose wheels you want to turn The proper way to access instance variables is by using instance methods If this kind of programming is new to you it might seem extremely difficult It can be intimidating at first but it is actually not too difficult to understand once you start to use it In fact you have already been using it Remember the post 1n command that was described earlier as a special kind of Function It s actually a Function defined by SuperCollider s abstract class Object which defines a set of messages that can be passed to any SuperCollider object Because most things in SuperCollider are objects we can send them the post1n message and they will understand that it means to print themselves in the SuperCollider output pane Why is it that all Objects respond to the post1n message SuperCollider classes are allowed to belong to other SuperCollider classes of which they are a part Consider the Bicycle class again It is a kind of vehicle and philosophers might say that things
221. have installed then the Planet CCRMA version will be installed at this point Although it is necessary to use the rpm program directly all other Planet CCRMA software can be installed through yum like all other applications Here is an explanation of the command line options used above U means upgrade which will install the specified package and remove any previously installed version v means verbose which will print additional information meessages h means hash which will display hash marks these showing the progress of installation 4 3 2 Set Repository Priorities This is optional and recommended only for advanced users yum normally installs the latest version of a package regardless of which repository provides it Using this plugin will change this behaviour so that yum will choose package versions primarily based on which repository provides it If a newer version is available at a repository with lower priority yum does not upgrade the package If you simply wish to prevent a particular package from being updated the instructions in Section 4 3 3 Prevent a Package from Being Updated are better suited to your needs 1 Install the yum plugin priorities package 2 Useatext editor or the cat or less command to verify that etc yum pluginconf d priorities conf exists and contains the following text main 23 Chapter 4 Planet CCRMA at Home enabled 1 If you want to stop using
222. he Export Window sssssssm Heres 8 Qtractor 8 1 Requirements and Installation sssssssse eene 8 1 1 Knowledge Requirements ssssssssssse eene enne 8 1 2 Software Requirements sssssssssssseenes eene enne nnne nnns nnn 8 1 3 Hardware Requirements ssssssssssssssee eene mener 8 1 4 Other Requirements sssssssssssssseeeee mene nene nene nnns 8 1 5 Installation 5 v oe LR b Gee MER TR e pie E 8 2 Conig rat oM LEE Musicians Guide 8 2 1 Audio OptlOrnis edet coun beds onde E REIR ERREUR ERES Eaei EEEa Rund 86 8 2 2 MIDE ODtIOFS iei dete LE tu et te t es feci edis cose a de erat RD nad 86 8 2 3 Configuring MIDI Channel Names sss 87 9 3 USING OtTactor 1 ei be tied aestate etis 87 8 3 1 Using the Blue Place Markers ssssssssm Hmm 87 8 3 2 Using the MIDI Matrix Editor s Tools sssseI HH 88 8 3 3 Using JACK with QtractOr sssssssseeem menm 89 8 3 4 Exporting a Whole File Audio and MIDI Together ssssesssess 90 8 3 5 Miscellaneous Tips sesessssseeeneeeenen nennen nenne nhen innen hernia 90 8 4 Creating a MIDI Composition Tutorial ssseeem HH 91 8T INSPIFALION nosti ett tte n beant tte cin aa Gr ei ater gs 91 9 4 2 Files for the Tutorial pene p TERLER 91 8 4 3 Getting Qtractor Ready c cece ee c
223. he concluding on a separate line with the same indentation as the word case so that it s easy to see The following example shows a simple switch var grade 11 rand 1 pseudo randomly chooses to 11 then adds 1 to give 1 to 12 grade switch grade m BD queer p Tet J EU To ot Jy e Te BOT T Be 10 A 11 A 12 a o oS 0 Oo 01 0 N S C cu cm cS cS cS cS cS cS Your grade is grade postln nil The code picks a pseudo random number between 1 and 12 then uses a switch structure to convert that number into a letter grade assigning it to the same grade variable Then it adds the Your grade is string to the value of grade with a space between and prints that result This example avoids the complex nested if structure from above var testA 1 2 3 choose pseudo randomly chooses one of the elements in the List var testB 1 2 3 choose switch testA testB 1 1 It s one and one postln 1 2 It s one and two postln 1 3 It s one and three postln 2 1 It s two and one postln 2 2 It s two and two postln 2 3 It s two and thre postln Jj 3 1 It s three and one postln Jj 3 2 It s three and two postln 3 3 It s three and three postln 148 Conditional Execution nil This is an elegant way to inspect two otherwise separa
224. he layout of buttons can change dramatically between DAWS but they all offer the same basic functionality Often right clicking on a track info box will give access to extended configuration options Left clicking on a portion of the track info box that is not a button allows you to select a track without selecting a particular moment in track pane The track info pane does not scroll out of view as the track pane is adjusted but is independent 46 Track Pane 6 4 4 Track Pane 1 The ruler set here to BBT bars beats ticks 2 Two tracks presented as graphical representations The horizontal axis repesents time 3 A MIDI clip known as a region in other applications 4 An audio clip known as a region in other applications 5 Scrollbar for the track pane note that this pane scrolls independently Figure 6 7 The Qtractor track pane The track pane is the main workspace in a DAW It shows regions also called clips with a rough overview of the audio wave form or MIDI notes allows you to adjust the starting time and length of regions and also allows you to ae or re dae a ole toa eu The track pane shows the transport as a vertical line in 2 6 7 The Qtractor track p it is the left most red line in the track pane Scrolling the track pane horizontally allows you to view the regions throughout the session The left most point is the start of the session the right most point is after the end of the sess
225. hed 36 so8 sinosc8 play t c sched 41 so9 sinosc9 play t c sched 46 so0 sinoscO play t c sched 51 soi free t c sched 51 so2 free t c sched 51 so3 free t c sched 51 so4 free t c sched 51 so5 free t c sched 51 so6 free t c sched 51 so7 free t c sched 51 so8 free t c sched 51 so9 free t c sched 51 so0 free value 11 4 7 Optimizing the Code Hopefully while working through the previous sections you got an idea of how tedious boring difficult to read and error prone this sort of copy and paste programming can be It s ridiculous and it s poor programming We re using a lot of variables and variable names They re all just used once or twice too When you copy and paste code but change it a little you might make a mistake in that little change 180 Optimizing the Code When you copy and paste code when you make a mistake you have to copy and paste to fix it everywhere Repetition is the enemy of high quality code It is much better to write something once and re use that same code Thankfully SuperCollider provides three things that will greatly help to solve these problems at least for our current situation Arrays can be used to hold multiple instances of the same thing all referred to with essentially the same name We re already doing something similar si
226. her devices or effects Busses Master Bus and Sub Master Bus 1 4 2 Busses Master Bus and Sub Master Bus An audio bus sends audio signals from one place to another Many different signals can be inputted to a bus simultaneously and many different devices or applications can read from a bus simultaneously Signals inputted to a bus are mixed together and cannot be separated after entering a bus All devices or applications reading from a bus receive the same signal bus Figure 1 2 How audio busses work All audio routed out of a program passes through the master bus The master bus combines all audio tracks allowing for final level adjustments and simpler mastering The primary purpose of the master bus is to mix all of the tracks into two channels A sub master bus combines audio signals before they reach the master bus Using a sub master bus is optional They allow you to adjust more than one track in the same way without affecting all the 11 LI sub master 1 sub master 1 master bus Figure 1 3 The relationship between the master bus and sub master busses Audio busses are also used to send audio into effects processors 1 4 3 Level Volume Loudness The perceived volume or loudness of sound is a complex phenomenon not entirely understood by experts One widely agreed method of assessing loudness is by measuring the sound pressure level SPL which is measured in decibels dB or bels B equal to ten decibels
227. hod 1 sc but produces the same output What I have is this 182 Making a Useful Section out of the Second Part var t_c TempoClock default var so Array new 10 var func var frequency 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 10 do arg index t_c sched 5 index 1 so so add func value play 10 do arg index t c sched 51 so index free value 20 Finally assign this Function to a variable called secondPart perhaps and remove the value Function call If we leave that in the Function will execute before the rest of the program begins 11 4 8 Making a Useful Section out of the Second Part This section describes the reasons for the differences between the second part s Function that was just created and the Function that appears in FSC method 1 short sc It all comes down to this the current solution is tailor made for this particular program and would require significant adaptation to be used anywhere else want to re design the Function so that it can be used anywhere to begin with while still defaulting to the behaviour desired for this program You can skip this section and return later The actions for the rest of the tutorial remain unchanged whether you do or do not make the modifications in this section Here s what I have from the previous step var t c TempoClock de
228. hold onto the stereo array so that we can stop it The first step here is to store the stereo arrays in variables and subsequently schedule them You will end up with something like this var sinosci SinOsc ar freq frequency1 mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency1 mul 0 01 Y the other nine t c sched 1 sinosci play the other nine It should still work but we after all that cutting and pasting we still haven t managed to turn off the SinOsc s We need to free the object that was returned when we used the play function We need to declare yet more variables var so1 so2 so3 so4 sob so6 so7 so8 so9 so0 should appear anywhere before the scheduler Now adjust all the scheduling commands so they look like this t c sched 1 so1 sinosci play Now you can add ten of these after the existing scheduling commands t_c sched 51 so1 free Be sure to schedule each one for 51 beats so that they all turn off simultaneously 5 beats after the last pitch is added It should work successfully If it doesn t then compare what you have to this which does work var t_c TempoClock default var frequency var frequency2 200 600 rand 200 600 rand 179 Chapter 11 SuperCollider var frequency3 200 600 rand var frequency4 200 600 rand var frequency5 200 600 rand var frequency6 200 600 rand var frequency7 200 600 rand var frequency8
229. ial on which this document is based The sections in that tutorial roughly correspond to the sections in this guide 11 3 14 2 Internet Relay Chat IRC If you know how to use Internet Relay Chat IRC you can join the supercollider channel on the Freenode network The channel does not usually have a large number of participants or a lot of activity but the users are some of the most polite and helpful on the internet 171 Chapter 11 SuperCollider 11 3 14 3 Email If you feel comfortable sending an email to a mailing list you can use the sc users Mailing List available at http www beast bham ac uk research sc mailing lists shtml If you decide to subscribe to this list be aware that it receives a large amount of mail every day 11 3 14 4 The SuperCollider Website The SuperCollider Website at SourceForge http supercollider sourceforge net offers links to many resources 11 3 15 Legal Attribution This portion of the Fedora Musicians Guide called Basic Programming with SuperCollider is a derivative work of the Getting Started With SuperCollider tutorial The original work was created by Scott Wilson James Harkins and the SuperCollider development team It is available on the internet from http supercollider svn sourceforge net viewvc supercollider trunk common build Help Tutorials Getting Started Getting 20Started 20With 20SC html The original document like all SuperCollider documentation is licence
230. ic machines like furnaces and microwave ovens and even people in a concert hall or auditorium with you The fact that my audio files cannot be legally re distributed forced me to add a conscious creative decision into every listening of the piece 8 4 2 Files for the Tutorial A recording of the second movement from Beethoven s Piano Sonata No 23 Appassionata either e Mutopia at http www mutopiaproject org cgibin make table cgi searchingfor appassionata MIDI synthesizer recording with LilyPond sheet music e MusOpen at http www musopen com music php type piece amp id 309 live recording The recording used played by Rudolf Serkin available on the Sony label You need to use FluidSynth covered in Chapter 10 FluidSynth 91 Chapter 8 Qtractor 8 4 3 Getting Qtractor Ready 1 Open QjackCtl and start JACK 2 Open Qsynth and configure it with one instance using the default FluidR3 SoundFont 3 Open Qtractor 4 Configure the MIDI tracks to cooperate with the default FluidR3 SoundFont 5 Switch to QjackCtl and ensure the proper connections Qtractor s MIDI out on ALSA page is connected to Qsynth s MIDI in Osynth s audio out is connected to system in the speakers Qtractor s audio out is conencted to system in the speakers Noother connections are necessary 8 4 4 Import the Audio File 1 Create a new audio track 2 Right click on the audio track and go to Clip then Import
231. ic dictation exercises It is an optional component and not available in Fedora through standard means See Section 14 1 5 Optional Installation MMA Lilypond book Solfege uses this for generating print outs of ear training exercise progress See the Optional Installation section above Latex Solfege uses this for generating dvi format progress reports rather than the default HTML format Latex Solfege uses this for generating dvi format progress reports rather than the default HTML format 14 2 4 Interface Resizeable main window This allows users to resize the main Solfege window Select language Identify tone keyboard accelerators In exercises requiring the input of particular pitches this will allow a conventional keyboard to be used as a MIDI keyboard letters on the keyboard will be associated with particular pitches 14 2 5 Practise These options apply to exercises done in Practise mode Not allow new question before the old is solved Solfege will not provide a new question until you have solved the current question Repeat question if the answer was wrong Solfege will repeat a question if you provide an incorrect answer Expert mode Solfege will provide advanced configuration options for individual exercises 14 2 6 Sound Setup No sound This mode is used for testing and debugging Solfege Use device This mode lets you specify which audio interface Solfege will use
232. ic of creating and enforcing an order on the server Because this is done with Functions or methods from the Synth Class other useful Functions from the Class 12 Ordering and Other Synth Features are discussed here 166 Ordering and Other Synth Features 11 3 12 1 Ordering Ordering is instructing the server to calculate in a particular order The audio synthesized by the server takes the same form as any other digital audio a series of samples are played at a particular speed called sample rate each with a set number of bits per sample called sample format For each sample the server calculates the signal at that point in a pre determined order Each sample is calculated from scratch so if a particular UGen depends on the output of another UGen the other one had better be calculated first For more information on samples sample rate and sample format see Section 1 3 Sample Sample Rate Sample Format and Bit Rate Consider the following example SinOsc ar freq SinOsc kr freq 1 add 500 mul 10 mul 0 2 play What happens if the server calculates the audio rate UGen first It wouldn t have a frequency This is another one of those things which the interpreter takes care of automatically when we run Function rather than create a Synth Since it s often preferable to use a synth instead of a Function we need some way to control the order of execution The interpreter and the server are only so good at
233. ies designed primarily for audio processing As often happens with computers however this added flexibility and power comes at the cost of requiring greater understanding and learning on the part of the user Because SuperCollider involves actual programming a rudimentary understanding of some principles and concepts of computer science will provide huge benefits to somebody learning the language The following articles from Wikipedia are not mandatory reading but you should refer to them as necessary while learning the language Computer Programming at http en wikipedia org wiki Computer programming You probably know what this is it s what you ll be doing Programming Language at http en wikipedia org wiki Programming language SuperCollider is a programming language Interpreter at http en wikipedia org wiki Interpreter_ 28computing 29 This reads your code and sends commands to the server which causes it to produce sound Server at http en wikipedia org wiki Server_ 28computing 29 SuperCollider has a server component which is operated by the interpreter Functional Programming at http en wikipedia org wiki Functional programming SuperCollider can be treated as a functional language Imperative Programming at http en wikipedia org wiki Imperative programming SuperCollider can be treated as an imperative language Object Oriented Programming at http en wikipedia org wiki Object oriented programming Super
234. ign next to a note head some contexts are unusual but make sense like a doorknob on a wall if the wall is designed to look like a door like a bus driver sitting in a passenger seat if they are going to the garage like a person buying groceries from a corner store if the supermarkets are closed like a flat sign in a paragraph of text if that paragraph describes what flat signs do and some contexts do not make sense but can still happen like a doorknob on a television like a bus driver serving patrons at a restaurant like a person buying groceries at a governmental office like a flat sign in the top corner of a score where the page number should be The LilyPond designers wisely decided that they could not think of all possible uses for their software so LilyPond allows most engravers to be used in most contexts Furthermore a context can happen within an other context which makes sense a Voice context only makes sense if it appears on a Staff and a Staff only makes sense if it appears in a Score So when trying to sort out the context in which something should apply ask yourself exactly that In what context does this apply Beams and flags happen in one voice accidentals apply to a whole staff and tempo markings apply to the whole score Although it may take some careful thought to get used to the idea contexts ultimately make perfect sense 12 4 7 Source Files and Their Formatti
235. ill not test the right side expression because the result will be true anyway Similarly if the left side expression of a logical And operator evaluates to false the interpreter will not test the right side expression because the result will be false anyway This can be exploited to help avoid errors like division by zero var x 5 rand assigns a pseudo random number between and 5 x 0 amp amp xX 17 x doesn t divide by x if it would cause division by zero x the interpreter automatically prints this value after execution If the left side expression of the logical And operator is false the interpreter doesn t evaluate the right side expression it simply moves on to the next expression If the left side expression is true meaning that x is not zero then the right side expression is evaluated The right side expression happens to be a Function which assigns x the result of dividing 17 by its previous value The result of the logical And operation is simply discarded in this case it doesn t really matter to us This isn t the most straight forward code and there are other ways to avoid division by zero If you use this it s probably best to include a brief explanation of what the code does as a commment If you run this code many times you will see that it gives many different results one of which is zero which proves that the code works as intended If SuperCollider divides by zero
236. in most programming languages Although they are optional in SuperCollider it just makes sense to use one function that does all the scheduling and nothing else that way when you have problems with the scheduling or you want to make an adjustment or addition to the program you can easily find the place where the scheduling happens If your scheduling commands were spread out through the source file it would be much more difficult to find and modify the scheduling commands Our first job is to determine which variables we ll need to use just one which will be assigned the currently running FirstPart Synth Also if you didn t previously assign TempoClock default to the variable t c then it makes sense to do this now The next thing our function must do is guarantee that we re going to have the right tempo Use the tempo Function with an argument in beats per second to assign TempoClock default a tempo of one beat per second The next and last thing will be to schedule our sounds First we need to determine which events will need to be scheduled and then at what times a Since FirstPart is a SynthDef we ll need to start it and stop it ourselves Since it happens two times in the intended program we ll need to do it twice b secondPart is a Function and it stops itself when it s finished We ll need to start it once and let it go c Justin case something takes a while to process we ll start the first FirstPart on beat
237. indicator it will still print the default 4 4 time signature This example is musically simple but it includes some advanced concepts and importantly helps to get over a couple of common and understandable fears especially for beginners and especially for musically simple things like this 12 6 Working on an Orchestral Score Tutorial Scenario You volunteer at a community orchestra and the conductor decides to play a Haydn symphony The orchestra does not own any Haydn symphonies so the conductor asks you if you can help to find a full score and parts You find a book with the conductor s score but no parts You decide to input the score in LilyPond which will allow you to easily create the missing parts This tutorial uses the first movement of Joseph Haydn s Sinfonia No 92 Oxford When following this tutorial it is recommended that the reader follows along creating their replica of this tutorial s PDF 12 6 1 Files for the Tutorial You do not need the LilyPond input file to do the tutorial You do need the PDF output file to do the tutorial Use the input file if you encounter problems or to check your result LilyPond Input File at http docs fedoraproject org en US Fedora 14 Musicians Guide files LilyPond Orchestra source ly PDF Output File at http docs fedoraproject org en US Fedora 14 Musicians_Guide files LilyPond Orchestra result pdf 12 6 2 Starting the Score 1 LilyPond gt Setup New Score
238. ing to test Audacity 5 2 5 Post Installation Test Playback 1 Start Audacity 2 Setthe volume of your audio interface and speakers to a safe level 3 Choose File gt Open to open the Open File window 4 Openthe usr share sounds alsa Noise wav file This file is designed for testing audio equipment 5 Play the file as many times as you need Adjust the volume of your audio interface and speakers while the file is playing 6 If you cannot hear sound when the file is played check that your audio interface and speakers are correctly connected and powered on 7 Ifyou still cannot hear sound when the file is played see Section 5 3 2 Configuring Audacity for Your Sound Card 5 2 6 Post Installation Test Recording 1 Connect your microphones to your audio interface 28 Configuration 2 Start Audacity Do not open a file 3 Locate the volume level meters on the toolbar to the right of the transport controls If you do not see the meters choose View Toolbars Meter Toolbar which should have a check mark next to it 4 Click on the arrow next to the microphone to open the input meter s pop up menu Choose Start Monitoring 5 Sing talk or make noise into the microphone The volume level meter should show moving red bars 6 Adjust the volume of the recording inputs on your audio interface When there is no noise the moving red bars should be very small 7 If you do not see moving red bar
239. ing it for listeners recording mixing and mastering Each step of the process has distinct characteristics yet they can sometimes be mixed together 39 Chapter 6 Digital Audio Workstations 6 2 1 Recording Recording is the process of capturing audio regions also called clips or segments into the DAW software for later processing Recording is a complex process involving a microphone that captures sound energy translates it into electrical energy and transmits it to an audio interface The audio interface converts the electrical energy into digital signals and sends it through the operating system to the DAW software The DAW stores regions in memory and on the hard drive as required Every time the musicians perform some or all of the performance to be recorded while the DAW is recording it is considered to be a take A successful recording usually requires several takes due to the inconsistencies of musical performance and of the related technological aspects 6 2 2 Mixing Mixing is the process through which recorded audio regions also called clips are coordinated to produce an aesthetically appealing musical output This usually takes place after recording but sometimes additional takes will be needed Mixing often involves reducing audio from multiple tracks into two channels for stereo audio a process known as down mixing because it decreases the amount of audio data Mixing includes the following
240. inning off the Voice 2 region It s important to remember to move both regions together If they are accidentally separated then you can easily enough move them back into place Voice 3 contains two chunks of audio We ll leave it alone for now Voice 4 contains the same two chunks of audio as Voice 3 but goes on to include more We can t yet determine whether to use Voice 3 or Voice 4 for those two chunks so we re going to leave them in both regions 7 4 5 6 ens Here Is How Regions ens Here Is How 1 contains two chunks of similar audio both correct ens Here Is How 2 contains two chunks of similar audio It s different from ens Here Is How 1 but the second of these chunks has incorrect pitches but the timing between the two chunks is correct ens Here Is How 3 contains the second chunk of audio from ens Here Is How 2 with the correct pitches Since we want to maintain the correct timing from ens Here Is How 2 simply drag ens Here Is How 3 over top of ens Here Is How 2 Align the regions so that the wave form shape of 3 is as close to covering that of 2 as possible These regions will also have to be carefully moved together 7 4 5 7 ens Create the Inconceivable Regions There are two takes of the same material in this region 1 Listen to them both and decide which you prefer it s up to your preference Remember you can also reverse your choice later because Ardour will not delete the material that you remove
241. inute divide the value by 60 t play aFunction Schedules the Function to begin execution on the next beat There are many other Functions in the TempoClock Class related to absolute scheduling scheduling with bars and conversion of beats to and from seconds 11 3 14 How to Get Help Knowing how to get help in SuperCollider is going to play a large part in determining whether you have a productive or frustrating relationship with the language and its components There are a large number of ways to get help but here are some of the most helpful 11 3 14 1 Use the SuperCollider Help Files SuperCollider comes with an extensive collection of help files which contain the answers to most of your problems The difficulty will be in finding the solution it s not always located where you think it is because it often isn t the solution you think it will be On Fedora Linux systems the main help file is located at file usr share SuperCollider Help Help html this URL and it can be viewed in any web browser It may also be helpful to browse the directory structure of the help files located at file usr share SuperCollider Help this URL which can also be viewed in your web browser If you re looking for further explanations of material in this tutorial you could start by reviewing the file usr share SuperCollider Help Tutorials Getting Started Getting9620Started9620With9620SC html Getting Started With SuperCollider tutor
242. io starts JACK it uses the command found in the jackdrc file QjackCtl automatically updates this file when you change settings but you may have to restart both PulseAudio and JACK in order to get the new changes to take effect If they refuse to take effect you can edit that file yourself Be careful about using a very high sample rate with PulseAudio since it will tend to use a lot of CPU power 16 Chapter 3 Real Time and Low Latency It is perhaps a common perception that computers can compute things instantaneously Anybody who has ever waited for a web page to load has first hand experience that this is not the case computers take time to do things even if the amount of time is often imperceptible to human observers Moreover a computer doing one thing can seem like it s acting nearly instantaneously but a computer doing fifteen things will have a more difficult time keeping up appearances 3 1 Why Low Latency Is Desirable When computer audio specialists talk about a computer acting in real time they mean that it is acting with only an imperceptible delay A computer cannot act on something instantaneously and the amount of waiting time between an input and its output is called atency In order for the delay between input and output to be perceived as non existant in other words for a computer to react in real time the latency must be low For periodic tasks like processing audio which has a consistently
243. ioSynth s arg bus fregOffset 0 Out ar SinOsc ar freq In kr bus freqgOffset mul 0 1 F var busControlSynth f arg bus freq 400 Out kr bus SinOsc kr freq 1 mul freq 40 add freq F SynthDef NtutorialAudioBus busAudioSynth send s SynthDef NtutorialControlBus busControlSynth send s b Bus control s execute second create synths x Synth new NtutorialControlBus bus b control synth Synth after x NtutorialAudioBus bus b low audio synth Synth after x tutorialAudioBus bus b MfreqOffset 200 high audio synth N Won commands to free each Object x free x nil control synth y free y nil low audio synth z free z nil high audio synth b free b nil control bus This example contains three stages prepare the server create the synths destroy the synths These three stages will become familiar as you program in SuperCollider whether or not you use busses frequently The example is fairly complicated so the code is explained here busAudioSynth Function Accepts two arguments and creates an audio rate SinOsc routed to the left output channel The frequency is determined by a control rate bus given as an argument and optionally with an offset that can be supplied as an argument 163 Chapter 11 SuperCollider busControlSynth Function Accepts two arguments and creates a control rate SinOs
244. ion Most DAWs allow you to scroll well beyond the end of the session Scrolling vertically in the track pane allows you to view the regions and tracks in a particular time range 47 Chapter 6 Digital Audio Workstations 1 Transport skip to beginning 2 Transport fast reverse 3 Transport fast forward 4 Transport skip to end 5 Transport forward at real time 6 Arm for recording Figure 6 8 The Qtra or transport controls The transport controls allow you to manipulate the transport in various ways The shape of the buttons is somewhat standardized a similar looking button will usually perform the same function in all DAWs as well as in consumer electronic devices like CD players and DVD players The single left pointing arrow with a vertical line will move the transport to the start of the session without playing or recording any material In Qtractor if there is a blue place marker between the transport and the start of the session the transport will skip to the blue place marker Press the button again to the next blue place marker or the beginning of the session The double left pointing arrows move the transport in fast motion towards the start of the session The double right pointing arrows move the transport in fast motion towards the end of the session The single right pointing arrow with a vertical line will move the transport to the end of the last region currently in a session In Qtractor if there
245. ion lt replaceable gt lt replaceable gt resultFunction lt replaceable gt lt replaceable gt booleanFunction lt replaceable gt lt replaceable gt resultFunction lt replaceable gt Contemplate the following pseudo code example which represents a possible musical sitation and a good use of the case structure var coolFunction t case is there no music playing AND people are in the room play music has the same song been playing for too long OR is the song boring change the song has everybody left the room turn off the music has a song been requested change to that song is the music too loud lower the music s volume 149 Chapter 11 SuperCollider is the music too quiet raise the music s volume is the music too fast lower the music s tempo is the music too slow raise the music s tempo is everything okay wait for 10 seconds r u 5 5 while coolFunction executes coolFunction contiuously It might seem like this example doesn t relate to a real SuperCollider programming situation but in fact it might If you could program Function s which determined all of those questions and all of the answers this sort of case structure would be very helpful in a situation where a computer running SuperCollider were left in a room by itself and expected to play music whenever anybody entered the room Since five is always equal to five the interp
246. ions Method One is available at http docs fedoraproject org en US Fedora 14 Musicians_Guide files SuperCollider Method One sc Method One Optimized is available at http docs fedoraproject org en US Fedora 14 Musicians Guide files SuperCollider Method One optimized sc A FLAC format recording of Method One is available at http docs fedoraproject org en US Fedora 14 Musicians Guide files SuperCollider Method One flac Method One sc is an extensively commented version of the source code The comments not only describe the way the code works but pose some problems and questions that you may wish to work 172 Inspiration on to increase your knowledge of SuperCollider The problem with the verbosity of the comments is that it can be difficult to read the code itself as it would be written in a real program Method_One optimized sc is a less commented version of the source code I ve also re written part of the code to make it more flexible for use in other programs The differences between this and code that would have written for myself only are trivial Method_One flac is a recording that produced of the program which produced in Ardour 11 4 2 Inspiration The intention of this program is to represent one way to write a SuperCollider program decided to take one class SinOsc and use it for everything Here everything means any function that returns a sound or any function that directly controls
247. ions Libraries can be shared between programs The libraries needed by Audacity will be installed automatically The version of Audacity from the Fedora repository does not use an MP3 library If you do not want to use MP3 files with Audacity you should follow the instructions in Section 5 2 3 Standard Installation If you want to use MP3 files with Audacity you should follow the instructions in Section 5 2 4 Installation with MP3 Support Audacity can use the JACK Audio Connection Kit You should install JACK before installing Audacity Follow the instructions in Section 2 3 1 Installing and Configuring JACK to install JACK We recommend using Audacity without JACK but JACK is installed whether or not you use it 5 2 2 Hardware Requirements You need an audio interface to use Audacity If you will record audio with Audacity you must have at least one microphone connected to your audio interface You do not need a microphone to edit existing audio files 5 2 3 Standard Installation This method installs Audacity from the Fedora repository This version of Audacity does not use an MP3 library and cannot process MP3 files 1 Use PackageKit or KPackagekKit to install the audacity package 27 Chapter 5 Audacity 2 The proposed installation includes Audacity and all of the libraries that Audacity uses Continue installing Audacity by reviewing and approving the proposed installation 3 Audacity configures i
248. ions and provide outgoing MMC messages You can also select a particular MIDI device number with which Qtractor will interact if you do this it will ignore MMC messages from other devices and not send MMC messages to other devices Enabled the Dedicated MIDI control input output will provide JACK with MIDI inputs and outputs that will be used by Qtractor only for MMC messages Qtractor will not send or receive MMC messages sent on other inputs or outputs if this option is enabled SPP stands for Song Position Pointer and helps MIDI connected applications to keep track of the current location in a session in other words where the transport is This should probably be set to the same setting as MMC If you don t know which of these settings to use then setting MMC to None is a good choice This setting can be adjusted at any time if you later decide to link applications with MMC messages The default metronome sound is provided by the MIDI Metronome and you can adjust its settings here In particular you may wish to provide a Dedicated MIDI metronome output to help you separate the metronome s signal 8 2 3 Configuring MIDI Channel Names If you re using FluidSynth with QSynth you should tell Qtractor about the SoundFont that you re using When you do this you enable Qtractor to help you choose instruments patches 1 Click on View Instruments 2 Inthe Instruments window click Import 3 Navigate to usr
249. ions Down to Size Now it s appropriate to cut some of the regions down in size We re going to do this by removing some of the nearly silent space before and after the material that was intended to be recorded There are a few special cases so first there will be specific instructions on how to do this to a region and then general instructions for each region Let s start with the clarinet 1 First set the clarinet bus to solo mode by pressing the s button on the bus control space This will allow us to hear only the clarinet bus 2 Listen to the first clarinet region by pressing Home on the keyboard to set the transport s playhead to the beginning then pressing the space key to start the transport 3 There is approximately 20 seconds of near silence before the clarinet starts to play If you listen carefully you can hear the room and somebody counting measure numbers 4 Ifthe channels aren t synchronized you ll need to adjust their placement in the timeline Use the yellow clock that appears when you drag regions it s set to the same units as the secondary clock and shows you the time of the beginning of the file It s important to get it synchronized before the next step 68 Cut the Regions Down to Size 10 11 Choose either the L or R region If you re using edit groups it doesn t matter which you choose because Ardour will realize that the regions in both tracks are group equivalent that is the
250. is one sound generating UGen b Atthe end of each line write a small comment describing what the UGen on that line doesn Now the volume is a problem For most sound producing UGen s the mul argument controls the volume For most of those the default is 1 0 and anything greater will create distorted output The physics and computer science factors that wind up creating distortion are rather complicated and it isn t necessary to understand them What we need to know is that if the output of a UGen or some UGen s sounds distorted then we should probably adjust the mul argument Sometimes of course you may prefer that distorted output t seems that when you re using multiple SinOsc s in one output channel the mul of all of them must not add to more than 1 0 We re using two output channels left and right We ll leave the right channel alone for now because it has only one output UGen So I ll change add a mul argument to each of the left channel UGen s to 0 5 Now we can t hear the left channel because the right channel is too loud Playing with volumes sometimes called adjusting levels for computers is a constant aesthetic concern for all musicians Add a mul argument to the right channel and set it to what seems an appropriate volume for the moment It will probably change later but that s okay But let s add another dimension to this there s no reason to keep the volume static because we can use a Sin
251. is an academic organization and its primary intention with the Planet CCRMA at Home repository is to allow anybody with a computer to do the same kind of work that they do The Fedora Project is a relatively large organization backed by one of the world s largest commercial Linux providers which is focussed on creating a stable and secure operating system for daily use Furthermore thousands of people around the world are working for the Fedora Project or its corporate sponsor and it is their responsibility to proactively solve problems CCRMA has the same responsibility but they do not have the dedicated resources of the Fedora Project it would be naive to think that they would be capable of providing the same level of support 4 2 3 A Possible Best Practices Solution All Fedora Linux users should be grateful to the people working at CCRMA who help to provide the Planet CCRMA at Home repository Their work has been instrumental in allowing Fedora to provide the amount of high quality audio software that it does Furthermore the availability of many of CCRMA s highly specialized software applications through the Planet CCRMA at Home repository is an invaluable resource to audio and music enthusiasts On the other hand Fedora users cannot expect that Planet CCRMA software is going to meet the same standards as Fedora software While the Fedora Project s primary goal is to provide Linux software CCRMA s main goal is to advance the stat
252. is shortcut 11 3 10 6 Shortcomings of a SynthDef Consider the following program var myRandFunc t var frequency 440 rand 440 produces an integer between 440 and 880 SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 025 F 10 do myRandFunc play Execute the program a few times The result will be different each time ten different SinOsc s with ten different frequencies What if we convert the program to use a SynthDef and multiple Synth s instead This program will probably cause an error the first time this is exaplained below var myRandFunc var frequency 440 rand 440 produces an integer between 440 and 880 Out ar SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 025 N SynthDef new NmyRandFunc myRandFunc send s 10 do Synth new myRandFunc Execute the program a few times The result is still different each time but it s the same ten SinOsc s all with the same frequency This is the nature of a SynthDef once it s sent to the server you can create a synth from the same instructions without resending them This program causes an error the first time you run it Inspect the error messages and see if you can determine why It s because the server is processing commands asynchronously things don t happen right when the interpreter asks but very shortly thereafter The result is that the server is asked to make a new synth before it deals with the synth definition There are ways to get ar
253. itr e e e tot tet ed iret e de 4 1 2 3 External FireWire Connection ssssssssesnm emere 4 1 2 4 External USB Connection sssssessssse mene eene 4 1 2 5 Choosing a Connection Type ssssssssseeem Heres 4 1 3 Sample Sample Rate Sample Format and Bit Rate sesssseseesss 4 1 3 1 Sample 5 eee ke e tite eee tee ge E Per EE e RH Ent anke ee takes 5 1 3 2 Sample Fortrat sian 0e Ee eie adden ee ead dud 5 1 3 3 Sample Rale6 ode tede et D Ue Me prete 6 43 4 BIL Rate oit e E ERES ERE ERT ER ERE EXUCER U RE ERA Ge ERE FEX ESTY EY s ERR 6 1 3 5 Gonclusions eth ferret tt de iet de deed Atte Pe onte et Pete tea dn 6 1 4 Other Digital Audio Concepts ssssssssssseee eee nennen nhe 6 1 4 1 MIDI Sequ6 amp nGcer iuit e be s dpa x in etd 6 1 4 2 Busses Master Bus and Sub Master Bus sssssssesem 7 1 4 3 Level Volume Loudness sessssssssseseeese eene nnne nne entere 7 1 4 4 Panning and Balance ssssssssssesssssseeee enne enne nnne baaie ah 8 1 4 5 Time Timeline and Time Shifting sssssee mH 9 1 4 6 SynchronlZatilOri conie e tt ERR Rr boxe IRE RU PIA EINEN aa 10 1 4 7 Routing and Multiplexing ssssem mem 10 1 4 8 Multichannel Audio esses nnne rennen 11 2 Software for Sound Cards 13 2 1 How Linux Deals with Audio Hardware ss
254. ke the Function do what they want These are both large topics in themselves so won t give them any more attention here 186 Joining the Two Parts 11 4 9 Joining the Two Parts Now it is time to join the two parts and ensure a clean transition between them My reasons for building the first part as a SynthDef but the second part as a function are explained in the FSC_part_1 sc file Additional reasons include my desire to illustrate the use of both possibilities and because the second part stops itself so it can be a function which is executed and forgotten whereas the first part does not stop itself So we ll need to hold onto the synth to stop it ourselves 1 copy and pasted both parts into a new file leaving the other original code in tact in case want to build on them in the future Be sure to copy over the var t c TempoClock default definition from the second part By default the two parts would both start playing at the same time give it a try This isn t what we want however so you ll need to erase the play command from both parts functions We ll also need some way to refer to them so declare the second part as a variable I ve used the name secondPart but don t worry about the first part yet Don t forget the semicolon at the end of the function declaration To join the two parts I m going to use function that does all the scheduling This is similar to a main function which are used
255. keeping track of those tones The fact that there are ten tones also poses a problem because it might require a lot of typing We ll see solutions to that which use SuperCollider s programming features to greatly increase the efficiency Although we ve already solved the musical problems that is we know what we want this part to sound like the computer science programming problems will have to be solved the old fashioned way start with something simple and build it into a complex solution First will develop the version used in FSC method 1 sc then the version used in FSC method 1 short sc 11 4 5 Creating Ten Pseudo Random Tones 1 Well start again with something simple that we know how to do SinOsc ar 3 play 175 Chapter 11 SuperCollider 6 We already know that we want this to produce stereo output and we already know that we re going to be using enough SinOsc s that we ll need to reduce mul Keeping in mind that there will be ten pitches and two SinOsc s for each of them set both of those things now keeping just one pitch for now The first challenge is to implement pseudo randomness We ll use the number rand function to generate a pseudo random number integer actually but if run as 50 rand we will get a result between 0 and 50 As a frequency this is not useful most audio equipment cannot produce pitches below 20 Hz and many people have problems hearing very low frequencies This
256. l or professional quality audio recording manipulation synthesis and production It originally referred to devices purpose built for the task but as personal computers have become more powerful and wide spread certain specially designed personal computers can also be thought of as DAWs The software running on these computers especially software capable of multi track recording playback and synthesis is simply called DAW software which is often shortened to DAW So the term DAW and its usage are moderately ambiguous but generally refer to one of the things mentioned For other terms related to digital audio see Chapter 1 Sound Cards and Digital Audio 6 1 Knowing Which DAW to Use The Musicians Guide covers three widely used DAWs Ardour Qtractor and Rosegarden All three use JACK extensively are highly configurable share a similar user interface and allow users to work with both audio and MIDI signals Many other DAWS exist including a wide selection of commercially available solutions Here is a brief description of the programs documented in the Musicians Guide Ardour is the open source standard for audio manipulation Flexible and extensible Qtractor is a relative new comer but easy to use a lean and mean MIDI focused DAW Available from Planet CCRMA at Home or RPM Fusion Rosegarden is a well tested feature packed workhorse of Linux audio especially MIDI Includes a visual score editor for cre
257. lanet CCRMA at Home Repositories Run the following command in a terminal su c yum install planetccrma core Note that this is a meta package which does not install anything by itself but causes a number of other packages to be installed which will themselves perform the desired installation and optimization Shut down and reboot your computer to test the new kernel If you decided to modify your GRUB configuration be sure that you leave a non real time kernel available for use 19 20 Chapter 4 Planet CCRMA at Home 4 1 About Planet CCRMA at Home As stated on the project s home page it is the goal of Planet CCRMA at Home to provide packages which will transform a Fedora Linux based computer into an audio workstation What this means is that while the Fedora Project does an excellent job of providing a general purpose operating system a general purpose operating system is insufficient for audio work of the highest quality The contributors to Planet CCRMA at Home provide software packages which can tune your system specifically for audio work Users of GNU Solfege and LilyPond should not concern themselves with Planet CCRMA at Home unless they also user other audio software Neither Solfege nor LilyPond would benefit from a computer optimzed for audio production CCRMA stands for Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics which is the name of an academic research initiative and music computing faci
258. lared just after the character so the interpreter destroys it upon reaching the character bis not declared in this program so it refers to the automatically declared variable with that name The interpreter does not destroy it until it is restarted or stopped This means that the Function assigned to b is still available after the program finishes execution Try it Execute the program above and then execute this single line program alone b value 11 3 3 Object Oriented SuperCollider SuperCollider is difficult to describe precisely because its syntax allows great flexibility There are many different ways to accomplish the same task Each one is subtly different and gives you a different set of possibilities but there is often no best solution One of the advantages to this is that it easily allows three programming paradigms although one is used much more often than the others 11 3 3 1 Imperative Programming Imperative programming is easy to understand it is simply a list of commands like this var a b c 126 Object Oriented SuperCollider El ape b 25 e a oe a postin Declare the variables set the variables do a calculation and print the result of the calculation This is a simple example and a simple model but it is very difficult to escape completely After all humans think of large problems in terms of algorithms the instructions needed to do something Computers solve large problem
259. le to hear them both Now here s the difficult part you ll have to align the two tracks so that they start together The sound in the Marimba 2 regions should start at the same time as the second pattern in the Marimba 1 tracks which is at about 15 seconds on the timeline You ll need to zoom in it helps to be able to see the wave form shapes of the regions More importantly zooming in allows you to adjust the placement of the regions with greater precision You may want to select a range and use the loop mode of the transport This will allow you to hear the start of the regions again and again ensuring that they are aligned If you feel like you ve got it close but not quite together then try moving it far away listening then adjusting it closer again Once you have aligned the first few seconds of this pattern it will eventually become unsynchronized which is okay The beginning will be the most noticable part when the listeners become accustomed to the sound of the two marimba tracks together they will stop paying close attention Furthermore they are likely to be focussing on the words by the time the marimba tracks become unsynchronized Remember to lock the Marimba 2 region Listen to the rest of the regions together The end of the regions at about 00 02 20 000 should be aligned if you aligned the start correctly The higher and lower marimbas will alternate Move the Marimba 3 regions so they start
260. les and Functions The concepts in this section are related to the mathematical terms with the same names This is a modern day result of the first uses of computers and programming languages the calculation of complex mathematical problems 11 3 2 1 Variables A variable is a symbol that can be assigned an arbitrary value A symbol is a series of alphabetic and numeric characters separated by whitespace a space a line break or the end of the file When a 120 Variables and Functions variable is assigned a value the variable name the symbol is understood to be a substitute for the assigned value Consider a traffic light which has three possible symbols green yellow and red When you are driving and you encounter a traffic light you might see that its red symbol is activated the red light is illuminated What you see is a red light but you understand that it means you should stop your car Red lights in general do not make you stop it is specifically red traffic lights because we know that it is a symbol meaning to stop SuperCollider s variables work in the same way you tell the interpreter that you want to use a symbol like cheese Then you assign cheese a value like 5 After that point whenever you use cheese the interpreter will automatically know that what you really mean is 5 Run the following two programs They should result in the same output In the first example the program calculates the va
261. lity at Stanford University located in Stanford California Its initiatives help scholars to understand the effects and possibilities of computers and technology in various musical contexts They offer academic courses hold workshops and concerts and try to incorporate the work of many highly specialized fields The Planet CCRMA at Home website suggests that they provide most of the software used on the computers in CCRMA s computing facilities Much of this software is highly advanced and complex and not intended for everyday use More adventurous users are encouraged to explore Planet CCRMA s website and investigate the software for themselves 4 2 Deciding Whether to Use Planet CCRMA at Home 4 2 1 Exclusive Software The only useful reason to install an additional repository is if you intend to install and use its software The only software application covered in this guide which is available exclusively from the Planet CCRMA at Home repository is SuperCollider The Planet CCRMA repository also offers many other audio related software applications many of which are available from the default Fedora Project repositories Most of the audio software currently available in the default Fedora repositories was initially available in Fedora from the Planet CCRMA at Home repository Sometimes an updated version of an application is available from the Planet CCRMA repository before it is available from the Fedora Updates repository If you
262. llider code from within GEdit There are also SuperCollider extensions for the emacs and vim text editors This tutorial uses the GEdit extension because it is easier to learn how to use GEdit than vim or emacs 11 2 1 Enable and Configure SCEd in GEdit These steps should be followed the first time that you use GEdit s SuperCollider extension 1 Start GEdit 2 Open the Preferences window from the menu choose Edit Preferences 3 Choose the Plugins tab and scroll down to Sced then make sure that it is selected 115 Chapter 11 SuperCollider 4 Click on the Configure Plugin button then select a runtime folder where the SuperCollider server will store any synth sent to it during program execution The safest place for this folder could be a sub folder of the location where you will store your SuperCollider code 11 2 2 Enable SuperCollider Mode and Start a Server These steps should be followed every time you open GEdit and wish to use the SuperCollider extension 1 Choose Tools SuperCollider Mode 2 ASuperCollider menu should appear and a window at the bottom which says SuperCollider output 3 jf you cannot see the window at the bottom then select View Bottom Pane from the menu so that it shows up It is sometimes important to see the information that SuperCollider provides in this window 4 After enabling SuperCollider mode the window should display a series of notices Near the end shoul
263. llider s flexibility is that it allows you to produce the same output in different ways As a musician this means that as long as your program works as you want it to work it doesn t matter how you write it Experience will teach you more and less effective ways of doing things but there is no need for rules Even so here are some guidelines that will help you to start thinking about music programs Programs of all sorts often follow a simple four step flow Not all parts are always present 1 Declare variables 128 Sound Making Functions 2 Get input from the user 3 Calculate something with the input 4 Provide output to the user i e make noise Repetition is the enemy of correctness so if you re going to execute some code more than once try writing a Function If it s slightly different every time try using arguments Arguments with default values are a great way to expand a Function s usefulness If it looks too complicated then it probably is The more difficult it is to understand something the greater the chance of making a mistake Don t forget the semicolons at the end of every statement 11 3 4 Sound Making Functions It s finally time to start thinking about Functions that produce sound This example is discussed below in the following sections Remember when running SuperCollider code in GEdit you can stop the sound by pressing Esc SinOsc ar 440 0 0 2 play 11 3 4 1 UGens U
264. lue of 5 5 which is 10 and returns that to the interpreter which prints it out In the second example the program tells the interpreter that it wants to use a variable called x then it assigns cheese the value 5 Finally the program calculates cheese cheese which it understands as meaning 5 5 and returns 10 to the interpreter which prints it out This trivial use of a variable does nothing but complicate the process of adding 5 to itself Soon you will see that variables can greatly simplify your programs 11 3 2 2 Using Variables There are three words that describe the key stages of using a variable declaration initialization and assignment A variable must be declared before use so that the interpreter knows that you want to use that symbol as a variable All variables must be declared before any statement that does not declare a variable in other words you should declare your variables before doing anything else Variable names are declared like this var variableName Variables can also be declared in lists like this var variableName variableOtherName Variables can be assigned a value at any time after they have been declared Any single object can be assigned to a variable If a variable is already assigned a value any subsequent assignment will erase the previous assignment the previously assigned value will is not retrievable The first assignment to a variable is said to initialize the variable Initiali
265. ly when asked to create a large numbe of SinOsc s this will lead to faster processing and lower memory consumption On the other hand it increases the complexity of the code a little bit requiring more testing Each SinOsc is currently created with the same mul argument regardless of how many SinOsc s are created Set as it is when asked to create 51 SinOsc s the signal would become distorted If you re puzzled about why 51 remember that for each SinOsc the Function is asked to create it currently creates two one for the left and one for the right audio channel Allow the SynthDef to be passed in as an argument with the requirement that such a SynthDef would need to accept the freq and mul arguments This is going out on a limb a bit and requires careful explanation in comments to ensure that the Function is used correctly You will also need to test what happens if the Function is used incorrectly Crashing the server application is a bad thing to do especially without a warning Use a Bus to cut the number of synths in half so that one synth will be sent both to the left and right channels Alternatively you could add special stereo effects As you can see there are a lot of ways to improve this Function even further there are almost certainly more ways than listed here Before you distribute your Function you would want to be sure to test it thoroughly and add helpful comments so that the Function s users know how to ma
266. me level increase that will not decrease sound quality You can enable clipping which allows you to increase the volume level even more but will decrease the sound quality 4 Use the Amplify tool to adjust the volume level as you wish 5 6 6 Remove Noise Noise is part of an audio signal that is not the intended signal When you listen to music on the radio you can hear the music and usually also some noise When computers record or play audio the electronic components sometimes create extra noise The lowest track of the tutorial file has noise created by electronic components in the old notebook computer used to play the CD Follow these steps to use the Noise Removal tool 1 Click Selection Tool then select a small portion of the lowest track 2 Choose Effect Noise Removal The Noise Removal window appears Click Get Profile The Noise Removal tool uses the selected audio as an example of the noise to remove 3 Select the whole track 4 Openthe Noise Removal window Click OK The Noise Removal tool processes the audio The Noise Removal tool is not effective in this example because most of the signal is noise 5 6 7 Fade In or Out Audacity has tools to fade in and out When you fade in it means to gradually increase the volume level from silence to the original level When you fade out it means to gradually decreased the volume level from the original level to silence Professional recordings of concerts o
267. means that we ll need to add a value to rand s output like 100 50 rand which will yield an integer between 100 and 150 decided to go with a value between 200 Hz and 800 Hz instead largely because felt like it Try setting the freq with the rand call hope you didn t end up with two different frequencies If you did you ll need to use a variable to temporarily store the pseduo random frequency so that both sides can use it Now we need to make ten of these so copy and paste until there are ten different stereo pitches at once var frequency 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 var frequency 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 var frequency 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 var frequency 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 var frequency 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 var frequency 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 var frequency 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 var frequency 200 600 rand SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 01 var frequency
268. moveAt postln tL removeAt postln tL removeAt outputs 820 outputs 7 outputs 19 outputs 23 nom 0 0 0 0 weer wv o postin tL removeAt causes an error nil This modification of the first example adds numbers to the end of a List then removes from the beginning of the List This is another way to ensure that the List elements are removed in the same order that they re added Note that when the List is empty using the removeAt Function causes an error because you try to access a List index which doesn t exist var tL List new tL 42 820 7 19 23 tL at postln outputs 42 tL at 1 postln outputs 820 tL at 2 postln outputs 7 tL at 3 postln outputs 19 tL at 4 postln outputs 23 tL at 5 postln outputs nil 136 Collections tL at 6 postin outputs nil nil This example shows another way to add elements to an empty List which also works for Arrays Then it shows what happens when you try to access elements beyond the end of a List with the at Function var tL List new tL 42 820 7 19 23 tL clipAt postln outputs 42 tL clipAt 1 postln outputs 820 tL clipAt 2 postln outputs 7 tL clipAt 3 postln outputs 19 tL clipAt 4 postln outputs 23 tL clipAt 5 postln outputs 23 tL clipAt 6 postln outputs 23 nil This example shows what
269. mpoClock default clock having the tempo we expect and we certainly can t rely on it being declared as t c The solution is quite easy create a new TempoClock within the Function var t c TempoClock new default tempo is one beat per second We could hypothetically use the SystemClock since we re measuring time strictly in seconds But using a TempoClock is preferred for two reasons 1 Ithas the word tempo in its name and it s designed for scheduling musical events the SystemClock is for system events 2 Wecan easily extend this in the future to use a TempoClock set to a different tempo There are some further ways to improve this Function making it more robust meaning that it will work consistently in a greater range of circumstances Here are things that could be done to improve the Function with an explanation of why it would make the Function more robust Made the clock an argument allowing this Function to schedule events on a clock belonging to some other Function Since all clocks respond to the sched message we could even accept the SystemClock or AppClock The default value would still be TempoClock new Use absolute scheduling rather than relative scheduling Depending on how long the server and interpreter take to process the commands it could lead to significant delays if the Function is asked to create a lot of SinOsc s Create one SynthDef with an argument for all of the synths Especial
270. n of the SoundFonts as desired This does not directly change the function of FluidSynth any SoundFont should work with any SoundFont ID number 10 4 3 JACK Output Configuration It is possible to configure FluidSynth to output synthesized audio either to JACK or to ALSA The default and recommended method is to output synthesized audio to JACK This allows the greatest control over audio quality and the greatest flexibility in terms of routing and multiplexing for definition see Section 1 4 7 Routing and Multiplexing which allows you to simultaneously record the synthesized audio signal and listen to it If you are having problems you may wish to confirm that Qsynth is configured correctly to use JACK 1 Open Qsynth s Setup window 2 Select the Audio tab and ensure that Audio Driver is set to jack 3 You should also ensure that the other settings are correct especially that the sample rate is set to the same sample rate as JACK through QjackCtl 4 The default settings for most things should work If you changed a default setting they are these e Buffer Size 1024 e Buffer Count 2 Audio Channels 1 Audio Groups 1 Polyphony 256 If you are having problems with audio cut outs you may wish to increase the buffer settings The size should be increased in multiples of 1024 and the buffer count should not be increased much The default setting or one Audio Channel provides stereo output and each
271. n than just the audio files and this information cannot be stored in conventional audio files like OGG FLAC or AIFF When you want to share your work or use it in another application you must export it When you export audio Audacity converts the Audacity only file into a conventional audio file Audacity does not delete the original Audacity only file but the exported file cannot be converted into the Audacity only format 5 7 1 Export Part of a File 1 Select the portion of audio that you want to export 2 Choose File gt Export Selection 3 Select the format filename and directory of the audio that will be exported Click Save when you are finished 4 Depending on which format you choose the Metadata window appears You can input this information if you wish 5 Audacity processes the audio to export This may take some time depending on the audio 5 7 2 Export a Whole File 1 Choose File gt Export 2 Select the format filename and directory of the audio that will be exported Click Save when you are finished 3 Depending on which format you choose the Metadata window appears You can input this information if you wish 4 Audacity processes the audio to export This may take some time depending on the audio 37 38 Chapter 6 Digital Audio Workstations The term Digital Audio Workstation henceforth DAW refers to the entire hardware and software setup used for professiona
272. nal to JACK 1 Create a new audio track in Qtractor by clicking on Track gt Add Track 2 Ensure that your MIDI synthesizer is set up correctly to produce output in the usual method through your speakers 3 Use Qtractor s Connections window press F8 on the keyboard to ensure that the output from your MIDI synthesizer is routed to the input for the newly created audio track 4 Move Qtractor s transport to the start of the session 5 Ensure that only the newly created audio track is armed for recording 6 Arm Qtractor s transport for recording 7 Press Play on the transport and wait as the session plays through 8 When you have reached the end of the session stop the transport Qtractor will not automatically stop the transport 9 Export the file as you normally would by clicking Track gt Export Tracks gt Audio After the audio version of the MIDI signal is recorded and you have exported the session you may wish to delete the new audio track 8 3 5 Miscellaneous Tips If you wish to scroll horizontally in Otractor s tracks pane or the matrix editor hold down the Control Ctrl key as you adjust your mouse s scrollwheel Qtractor files should be saved in an otherwise empty folder Unlike Ardour Audacity and Rosegarden Qtractor will not create a new sub folder automatically but will instead store all of a session s clips in the same folder as the the Otractor file itself 8 3 5 1 Transport You c
273. nal will determine the settings you should use Here are some widely used sample rates and sample formats You can use these to help you decide which sample rate and sample format to use 16 bit samples 44 1 kHz sample rate Used for audio CDs Widely compatible Bit rate of 705 6 kb s 24 bit samples and 96 kHz sample rate Audio CDs are recorded with these settings and down mixed later Bit rate of 2304 kb s 24 bit samples and 192 kHz sample rate Maximum settings for DVD Audio but not widely compatible Bit rate of 4608 kb s 1 bit samples and 2822 4 kHz sample rate Used for SuperAudio CDs Very rare elsewhere Bit rate of 2822 4 kb s Sample rate and sample format are only part of what determines overall sound quality Sound quality is subjective so you must experiment to find the audio interface and settings that work best for what you do 1 4 Other Digital Audio Concepts These terms are used in many different audio contexts Understanding them is important to knowing how to operate audio equipment in general whether computer based or not 1 4 1 MIDI Sequencer A sequencer is a device or software program that produces signals that a synthesizer turns into sound You can also use a sequencer to arrange MIDI signals into music The Musicians Guide covers two digital audio workstations DAWs that are primarily MIDI sequencers Qtractor and Rosegarden All three DAWS in this guide use MIDI signals to control ot
274. nchronized Find a meaningful way to incorporate the region with the sound of the chairs Compare the currently unused clarinet regions with the in use ones Try different combinations of the regions and remove the unused regions from the session Compare the currently unused strings regions with the in use ones These regions are much longer than the clarinet regions so you might even want to pick and choose ranges of regions to switch back and forth Have a friend or at least somebody else listen to the mix you re preparing Get their opinion on difficulties that you may be having or use them as a more generic listener Listen to the mix on different kinds of reproduction equipment speakers and amplifiers The same audio signals will sound different when played on different equipment 7 5 6 Listen When you have finished mixing the song you must listen to it You should listen to it with as many different devices as possible headphones speakers home theater systems and so on You should also ask your friends and colleagues to listen to your work Other people hear things differently from you and will give you different feedback 7 6 Mastering a Session To be a true master at mastering sessions requires years of experience and careful optimization for the target format Knowing just the right equalization and filtering settings to apply is an art in itself worth a full user guide This section is concerned with getting
275. nd level meter Listener Fatigue Wikipedia available at http en wikipedia org wiki Listener fatigue Dynamic Range Compression Wikipedia available at http en wikipedia org wiki Dynamic range compression Alignment Level Wikipedia available at http en wikipedia org wiki Alignment level 1 4 4 Panning and Balance Panning adjusts the portion of a channel s signal that is sent to each output channel In a stereophonic two channel setup the two channels represent the left and the right speakers Two channels of recorded audio are available in the DAW and the default setup sends all of the left recorded channel to the left output channel and all of the right recorded channel to the right output channel Panning sends some of the left recorded channel s level to the right output channel or some of the right recorded channel s level to the left output channel Each recorded channel has a constant total output level which is divided between the two output channels Mex Wig OG 6 left right left right left right I Figure 1 4 Panning Time Timeline and Time Shifting The default setup for a left recorded channel is for full left panning meaning that 100 of the output level is output to the left output channel An audio engineer might adjust this so that 80 of the recorded channel s level is output to the left output channel and 2096 of the level is output to the right output channel An
276. nd your files Setting up files the right way to begin with makes this much easier in the end When you first setup the score Frescobaldi will have created many sections for you by default The program avoids making too many stylistic choices for you which allows you to create your own style It also sets up the default sections in a logical way 1 version 2 header 3 widely used settings like tempoMark and global 210 Inputting 4 5 individual parts score formatting The specific ordering will become more obvious to you as you get used to LilyPond Here are some of the things that do before inputting notes Use section dividers like NOTES for individual parts to demarcate sections Use different levels of dividers like RIGHT HAND for the right hand to show sub sections Add blank lines between large sections to separate them more obviously Begin braces on new lines as header title Impromptu instead of on the same line as header title Impromptu This is simply a matter of personal taste resulting from prior experience with C and C like programming languages Familiarize myself with the sections and commands created by Frescobaldi getting a sense of what the section command does even if don t understand what each specific command does This makes it easier to sort out problems and customization down the road Sometimes when the setup is
277. nditional Execution expressions Sometimes called conditional expressions which are composed of boolean operators 11 3 8 1 Boolean Operators Boolean operators evaluate to true or false and are most useful in boolean expressions where they help to determine which portion of a program to execute The following table lists binary boolean operators that take two arguments one on the left and one on the right These operators produce either true or false Table 11 1 Binary Boolean Operators in SuperCollider Operator Meaning lt less than lt less than or equal to gt greater than gt greater than or equal to mE equivalent I not equivalent identical the same object not identical not the same object amp amp logical And logical Or The following table lists unary boolean operators that take one arguments These operators produce either true or false Table 11 2 Unary Boolean Operators in SuperCollider Operator Meaning isPositive true if the argument is greater than or equal to 0 isStrictlyPositive true if the argument is greater than 0 isNegative true if isPositive is false Unary operators are actually functions and must be used as such var X 5 X isPositive returns true isNegative x returns false The use of these operators is explained below in the Boolean Expressions section 11 3 8 2 Boolean Expres
278. need the newer software version then you should install the Planet CCRMA repository This is also a potential security weakness for users who install the Planet CCRMA repository but do not install any of its software When yum finds a newer version of an installed application it will be installed regardless of the repository This may happen to you without you noticing so that you begin using Planet CCRMA software without knowing it 4 2 2 Security and Stability The biggest reason that you should avoid installing the Planet CCRMA at Home repository unless you need its software is security There are two main security issues with using the Planet CCRMA repositories 21 Chapter 4 Planet CCRMA at Home 1 Planet CCRMA is intended for specialized audio workstations The software is packaged in such a way that creates potential and unknown security threats caused by the optimizations necessary to prepare a computer system for use in audio work Furthermore these optimizations may reveal software bugs present in non Planet CCRMA software and allow them to do more damage than on a non optimized system Finally a computer system s stability its ability to run without trouble may be compromised by audio optimizations Regular desktop applications may perform less well on audio optimized systems if the optimization process unintentionally un optimized some other process 2 CCRMA is not a large Linux focussed organization It
279. new track and does not erase existing audio 5 6 Creating a New Login Sound Tutorial 5 6 1 Files for the Tutorial Use the Tutorial Start file if you want to do the tutorial The Tutorial End file and Exported FLAC file are completed examples When you finish the tutorial your project will probably not be the same as ours Tutorial Start is available at http docs fedoraproject org en US Fedora 14 Musicians_Guide files Audacity Audacity start tar lzma 33 Chapter 5 Audacity Tutorial End is available at http docs fedoraproject org en US Fedora 14 Musicians_Guide files Audacity Audacity start tar lzma e Exported FLACis available at http docs fedoraproject org en US Fedora 14 Musicians_Guide files Audacity Audacity export flac 5 6 2 Scenario You tell a friend about some open source audio applications in Fedora Linux Your friend wants you to help them make a new sound that will play when they log in to their computer You search your music CD collection and find a favourite recording You and your friend decide to use a few clips from the CD to start your new log in sound 5 6 3 Align Tracks You adjust the starting time of the segments 1 Click the Time Shift button in the tool selection toolbar 2 Select the track with the segment you want to move Drag the segment to the left or right to change the time when it starts to play 3 You can align the start of one segment with end of another segment
280. ng Source files are the text files prepared with instructions telling LilyPond the content of the score you want it to create They are so called because these files are the source of what you wish to create As with programming languages the text inside these files is often referred to as source code It sounds scary to think that you must edit code in order to use LilyPond but code just means that it isn t normal English or insert language here The particular formatting the placement of tabs spaces and newlines is not determined by LilyPond but by individual users This can be a headache when you encounter somebody else s 196 Source Files and Their Formatting formatting but it is one of the keys to the application s flexibility This guide uses a very specific style of formatting but it should be understood that this is simply the style of one user affected by their experiences and the tasks they usually perform in LilyPond You will eventually develop your own style better suited to the kinds of tasks that you accomplish When you do this there is only one rule to keep in mind be consistent within source files When source files are programmed in a consistent way it means that anybody who wants to use those files like yourself in the future will easily be able to determine how they are organized 12 4 7 1 Organizing Files and Where to Put the Notes LilyPond files are constructed as a series of commands Fo
281. ng both interfaces to share the same physical device In order to create sound from MIDI signals you need a MIDI synthesizer Some MIDI synthesizers have dedicated hardware and some use only software A software only MIDI synthesizer based on SoundFont technology is discussed in Chapter 10 FluidSynth You can use MIDI signals synthesizers and applications without a hardware based MIDI interface All of the MIDI capable applications in the Musicians Guide work well with software based MIDI solutions and are also compatible with hardware based MIDI devices 1 2 Sound Card Connections Audio interfaces and MIDI interfaces can both use the following connection methods In this section sound card means audio interface or MIDI interface Chapter 1 Sound Cards and Digital Audio 1 2 1 Integrated into the Motherboard Integrated sound cards are built into a computer s motherboard The quality of audio produced by these sound cards has been increasing and they are sufficient for most non professional computer audio work If you want a professional sounding audio interface or if you want to connect high quality devices then we recommend an additional audio interface MIDI interfaces are rarely integrated into a motherboard 1 2 2 Internal PCI Connection Sound cards connected to a motherboard by PCI or PCI Express offer better performance and lower latency than USB or FireWire connected sound cards Professional quality so
282. ng these web pages Mastering Your Final Mix 64studio available at http www 64studio com howto mastering 40 Interface Vocabulary e Audio Mixing Wikipedia available at Multitrack Recording Wikipedia available at http face bulary Understanding these concepts is essential to understanding how to use the DAW software s interface L Session A session is all of the tracks regions automation settings and everything else that goes along with one file saved by the DAW software Some software DAWs manage to hide the entire session within one file but others instead create a new directory to hold the regions and other data Typically one session is used to hold an entire recording session it is broken up into individual songs or movements after recording Sometimes as in the tutorial examples with the Musicians Guide one session holds only one song or movement There is no strict rule as to how much music should be held within one session so your personal preference can determine what you do here k and Multit A track represents one channel or a predetermined collection of simultaneous inseparable channels as is often the case with stereo audio In the DAW s main window tracks are usually represented as rows whereas time is represented by columns A track may hold multiple regions but usually only one of those regions can be heard at a time The multitrack capability of modern software based DA
283. ng used to do it you may not need to do these level checks every time It s better to be safe than sorry however because once a musical moment has passed it is impossible to re create 7 2 7 Recording a Region As you progressively record a session you will create at least one region Warning about audio being put out the audition output by default use headphones 1 Ensure that the inputs timeline and tracks are properly set up 2 if there is nothing to the left of the editor window press Ctrl E or View gt Show Editor Mixer 3 Selectthe track you re recording onto 4 set the metering point to input and verify that it s working correctly and connected to the right thing say what this does and why you want to do it now 5 See Adjusting Recording Volume below and do it now 6 Arm the track for recording either press Record in the track s mixer in the left or press the small red record button on the track itself 7 the buttons will remain lighted to show that the tracks are armed 8 arm Ardour for recording by select the big red record button on the transport 9 start the transport in in the normal way big play button 10 when you re done recording stop the transport with the big stop button 11 each time you start and stop the transport a new region is produced 58 Recording More 12 each time you stop the transport Ardour un arms itself but any tracks that you selected are still armed 1
284. nging with other singers Because these happen in the same tracks we ll use automated panner and fader tracks to help solve this problem Listen for yourself start at about 00 02 40 000 and pay attention to where the soloist seems to be standing in the Voice 4 regions and the ens Create the Inconceivable regions It seems to me like she moves from nearby on the right to a farther distance just to the left somehow without bumping into the other people in the vocal ensemble or the strings which also seem to be in the way You might argue that most listeners would not pick this up and that s probably the case Even so would counter that the drastic change of level and panning would be passively detected by those same people even if they only consciously perceive it as being not quite right Here s one way to start 79 Chapter 7 Ardour 1 Listen to the session as needed and see if you can place the location of the instruments singers throughout most of the session You ll need to remember this so consider writing it down or drawing a map 2 Now draw a map of where you think everything should be Especially in non standard ensembles like this there is no pre defined seating or standing arrangement Some tracks will need very little adjustment but others may need extensive adjustment In general the less tweaking required the better the session will sound so if something seems like a track already has a consistent loca
285. nnect to the default server stored in the single letter s variable by the interpreter 11 3 11 3 Bus Objects As SynthDef and Synth represent things stored on the server the interpreter provides us with an instantiable Bus Class that represents the server s busses In many programs that you write you won t need to use a Bus Object particularly when you re doing simple input and output with the automatically reserved bus numbers But like the SynthDef and Synth Classes make it easier to deal with synthdefs and synths on the server which are very difficult to deal with directly the Bus Class makes it easier to deal with busses on the server and provides some extra functionality to boot The primary advantage of using Bus Objects is that you don t have to keep track of bus numbers whether they re being used and how mnany channels are being routed For simple input and output of audio rate signals you re better off simply remembering the bus numbers The new message creates a new Bus object This is the syntax Bus audio serverName numberOfChannels or Bus control serverName numberOfChannels The interpreter takes numberOfChannels busses on the serverName server and groups them together for multi channel use in one Bus Object which it returns to you The numberOfChannels argument is optional if you leave it out the Bus Object will have only one bus for single channel signals You should always assign the object to
286. nosc1 sinosc2 etc but arrays are more flexible Functions can be written once and executed as many times as desired Loops also provide a means to write code once and execute it many times As you will see they are useful in situations different from functions It should be noted that while it is good practise to program like this it is also optional You will probably find though that writing your programs well in the first place ends up saving huge headaches in the future 1 The first thing we ll do is write a function to deal with generating the stereo arrays of SinOsc s 2 Take the code required to generate one stereo array of SinOsc s with a pseudo random frequency Put it in a function and declare a variable for it I used the name func 3 Now remove the frequency1 etc variables and change the sinosc1 etc variables to use the new function Make sure that the code still works in the same way It s much easier to troubleshoot problems when you make only one change at a time 4 Atthis point we ve eliminated ten lines of code and made ten more lines easier to read by eliminating the subtle copy and paste changes If you can t manage to work it out refer to the FSC method 1 sc file for tips 5 Wecan eliminate ten more lines of code by using a loop with an array Let s change only one thing at a time to make it easier to find a problem if it should arise Start by commenting out the lines which declare and
287. nput scores in a way that doesn t allow them in the first place As they say an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure which means if you input your LilyPond files carefully then you will encounter fewer problems Such practices as proper spacing and regular use of the octave and bar check features will deal with many common problems However when searching for an error in your score Frescobaldi does offer some features to help you find it f you have written something in the text input window that is obviously incorrect then Frescobaldi will sometimes catch your mistake and underline and highlight the erroneous code in red This is most useful for catching typographical errors typos If LilyPond encounters a processing error it will show up in the LilyPond Log window below the text input window You can click on the blue underlined text to move the text selection caret to the error f you can see an error in the PDF preview but you can t find it in the source file you can click on the problematic note or object in the PDF preview and Frescobaldi will automatically move the text selection caret to that object 12 7 6 Formatting the Score Piano Dynamics Keyboard instruments use a unique notation when it comes to dynamics Most instruments use only one staff per player so the dynamics are by convention notated underneath that staff Keyboard instruments usually use two staves organs and complex piano musi
288. nput the pitch r This three quarter rest measure will be notated as r4 r r Put this into the trumpets and timpani parts Remember it s always a good idea to indicate the duration at the beginning of a measure but it s not necessary to indicate a repeated duration c Frescobaldi allows you to insert common musical signs with the Quick Insert tab on the left of the screen It may be hidden to show it click Quick Insert on the left most edge of the Frescobaldi window d We need aregular fermata on the third quarter rest of this measure So place the text input caret just after the third quarter rest and click the fermata symbol in the Quick Insert toolbar thing e You should end up with r4 r rNfermata 205 Chapter 12 LilyPond f While the word for a fermata symbol is easy to remember other symbols have less obvious LilyPond notations so the Quick Insert toolbar thing is very handy g Copy this measure to the other part The next easiest part is the bassoons a We ve already input the bassoons full measure rests so we can start with the first measure in which they play It should be notated as r8 d g bes d bes Input this and preview the score to see what happens b Success When first starting an instrument it s important to check that the notes begin in the right register If they don t it can be adjusted easily by changing the pitch indication that follows the Nrelative declaration In this case
289. ntains files needed for development with SuperCollider supercollider dewdrop Optional Library DewDrop external collection for SC supercollider emacs Adds SuperCollider support to the emacs text editor supercollider extras Optional Library Extra plugins and classes for SC supercollider gedit Adds SuperCollider support to the GEdit text editor supercollider libscsynth SuperCollider synthesis library supercollider quarks Optional Library Local quarks repository for SuperCollider supercollider sclang Help files examples the class library and language interpreter supercollider vim Adds SuperCollider support to the vim text editor supercollider Installs the minimum requirements to run SuperCollider supercollider sclang e supercollider libscsynth fftw w3m el emacs supercollider bbcut2 Optional Library Beat tracking of audio streams supercollider bbcut2 debuginfo Decodes the debugging information provided by bbcut2 supercollider mathlib Optional Library Useful classes for SC supercollider redclasses Optional Library Frederik Olofsson Red SC classes supercollider redclasses debuginfo Decodes the debugging information provided by redclasses supercollider world Installs most SuperCollider packages supercollider e abmiem 114 Recommended Installation supercollider redclasses supercollider dewdrop supercollider emacs supercollider mathlib su
290. ntly so the edit groups must temporarily be disabled Flip to the Edit Groups tab of the session sidebar Uncheck the Active button for all the groups If you want to re enable an edit group later simply re check the Active button Open the mixer window by selecting from the menu Window gt Show Mixer If you have a multiple monitor setup it can be very useful to keep the mixer window on a separate monitor from the main editor window If you don t have a multiple monitor setup you can keep the mixer window on a separate virtual desktop Of course these are both optional steps Near the bottom of each track s mixer above the buttons is a small black rectangle with three grey triangles and a green vertical line Each of the busses have two of these rectangles This controls the panner which adjusts a track s left right position in the stereo image You can adjust the panner by click and dragging in the panner display You don t need to click on the green line but the line will show you the approximate placement of the track in the stereo image Each left track ending with a capital L should have the green line set all the way to the left Each right track ending with a capital R should have the green line set all the way to the right Each bus is probably already set correctly The bus upper window represents the left channel and the green line should be all the way left The bus lower window represents the right c
291. o a percentage of the maximum velocity Adjust Value only This allows you to supply a specific value for the velocity Possible values range from 0 to 127 Adjust Percent and Value together This allows you to specify a percentage of the indicated value If you set 5096 and 32 for example the resulting velocity will be 16 which is 50 of 32 Randomize This tool adjusts the selected parameters to pseudo random values The values are only pseudo random for two reasons computers cannot produce truly random numbers only numbers that seem random to humans the percentage value allows you to specify how widely varied the results will be A lower percentage setting will result in MIDI notes that are more similar to the pre randomized state than if the MIDI notes were randomized with a higher percentage setting The following parameters can be randomized Note which means pitch Time which means the time of the beginning of the note Duration which means duration Value which means loudness velocity Resize This tool allows you to explicitly specify the duration or velocity of some MIDI notes Setting the Value field will set the velocity loudness of all selected notes to that setting Valid settings are from O quietest to 127 loudest Setting the Duration field will set the duration length of all selected notes to that setting Duration is most usefully measured as BBT meaning Bars Beats and Ti
292. o from the third to the fourth beat you could write this s4 p r s gt s or this s2 p s4 gt s That s all there is to it Think of the dynamics part as an invisible pitch free line between the two staves for the sole purpose of dynamics and other expression markings 216 Chapter 13 Frescobaldi Frescobaldi is an advanced text editor designed specifically for use with LilyPond source files Its interface has been crafted in such a way that it aids the average workflow of creating and editing musical scores in LilyPond Frescobaldi s tight integration with various system tools is similar to the way LilyPond itself is tightly integrated with various other software programs Frescobaldi is designed to take advantage of several features of the KDE 4 desktop system Regular KDE users will immediately recognize Frescobaldi s components as being identical to several other key KDE applications specifically Kate Okular and Konqueror The key advantage to this approach is that KDE users will already know how to use most of the features of Frescobaldi because those other applications are not just replicated but actually used by Frescobaldi There are many other advantages to this development approach For non KDE users especially those with older computers this KDE based approach may be more of a hassle than a help An unfortunate side effect of this development choice is that Frescobaldi has many dependencies in KDE package
293. o the number of beat usually occupied by four of them This is especially useful with cadenzas and cadenza like passages Short term Polyphonic Input Divisi Anything between lt lt and gt gt is interpreted by LilyPond as happening together If you take a look at the score section at the bottom of the file you will see that all of the parts are listed in that kind of bracket This ensures that they all happen simultaneously For short term polyphonic input use the formula lt lt upper voice notes lower voice notes gt gt Remember that the upper voice has upward pointing stems and the lower voice has downward pointing stems Ties These can be written by adding to the end of the note beginning the tie c4 c8 Grace Notes These take up no logical time and are smaller than ordinary notes Any notes appearing Ngrace in here would be considered grace notes Crescendo and Diminuendo Markings These are added like other dynamic markings attached with a backslash to the note where they begin A crescendo is triggered with lt and a diminuendo with gt The left most point of the marking its beginning is indicated by where you put lt or gt The right most or end point is indicated by either another dynamic marking of any sort or the special cancellation character N Italic staccato Tex Nnarkup italic staccato Source File Measure Numbers One of the techniques that can b
294. o the start or end but accessing specific indices or adding elements at specific indices but accessing from the start or end then you get to choose where to save computation time In one of these cases it might not matter which one you choose 11 3 6 3 1 Efficient Functions These Functions make use of the LinkedList Class in an efficient way They are efficient because they access only the first or last element in the LinkedList e add obj adds obj to a LinkedList as the last item e addFirst obj adds obj to a LinkedList as the first item pop removes the last item in a LinkedList and returns it popFirst removes the first item in a LinkedList and returns it first returns a copy of the first item in a LinkedList last returns a copy of the last item in a LinkedList 11 3 6 3 2 Inefficient Functions These Functions make use of the LinkedList Class in an inefficient way but they can be useful They are inefficient because they may potentially have to review all of the elements in a LinkedList before completing 138 Repeated Execution e at index pretends the LinkedList is an Array and returns a copy of what would be the element at the given index number e put index obj _ pretends the LinkedList is an Array and changes the element at the given index number to be obj remove obj searches through a LinkedList and removes the element judged to be equal to obj regardless of its index number
295. ock shows the current place in the file as indicated by the transport In k you can see that the transport is at the beginning of the session so the cl ck indigates 0 This clock is configured to show time in minutes and seconds so it is a time clock Other possible settings for clocks are to show BBT bars beats and ticks a MIDI clock samples a sample clock or an SMPTE timecode used for high precision synchronization usually with video a timecode clock Some DAWSs allow the use of multiple clocks simultaneously Note that this particular time clock in Qtractor also offers information about the MIDI tempo and metre 120 0 beats per minute and 4 4 metre along with a quantization setting for MIDI recording 45 Chapter 6 Digital Audio Workstations 6 4 3 Track Info Pane Instrument FluidR3 GM The track info pane note a separate track info space for each of the two tracks that appear in the pane to the right Figure 6 6 The Qtractor track info pane The track info pane contains information and settings for each track and bus in the session Here you can usually adjust settings like the routing of a track s or bus input and pe edd iheir Seinen bank aa and channel of MIDI tracks and the three buttons shown in ractoi c inf R for arm to record M for mute silence track s output and s for solo mode 7 where onlyt the selected tracks and busses are heard The information provided and t
296. ogram This is a simple and trivial application that simply prints outs the phrase Hello World or a variation of it It might seem useless at first but the ability to provide feedback to an application s user is very important and this is essentially what the Hello World Program does Here is the program in SuperCollider Hello World postin Here is an extension to that program Hello World postin Hello SC postin As with all examples in this section you should paste these programs into GEdit and execute them with SuperCollider Look at the output produced by the programs but don t worry about it for now These programs are very small but it highlights some key concepts of the SuperCollider language described below 11 3 1 3 Return Values Every SuperCollider program must provide the interpreter with a value some information when it has carried out all of its instructions This value is called a return value because it is the value given by a program when it returns control to the interpreter In a SuperCollider program it is the last value stated in a program that automatically becomes the return value no special command is required When program execution ends and control is returned to the SuperCollider interpreter the interpreter outputs the return value in the SuperCollider output pane 118 First Steps In the single line Hello World Program above the program produces the following
297. on The play function does exactly what it says it plays its input The input must be a function with an audio rate signal generator as the return value The following two examples produce the same output 129 Chapter 11 SuperCollider SinOsc ar 440 0 0 2 play play SinOsc ar 440 0 0 2 The first example is written from an object oriented perspective Functions know how to play their return value when passed the play message This is true of all Functions whose return value is an audio rate UGen The second example is written from a functional perspective The Function called play will play its input which must be a Function whose return value is an audio rate UGen Whether you should write play in the functional or object oriented way depends on which makes more sense to you Try to re write the above example so that the play function operates on a variable defined Function The arguments to SinOsc whether the audio or control rate generator are these e The first is called freq it sets the frequency The second is called add it is added to all values produced by the UGen The third is called mul all values produced by the UGen are multiplied by this You now know enough to spend hours with the sine oscillator UGen Try combining audio and control rate UGens and try to figure out what happens when each of the arguments is adjusted Be careful that your audio interface s volume isn t set too
298. on 2 12 2 197 Chapter 12 LilyPond header title Example something relative c key c major time 4 4 Music follows here score new Staff with instrumentName Something something layout This source file makes use of many commands and even defines violin for its own use It may not be easy to see from this simple example but keeping your notes separated from the formatting of a complex Nscore section will greatly improve the readability of both sections Furthermore you will easily be able to search through thousands of lines of source file to find the section that you want So where do the notes go In this template they should go in the violin section Frescobaldi usually marks this off with a friendly comment stating Music follows here That s exactly what it means most of your time will be spent working with what follows there As a final note we caution against removing the layout section of the score section Removing the layout section would cause LilyPond not to create a score as output 12 4 8 Avoiding Errors The LilyPond syntax has two built in symbols for helping to avoid musical errors The octave check symbol ensures that your notes are in the octave you intend The bar check symbols ensures that your barlines are where you intend 12 4 8 1 Octave Check Symbol The octave check symbol compares a relative pitch with its absol
299. on designed to be easy to use We recommend Audacity to most computer users because it is simple but it has many features and capabilities You do not need to understand advanced computer audio concepts before using Audacity If you can connect your microphone to your computer you know enough to use Audacity 5 1 Knowing When to Use Audacity Audacity has a simple user interface it is easy to use and it has many advanced capabilities Audacity does not require advanced knowledge of computers music or recording Audacity is the right tool to use for editing a single audio file and it can also coordinate multiple audio files simultaneously Most users will prefer Audacity over the other applications in the Musicians Guide which can record If you need to record quickly and you do not have time to learn complicated software you should use Audacity If you have professional quality audio equipment if you want to do highly advanced processing or if you need fine grained control over the recording you should use Ardour Qtractor or Rosegarden If you have not used any of these applications we recommend learning Qtractor before Ardour or Rosegarden Ardour and Rosegarden are more complicated than Qtractor and you may not need their advanced features 5 2 Requirements and Installation 5 2 1 Software Requirements Audacity uses several libraries Libraries are incomplete programs that add capabilities to other programs or applicat
300. on box When you put the cursor over one of these boxes it will change into a double ended left to right arrow Now create a new region from the range Right click on the selected range and select Bounce range to region list from the menu The range will appear as independent regions in the region list called something like clarinet L O bounce 1 This isn t very helpful so rename the regions to Clarinet 1C L and Clarinet 1C R Notice that the new regions are coloured white We no longer need the range tool so select the Select Move Objects tool which is the hand shaped icon just to the left of the range tool underneath the transport toolbar The selected range will no longer be selected Trim the end of the Clarinet 3B regions down to size past the material that we just bounced to the region list and past the near silence before it Now move the Clarinet 3 regions back to make room for the newly created Clarinet 1C regions Drag the new Clarinet 1C regions onto the canvas after the other Clarinet 1 regions and adjust the spacing of the other regions if you wish 7 4 5 3 Strings 1 Regions 1 These regions start with the grumbling noise that was accidentally recorded If you decided to leave it in you could bounce the grumbling to the region list so it can be controlled independently of the strings that follow The new regions are probably called something like strings L 0 bounce 1 Because kno
301. on editor it can be fun guessing which pitch represents which instrument Now that you ve made a change you ll have to delete all the copies and re copy them We ll use a better solution instead but you ll still have to start by deleting all of the copies of the segment Remember to keep the first one After removing all but the first segment from the Segment Parameters box in the left toolbox check the Repeat checkbox Now the segment repeats forever This can be useful but eventually you ll want to stop the song When you want to change the repeats into copies from the menu select Segment Turn Repeats Into Copies Adjust the first track so that it s repeated too 9 4 4 Add a Melody 1 2 Rename the third track to Melody or something like that Change the track s program a Look at the Instrument Parameters box in the Special Parameters toolbox on the left side of the main editing window b Make sure that you have the Melody track selected c Select the General MIDI bank which is probably already selected d Forthe program select whatever you prefer decided to use program 51 called Synth Strings 1 It reminds me of music from the 1980s e After setting the program press play on the transport toolbar and let it go for just a second This will allow Rosegarden to send the program change message to FluidSynth It isn t strictly necessary and it would have been done later anyway but
302. onfigure Audacity for your sound card 1 You need to know the Linux name of your sound card a Open a terminal In GNOME choose Applications gt System Terminal In KDE open the application launcher then choose System Konsole b Runthis command cat proc asound cards 29 Chapter 5 Audacity c The cat program outputs a list of sound cards in your computer which looks similar to this list 0 SB HDA Intel HDA ATI SB HDA ATI SB at Oxf7ff4000 irq 16 1 MobilePre USB Audio MobilePre M Audio MobilePre at usb 0000 00 13 0 2 In this example output the square brackets surround the name of the sound card The names of the sound cards in this example output are SB and MobilePre d Identify the name of the sound card that you want to use If you do not see your sound card in the list outputted by cat then your Fedora does not detect it You should also remember the number of the sound card which is printed to the left of the name You can use two different sound cards for recording and playback 2 Start Audacity 3 Open the Preferences window Choose File gt Preferences 4 Set the Host to ALSA 5 Set the recording and playback devices to the name of the sound card that you want to use If there are many choices for your sound card choose the one that ends with hw 0 where 0 is replaced by the number of the sound card that you want to use 6 Follow the post installation test procedur
303. ooks quite unlike a forte marking and people reading the score would probably be confused if just momentarily Thankfully LilyPond provides a very easy and elegant way to input well formatted dynamic markings Change the eighth rest to this r8 f and so on When you preview this you will see that it now looks exactly like a typical forte marking Not all dynamic markings have these short forms but most do 206 Inputting 8 The a 2 marking meaning to be played by two players does need the text in quotes format however Put that marking above the d following the eighth rest 9 Those two measures should now look like this r8 f d a 2 g bes d bes g8 cis cis4 r Note that d a 2 gives the same result as d a 2 12 6 4 3 Oboe and Horn Parts 1 You can complete the oboe parts and the flute part If you get stuck read these tips You will need to adjust the range of the flute and oboe to read flute relative c and oboeI relative c You may want to use and to control eighth note beaming in the Oboe and Flauto parts You may not The Flauto will need more multi measure rests with R after some of the notes are inputted All of the parts will end with the same three quarter note rests with fermata measure 2 And now for the horns part Transposing instruments pose a small problem for LilyPond as with any human or computerized engraving tool These steps first ensure
304. operty to f which means false then the drawing function is not called and the object will not appear on the score Every layout object also has a transparent property By default this is set to f false Setting it to t true will make the object transparent You can use once override or revert too 1 Find the global section 2 After key and Mime put override Score BarLine Z stencil f 3 Preview the file and see that this doesn t work quite as intended 201 Chapter 12 LilyPond 4 itso happens that while measure lines within a staff are handled by Staff BarLine measure lines between staves are handled by Staff SpanBar so you ll need to set its transparent symbol to Zt also 5 Butthere s still no measure line at the end You want a barline at the end so pick one of the staves right left figBass it doesn t matter in this case and use the revert command don t know if should put this in but revert Score BarLine transparent and revert Score SpanBar transparent 6 But even this isn t quite right You want a double barline at the end So put the cursor after the revert lines and then from the menu LilyPond gt Bar Lines gt Ending Bar Line It knows what you want remembers the symbol for you so you don t have to explain in there the difference between a Staff and Score override Unlike with some other elements if you simply remove the time 4 4
305. or this is irrelevant but there are many other things to consider 17 Chapter 3 Real Time and Low Latency There are a number of scheduling algorithms that are available with the standard Linux kernel and for most uses a fair queueing system is appropriate This helps to ensure that all processes get an equal amount of time with the processor and it s unacceptable for audio work If you re recording a live concert and the PackageKit update manager starts you don t care if PackageKit gets a fair share of processing time it s more important that the audio is recorded as accurately as possible For that matter if you re recording a live concert and your computer isn t fast enough to update the monitor keyboard and mouse position while providing uninterrupted high quality audio you want the audio instead of the monitor keyboard and mouse After all once you ve missed even the smallest portion of audio it s gone for good 3 3 The Real Time Linux Kernel There is a real time patch for the Linux kernel which enables the processor to unfairly schedule certain processes that ask for higher priority Although the term patch may make it seem like this is just a partial solution it really refers to the fact that the programming code used to enable this kind of unfair scheduling is not included in standard kernels the standard kernel code must have this code patched into it The default behaviour of a real time kernel is
306. ord onto the pre existing tracks keeping the first take putting the newly recorded region over it Later you will get to choose the exact points at which the outputted recording is to switch between regions takes 1 Record the session 2 Ensure that you have the connections and levels set as they were during the first time you recorded the regions over which you re recording now 3 You will need to set the transport location Choose a place that is before the segment which you want to replace The performers should probably also start playing before the section to be replaced so you will need to start well enough in advance that they can pick up the tempo get in the groove and then start playing all before the part that needs replacement 4 Click in the time line to move the transport 5 Ensure that the correct tracks are armed 6 Arm the transport 7 Startthe transport and record the revised section of music At some point you will have recorded everything that you need and you will want to progress to mixing and editing 60 Routing Audio and Managing JACK Connections 7 2 9 Routing Audio and Managing JACK Connections Ardour automatically saves the state of JACK connections when it saves a session Ardour offers the following output ports assuming a stereo two channel setup two channels per track called track name out 1 and track name out 2 These will usually be connected to the master bus or to
307. ored 10 6 Using Reverb and Chorus with Qsynth While reverb meaning reverberation and chorus effects are not part of the General MIDI standard they are offered by most MIDI synthesizers FluidSynth is no exception and the Qsynth interface provides a convenient and easy way to adjust settings of the reverb and chorus effect generators Experimentation is the only way to know whether you have chosen the right settings and they will probably change depending on the music you are working on and even during a piece Most MIDI sequencers and players including Qtractor and Rosegarden allow you to send MIDI messages changing the reverb and chorus settings while a session is playing The reverb and chorus effects can be turned off temporarily if you do not plan to use them To do this in Qsynth uncheck the Active check box underneath the respective effect generator s settings dials The reverb effect generator creates artificial reverberation like an echo but more complex which occurs naturally in almost all performing environments The effect generator works by creating a virtual room and pretending that the user is listening within it These are the settings offered by Qsynth Room Adjusts the size of the virtual room Settings higher than 100 can cause a situation that escalates in volume to dangerously high levels even with the lowest possible level settings This is an interesting effect but caution is advised so that listene
308. orialDecayPink send s SynthDef NtutorialDecaySine tutorialDecaySine send s reserve an effects Bus b lt Bus audio s Synth new tutorialReverb inBus b Synth before x tutorialDecayPink effectBus b Synth before x tutorialDecaySine effectBus b outBus 1 Change the balance of wet to dry NCC ONCEON E C7 X y Zn b I m not going to explain this example as extensively as the previous one It s definitely the most complex example so far It s better if you figure out what the parts do by playing with them yourself The bus works by routing audio from the tutorialDecayPink and tutorialDecaySine synths into the NtutorialReverb synth The first two synths can be controlled to put all none or some of their signal into the bus so that it goes through the tutorialReverb synth or straight out the audio interface bypassing the tutorialReverb synth Notice that the same effects processor is Set Ndirect 1 only direct PinkNoise Set Ndirect 1 only direct Sine wave set Ndirect only reverberated PinkNoise set Ndirect only reverberated Sine wave Set Ndirect 0 5 original PinkNoise Set Ndirect 0 5 original Sine wave commands to free each Object free x nil free y nil free z nil free b nil operating on two different input sources 11 3 This section discusses the important top
309. ortant part of the eventual ability to hear them within a musical context Neither ability will suddenly appear it will take dedicated practice 14 3 3 Making an Aural Skills Program Aural skills training like eating requires a regular daily commitment of various kinds of input As far as food is concerned you should eat at least three meals a day with a large portion of fruits and vegetables and a good balance of meats and alternatives grains and other kinds of foods Ear training also requires diverse inputs at various times throughout the day There is no solution that will work for everybody You will need to choose and modify the time of day number and length of sessions and content to suit your needs The following suggestion can be considered a starting point Training for 30 minutes daily in three 10 minute segments e Segment 1 When you wake up before breakfast Warm up your voice and body good activity anyway not part of the ten minutes Sing and perfect some excerpts from a book designed for sight singing e Segment 2 After lunch before getting back to work Listen to some music then try to transcribe it To make the task more manageable take a small portion of music and focus on one aspect melody harmony or rhythm 223 Chapter 14 GNU Solfege You can test correctness either by using a piano or fixed pitch reference or comparing with a published score if available
310. ortion of the matrix editor window This is at the bottom of the matrix editor window and the height of each pitch shown here tells you the volume at which it will play To adjust all of the pitches at once Control drag to adjust the height as desired Be careful when doing this that you don t change the horizontal position which will change the time that the notes sound would suggest at volume of approximately 32 but this depends on your taste Also adjust the volume of some pitches to be louder when the audio file is louder 12 When you are satisfied with your pitches and volumes start the transport from the beginning and listen to the entire segment that you just created You can change the section again or move on to the next step 8 4 7 Repeat the Theme The beginning of this composition opens with a thirteen measure in this Qtractor session segment that is immediately repeated If you chose to create a thirteen measure theme like we did you will either need to create a second MIDI segment to cover Beethoven s repeat or you can do what did and copy and paste to get an exact repetition of your theme To repeat your theme exactly 1 Click on the first MIDI segment to select it then copy it by clicking on Edit Copy or Control c 2 Paste it by clicking on Edit Paste or Control v 3 The cursor will turn into a clipboard icon and a rectangle will appear to its right This rectangle represents the clip that i
311. ot being used it is better to leave it disconnected to avoid making mistakes 9 2 2 Setup Rosegarden 1 Edit Preferences 2 Setup General as desired On Behaviour tab maybe Use JACK Transport On Extrenal Applications tab maybe change those to match what s installed GNOME users 3 Setup MIDI as desired On MIDI Sync tab maybe set to Send MIDI Clock Start and Stop if Rosegarden is the ultimate controller or Accept Start Stop and Continue if it s being controlled Otherwise Off is safe 4 Setup Audio as desired The preview scale will not affect the audio just its appearance Reducing quality from 32 bit to 16 bit may help low power systems keep up Changing the external audio editor only affects when you choose to use an extrenal editor 9 3 Rosegarden and LilyPond Rosegarden and LilyPond can be used together which can greatly enhace your productivity LilyPond will output a MIDI format representation of your score if you include a midi section in the score section It should look something like this Nscore 100 Write a Song in Rosegarden Tutorial rane T This MIDI file can then be imported into Rosegarden by selecting from the menu File gt Import gt Import MIDI File Unfortunately this will erase the current session so it can be done only once It is also possible to export MIDI tracks to LilyPond format which can then be edited further or simpl
312. ound this but they re too complex for this section for now to simplify this text s examples just accept that the error may happen the first time you run a Synth 157 Chapter 11 SuperCollider 11 3 10 7 Creating Change Anyway The way to create change and pseudo randomness anyway is to incorporate another UGen to do it for you Remember when you send synthesis information to the server that information can t change unless you replace it This doesn t mean that the output produced by the synth can t change The way to do this is with control rate UGen s The following example uses a control rate SinOsc to set the frequency of an audio rate SinOsc var myRandFunc var frequency SinOsc kr freq 0 5 add 660 mul 220 oscillates between 440 and 880 hitting each extreme every 2 seconds Out ar 0 SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 2 u SynthDef new myRandFunc myRandFunc send s Synth new myRandFunc When you use a UGen as a control rate UGen you have to think about its arguments quite differently than when using it as an audio rate UGen This table shows how the same argument gives a different result for an audio rate vs control rate UGen used for pitch Table 11 4 Parameters in Audio Rate and Control Rate SinOsc UGens Parameter In an audio rate UGen In a control rate UGen freq controls the pitch controls the speed of oscillation add sets the middle point of the sine wave
313. ouse there should be a rectangle that says Acoustic Grand Piano or something similar 6 Double click on the rectangle to open the default MIDI segment editor It should be the notation editor a Change the clef Click on the bass clef on the toolbar at the left side of the editor window Then click on the existing clef to replace it b Switch to the note inputting tools as required They re located next to the clef tools in the toolbar at the left of the notation editor window c Input three quarter notes on c two eighth notes on c and g two quarter notes on e flat and four eighth notes on d f d and g 7 You ll probably make a few mistakes The easiest way to fix a mistake is to erase the note s and re input the correct note s You can use the eraser tool for this It s located on the top toolbar of the score editing window to the left of the capital T and to the right of the red pencil It looks like a red and white rectangle which represents a standard white eraser 101 Chapter 9 Rosegarden 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Listen to your creation by clicking on the play button in the transport window The playhead won t stop until you stop it even though the visible playhead the vertical line will stop Close the notation editor you don t need to click the save button because Rosegarden will automatically keep your changes You should save the file though Click the Sele
314. out section add the following Everything below here is for the piano dynamics Define PianoDynamics context context type Engraver_group name PianoDynamics alias Voice consists Output_property_engraver consists Script_engraver consists New_dynamic_engraver consists Dynamic_align_engraver consists Text_engraver consists Skip_event_swallow_translator consists Axis_group_engraver override DynamicLineSpanner Y offset 0 override TextScript font size 2 override TextScript font shape italic override VerticalAxisGroup minimum Y extent 1 Modify PianoStaff context to accept Dynamics context context PianoStaff accepts PianoDynamics End of PianoDynamics code This creates a PianoDynamics context and modifies the PianoStaff context so that it will accept a PianoDynamics context Before the score section add a section called dynamics like this dynamics Dynamics go here This is where you will input the dynamics 215 Chapter 12 LilyPond 12 7 6 2 Inputting the Dynamics Now you can input the dynamic markings These are inputted with a special note called a spacer that uses the letter s rather than a note name You can also use rests both partial and multi measure r and R but dynamic markings cannot be assigned to them For example if you want a piano marking on the first beat and a diminuend
315. output Hello World Hello World The program appears to have been executed twice but that is not the case The first Hello World is printed by the program The second Hello World appears because Hello World postln is the last in this case the only value of the program It is returned by the program and the interpreter prints it In the two line Hello World Program above the program produces the following output Hello World Hello SC Hello SC This makes it more clear that the program is not being executed twice and that it is the last value of a program that is returned to the interpreter Try executing the following single line programs Look at the output produced by each and determine whether it is printed by the program itself the interpreter or both Hello World postln e Hello World 5 postin e 5 Can you modify the two line Hello World Program so that each line is printed only once In reality every function must return a value Functions are described in Section 11 3 2 3 Functions but the difference is not yet important 11 3 1 4 Statements A statement is a single instruction which always ends with a semicolon Exactly what constitutes a statement will become clear as you gain experience and you will eventually automatically remember the semicolon In the Hello World Programs above all of the statements contain the single instruction to post a line to the output screen What h
316. ove that range then it will not be correctly recorded When such an improperly recorded sound is played back whether too quite or too loud humans will usually perceive it as nothing but noise When Ardour records silence it behaves no differently from when there is no input at all When Ardour calculates that a portion of audio is too loud and therefore distorted it outlines the wave form representation in red as shown in Figure 7 5 Audio that is too loud 56 Adjusting Recording Level Volume Figure 7 5 Audio that is too loud There are three simple strategies that can be used to change the input level of an audio signal 1 Move the microphone closer or farther from the source 2 Route the microphone through a mixer before it reaches the audio interface 3 Route the audio through a bus in Ardour before it gets recorded Here are the advantages and disadvantages of each approach There are some circumstances where it is either impractical impossible or not advisable to move the microphone or route it through a hardware mixer In these cases you can use a bus in Ardour to modify the volume of the input signal before it is recorded 1 Choose Track Add Track Bus 2 Select busses in the window that pops up 3 Choose the number of busses that you wish to add You need one for every track that you are recording and of which you want to adjust the volume It is also possible to record at several different
317. people It helps to have friends in all vocal ranges but it isn t necessary Remember to use solfa syllables and avoid the chorale s text f a mechanical device like a fan is emitting a constant pitch you can practice singing harmonic intervals with that device Perform exercises for your friends long and short on different instruments This will help to build competence in musical contexts more realistic than a computer can provide but still in an isolated situation Aural Skills Books Crowell s Eyes and Ears is an open source sight singing text available for free from the URL listed above This book contains about 400 melodies from the public domain along with some helpful instructions Hall s Studying Rhythm is a small and expensive but useful book containing a collection of rhythms to be spoken or spoken and clapped This book also contains some three part and four part rhythms The exercises increase in difficulty The book offers some performance tips Hindemith s Elementary Training is a classic aural skills text but it was originally published in 1949 and a lot of research has taken place since then about how people learn aural skills The book offers a wide variety of exercises especially to develop coordination when performing multiple independent musical lines We recommend that you ignore Hindemith s instructions and use tonic solfa syllables For more information on tonic solfa refer to Tonic sol fa
318. percollider midifile supercollider extras supercollider bbcut2 e supercollider reduniverse e supercollider midifile Optional Library MIDI file reader for SuperCollider e supercollider reduniverse Optional Library Sonification and visualization of dynamic systems 11 1 5 Recommended Installation If you have never used SuperCollider before then we recommend installing the smallest number of packages possible This will allow you to start learning with the core classes available on all SuperCollider installations Installing the bare minimum requirements will not prevent you from installing optional libraries in the future of course The recommended installation also avoids installing the emacs or vim components which unless you are already a programmer you probably don t know how to use The emacs and vim text editors are extremely powerful and extensible but they can be difficult to learn Furthermore there s no reason to learn them just for SuperCollider because the component for GEdit is more than sufficient To install the minimum recommended installation for SuperCollider 1 Inaterminal run su c yum install supercollider supercollider gedit 2 Review the proposed installation carefully The list may be quite long and require a large download 11 2 Using GEdit to Write and Run SuperCollider Programs The supercollider gedit package installs an extension for GEdit which allows editing and running SuperCo
319. procedures among others automating effects e adjusting levels time shifting filtering panning adding special effects When the person performing the mixing decides that they have finished their finalized production is called the final mix 6 2 3 Mastering Mastering is the process through which a version of the final mix is prepared for distribution and listening Mastering can be performed for many target formats including CD tape SuperAudio CD or hard drive Mastering often involves a reduction in the information available in an audio file audio CDs are commonly recorded with 20 or 24 bit samples for example and reduced to 16 bit samples during mastering While most physical formats like CDs also specify the audio signal s format audio recordings mastered to hard drive can take on many formats including OGG FLAC AIFF MP3 and many others This allows the person doing the mastering some flexibility in choosing the quality and file size of the resulting audio Even though they are both distinct activities mixing and mastering sometimes use the same techniques For example a mastering technician might apply a specific equalization filter to optimize the audio for a particular physical medium 6 2 4 More Information It takes experience and practice to gain the skills involved in successful recording mixing and mastering Further information about these procedures is available from many places includi
320. put notes with a MIDI keyboard listen to the MIDI output of your LilyPond score and print the PDF file of your score all from within Frescobaldi These features are not covered in this Guide For more information refer to the Frescobaldi Website at http www frescobaldi org 13 2 Requirements and Installation 1 Install the frescobaldi package with PackageKit or KPackageKit 2 There are a lot of dependencies including perl packages kde packages and timidity including fluid soundfont gm which is 114 MB 3 Review and approve the list of dependencies 217 Chapter 13 Frescobaldi 4 The application can be found in the K Menu under Multimedia or somewhere in the GNOME Applications menu probably under Multimedia for some reason 13 3 Configuration Changing these default settings is not necessary but it may result in a more productive experience 1 Chose Settings Configure Frescobaldi 2 I n General Preferences check Save document when LilyPond is run or else you will have to save it manually 3 Review the other options on this page 4 n Paths only some of the fields will be filled this is okay GNOME users might want to set PDF Viewer to evince this will not change the embedded PDF viewer but it will change what opens when you click Open PDF in the bottom pane s LilyPond Log If left blank this will open KDE s Okular You can fill in the MIDI Play
321. r better or worse the LilyPond interpreter allows a great deal of flexibility when it comes to source file setup This can lead to confusion about where things should be done especially when using automated score setup tools like Frescobaldi The generic structure of a LilyPond source file is this version version_number header things like title composer and so on score new Staff notes go here Nlayout t and so on Confusion arises here for maximum flexibility LilyPond allows source files to create its own commands On hearing this you may think Okay that s it don t need advanced commands or any of this stuff so I m packing it in and just using Finale There s no need to do that just yet commands are easy Think of commands whether you wrote them or they were included with LilyPond as a means of text substition It works like this 1 You define create a command with the form commandName lots of commands 2 You can then use the command anywhere below that as many times as you want by writing commandName in your source file When LilyPond processes that portion of text it will instead see whatever you wrote in the definition It s as easy as 1 2 Frescobaldi along with most LilyPond users take advantage of this functionality to provide well organized easy to use source files Here is a good template source file that might be created for you by Frescobaldi versi
322. r do not incur accidental hearing damage Remember also that the reverb effect can accumulate as time goes on so it may even take many minutes for the volume level to build to a dangerously high level depending on the settings Damp Adjusts the amount of sound damping in the virtual room affecting not only the time it takes for the sound to die but the frequencies which are most affected The greater the damping the shorter the higher frequencies last Width Adjusts the perceived width of the stereo image of the virtual room and also has a large effect on the volume level Level Adjusts the volume level of the reverberation All of the settings interact in ways that make it difficult to describe any sort of recommended settings Users are strongly encouraged to experiment with the various settings to find ones that suit their needs A wide variety of listening environments can be simulated and the settings required do not 111 Chapter 10 FluidSynth always reflect the most logical choice it is possible to emulate a concert hall with a relatively small room setting for example Effective use of the reverb effect can greatly enhance the MIDI listening experience The chorus effect generator creates the impression that more than one real world instrument is playing each MIDI line The effect generator works by slightly responding to each MIDI note several times with slightly inaccuracies in pitch and time in each respon
323. re to easily connect and multiplex in ways that other sound servers do not see Section 1 4 7 Routing and Multiplexing for information about routing and multiplexing It is also optimized to run with consistently low latencies Although using JACK requires a better understanding of the underlying hardware the QjackCtl application provides a graphical user interface to ease the process 2 2 3 Phonon Phonon is a sound server built into the KDE Software Compilation and is one of the core components of KDE By default on Fedora Linux Phonon feeds output to PulseAudio but on other platforms like Mac OS X Windows other versions of Linux FreeBSD and any other system that supports KDE Phonon can be configured to feed its output anywhere This is its greatest strength that KDE applications like Amarok and Dragon Player need only be programmed to use Phonon and they can rely on Phonon to take care of everything else As KDE applications increasingly find their place in Windows and especially Mac OS X this cross platform capability is turning out to be very useful 2 3 Using the JACK Audio Connection Kit 2 3 1 Installing and Configuring JACK 1 Use PackageKit or KPackageKit to install the jack audio connection kit and qjackctl packages 2 Review and approve the installation making sure that it completes correctly 3 Run QjackCtl from the KMenu or the Applications menu 4 Tostart the JACK server click Start To stop the JACK se
324. recurring amount of data per second low latency is desirable but consistent latency is usually more important Think of it like this years ago in North America milk was delivered to homes by a dedicated delivery person Imagine if the milk delivery person had a medium latency but consistent schedule returning every seven days You would be able to plan for how much milk to buy and to limit your intake so that you don t run out too soon Now imagine if the milk delivery person had a low latency but inconsistent schedule returning every one to four days You would never be sure how much milk to buy and you wouldn t know how to limit yourself Sometimes there would be too much milk and sometimes you would run out Audio processing and synthesis software behaves in a similar way if it has a consistent amount of latency it can plan accordingly If it has an inconsistent amount of latency whether large or small there will sometimes be too much data and sometimes not enough If your application runs out of audio data there will be noise or silence in the audio signal both bad things Relatively low latency is still important so that your computer reacts imperceptibly quickly to what s going on The point is that the difference between an 8 ms target latency and a 16 ms target latency is almost certainly imperceptible to humans but the higher latency may help your computer to be more consistent and that s more important 3 2 Processor S
325. removeAt index removes the element assigned to index index number removing it from the List and shrinking the List removeAt does not leave a nil element in the List 11 3 6 2 5 Examples The following examples show different ways to use List s var tL List new tL add 42 tL add 820 postln tL pop outputs 820 tL add 7 tL add 19 tL add 23 postln tL pop outputs 23 postln tL pop outputs 19 postln tL pop outputs 7 postln tL pop outputs 42 postln tL pop List is empty so we get nil nil This code adds numbers to the end of a List then removes them from the end of the List var tL List new 135 Chapter 11 SuperCollider tL addFirst 42 tL addFirst 820 postln tL pop outputs 42 tL addFirst 7 tL addFirst 19 tL addFirst 23 postln tL pop outputs 820 postln tL pop outputs 7 postln tL pop outputs 19 postln tL pop outputs 23 postln tL pop list is empty so we get nil nad This modification of the first example adds numbers to the beginning of a List then removes them from the end of the List This is one way to ensure that the List elements are removed in the same order that they are added var tL List new tL add 42 tL add 820 postln tL removeAt O outputs 42 tL add 7 tL add 19 tL add 23 postln tL removeAt postln tL re
326. res the JACK Audio Connection Kit If you have not already installed the JACK packages from the Planet CCRMA at Home repository then it is recommended that you do so before installing FluidSynth See Section 2 3 1 Installing and Configuring JACK for instructions 10 2 2 Thare Are Two Ways to Install FluidSynth There are two ways to install FluidSynth The first to install FluidSynth with Qsynth allows FluidSynth to be used with the Qsynth graphical interface It also installs a default SoundFont which can be used by any SoundFont aware application like timidity This installation method does not by default allow FluidSynth to be used from a terminal although this ability can be easily added later This is the installation method recommended for most users The second way to install FluidSynth is without the Qsynth graphical interface This method allows FluidSynth to be run from a terminal and does not install a default SoundFont This installation is recommended only for advanced users 10 2 3 Installation with Qsynth This installation method is recommended for most users and will install everything you need to start using FluidSynth 1 Use PackageKit or KPackagekit to install the qsynth package 2 Review and approve the proposed installation 106 Installation without Qsynth The installation may include the fluid soundfont gm package which is quite large If you wish to use FluidSynth from a te
327. reter will run coolFunction forever If the music needs adjustment in some way the Function will adjust the music If everything is okay then the interpreter will wait for 10 seconds and then the loop will cause the Function to be re evaluated Because many different criteria are evaluated in the case structure this represents an efficient use of the structure Case structures can be used to do the same thing as switch structures but it s usually less elegant solution Also it doesn t allow the interpreter to use an speed optimization that it would have used in an equivalent switch structure var grade 11 rand 1 pseudo randomly chooses to 11 then adds 1 to give 1 to 12 grade case 1 grade D 2 grade D 3 grade D 4 grade C 5 grade C 6 grade C 7 grade B 8 grade B 9 grade B 10 grade A 11 grade A 12 grade A i Your grade is grade postln nas This example is equivalent to one of the switch structure examples This is not a good use of the case structure because it requires a lot of code repetition Unlike a switch structure a case structure will always follow the first case that evaluates to true case 5 5 one postin 5 5 two postin 5 5 three postin L nil 150
328. riable that represents the server to which you want to send the SynthDef s information unless you know that you need to use a different variable for this it s probably just the letter s which the interpreter automatically assigns to the default server Here is a demonstration of both methods var playMe Out ar 0 SinOsc ar freq 440 mul 0 2 u var playMeSynthDef SynthDef new playMe playMe playMeSynthDef send s nil and 154 SynthDef and Synth var playMe Out ar SinOsc ar freq 440 mul 0 2 u SynthDef new playMe playMe send s nil The only advantage to assigning something to a variable is the ability to refer to it later If you use the first method then you can send the SynthDef to more than one server Since it s rare that you will want to use more than one server it s usually better to use the second style In fact if you won t be using the playMe Function again you don t need to assign it to a variable SynthDef new playMe Out ar SinOsc ar freq 440 mul 0 2 send s This is all that s really needed to create and send a synthesis definition to the server It looks long and frightening but now at least you understand what all of the parts do 11 3 10 3 Load There is another way to send a SynthDef to the server the load Function The send Function sends the synthesis information to the server which stores it in memory When the ser
329. rily across bar 37 It happened to create six notes with the pitches G E C sharp F sharp G sharp and B could have used the Randomize MIDI tool but chose not to 8 Then I carefully click and dragged the right most end point of each pitch so that they all ended at the same time the first beat of measure 38 9 When you re done you may need to copy and paste the segment 8 4 9 Qtractor s Measures 52 to 75 You already know everything that you need to create this segment so I will simply explain the artistic reasoning This corresponds to the first variation in the audio file Since variations are based on the theme the rest of my sections are all somehow based on my theme section Here derived inspiration from the music again there is a note generally every three beats like the theme but extended it to take up two beats at the end of which another note briefly sounds This is like Beethoven s technique in the first variation Although ignored them in the theme there are small transitions between the inner sections of Beethoven s theme and chose to add them into my first variation you can see it in Qtractor s measure 69 95 Chapter 8 Qtractor 8 4 10 Qtractor s Measures 75 to 97 You already know everything that you need to create this segment so will simply explain the artistic reasoning This section corresponds to the part that we created in the Compose the Next Part section above de
330. rk 11 3 2 6 Variable Scope A variable is only valid within its scope A variable s scope is determined by where it is declared It will always last between either and or and and applies to all statements within that block of code Variable names can be re declared in some contexts which can be confusing Consider the scope of the variables in this example var zero 0 var function var zero 8 var sixteen 16 zero postin always prints 8 function value zero postin always prints 0 sixteen postln always causes an error Because function declares its own copy of zero it is modified independently of the variable zero declared before the Function Every time function is executed it re declares its own zero and the interpreter keeps it separate from any other variables with the same name When function has finished executing the interpreter destroys its variables Variables declared inside any Function are only ever accessible from within that Function This is why when we try to execute sixteen postln the interpreter encounters an error sixteen exists only within function and is not accessible outside the function By the way in order to excute this example you will need to remove the error causing reference to sixteen Now consider the scope of the variables in this example var zero 0 var function var sixteen 16 zero 8 zero postin always prints 8 sixteen postln
331. rmation keep playing music stop some background music The background music is begun and then the interpreter would enter the loop For as long as the user is still inputting information the interpreter will then keep playing music When the user is not still inputting information the interpreter will move on to the next command which stops the music An equivalent do loop would be very difficult to write if not impossible This is because we won t know when the user has finished inputting their information until after they ve finished so we can t plan in advance for how long to play background music Thus the most appropriate use of a while loop is for cases where you cannot know in advance how many times something should be executed For most other cases of repeated execution a do loop is the most appropriate choice 11 3 7 5 Other Loops The default language provides two other loop structures both of which are designed to iterate over a series of integer values for loops and forBy loops Their use is more limited than do loops They are explained in the SuperCollider documentation 11 3 8 Conditional Execution Conditional execution tells the SuperCollider interpreter to execute code on the condition that something is true SuperCollider offers three conditional execution structures if switch and case statements Each of these structures is controlled by one or a series of boolean 142 Co
332. rminal without the Qsynth graphical interface you can enable this capability by installing the fluidsynth package This package is not needed if you only intend to run FluidSynth with Qsynth because Qsynth only uses files in the fluidsynth libs package which is automatically installed with Qsynth If you are unsure of whether you should install the fluidsynth package you can safely install it even if you never use it It only uses a small amount of hard drive space 10 2 4 Installation without Qsynth This installation method is recommended only for advanced users You will have to use FluidSynth from a terminal You will also have to install a SoundFont file before using FluidSynth Use PackageKit or KPackagekKit to install the fluidsynth package 10 2 5 Installation of SoundFont Files Qsynth automatically installs a SoundFont for use with FluidSynth but if you did not install Qsynth or if you want to add additional SoundFont files with additional programs you will need to install them separately The Fedora package repositories offer a small selection of SoundFont files which you can find by searching for soundfont with PackageKit KPackagekKit or yum These files will automatically be installed correctly If you wish to install additional SoundFont files it is recommended that you install them in the same location and with the same security settings as the ones available from the Fedora repositories If you do this then you
333. rned is the value of the last statement in the Function The return value of a Function can be captured assigned to a variable and used again later This example assigns the result of a Function to a variable var mysticalMath arg input 0 input 23 u var someNumber 9 someNumber mysticalMath value someNumber someNumber postin nals Here is how the program works 1 2 3 A Function and variable are created and assigned values This line someNumber mysticalMath value someNumber executes the mysticalMath function which multiplies its argument by 23 and returns the value Then it assigns the return value of the Function to someNumber In any statement that contains an assignment the assignment is always done last In other words the Function in this example will always be given an argument of 9 and only after the Function completes execution and returns a value will that value be assigned to someNumber The new value of someNumber is displayed The program could have been shortened like this var mysticalMath arg input 0 input 23 u var someNumber mysticalMath value 9 someNumber postin nas It could have been shortened even more like this 124 Variables and Functions var mysticalMath arg input 0 input 23 F mysticalMath value 9 postln nil Experiment with the shortened versions of the program ensuring that you know why they wo
334. rns the number of seconds it takes to finish it will always be re started as soon as it finishes Including nil disallows this repetition 11 5 Exporting Sound Files This section explains one way to record your SuperCollider programs so that you can share them with friends who don t have SuperCollider on their computer 11 5 1 Non Real Time Synthesis SuperCollider allows you to synthesze audio output to an audio file Doing this requires using OSC commands on the server the DiskOut UGen the Buffer UGen and other relatively advanced concepts The built in DiskOut help file available from file usr share SuperCollider Help UGens Playback9620and9620Recording DiskOut html on Fedora Linux systems contains some help with the DiskOut UGen and links to other useful help files This method is not further discussed here 11 5 2 Recording SuperCollider s Output Tutorial Since SuperCollider outputs its audio signals to the JACK sound server any other JACK aware program has the opportunity to record process and use them This portion of the tutorial will help you to record SuperCollider s output in Ardour Due to the advanced nature of SuperCollider the text assumes that you have a basic knowledge of how to work with Ardour If not you may find it helpful to refer to Chapter 7 Ardour This procedure will help you to use Ardour to record the SuperCollider output 1 Close unnecessary applications and stop unnecessary processes whi
335. rsor should change to show a double ended horizontal arrow 3 Left click and drag the mouse 4 The blue place marker should follow the mouse If it doesn t then try again It is sometimes difficult to select the place marker 8 3 2 Using the MIDI Matrix Editor s Tools Qtractor s matrix editor for MIDI clips offers a collection of useful tools available from the Tools menu in the matrix editor window These tools only operate on MIDI notes selected in the matrix editor window before the tool window is opened Regardless of which tool you select from the menu the same options are available to you each time the window is opened It is possible to use multiple tools at a time Be careful the names of the tools may be misleading Here is an explanation of what the tools do Quantize This tool can be used to regulate how often MIDI notes are allowed to begin and how long they are allowed to last They are marked in divisions of a beat Time The default setting Beat 4 will allow notes to begin only on every sixteenth note subdivision If a note begins somewhere else it will be moved to the nearest sixteenth note subdivision For example a note that begins on the first 32nd note of a measure would be moved to begin on the first beat instead Duration The default setting Beat 2 will allow notes to last only in multiples of eighth notes If a note lasts for shorter or longer than an eighth note multiple it will be adjusted to
336. rst element is sent to the first argument s bus number the second argument is sent to one bus number higher the third to two bus numbers higher and so on This issues is explained fully in Section 11 3 11 Busses but here is what you need to know for now working with stereo two channel audio If the second argument is a two element Array use bus number O f the second argument is a single UGen and you want it to be heard through the left channel use bus number 0 If the second argument is a single UGen and you want it to be heard through the right channel use bus number 1 If you re still struggling with exactly what the Out UGen does think of it like this when you create an audio rate UGen it starts creating an audio signal the Out UGen effectively connects the audio rate UGen into your audio interface s output port so it can be heard through the speakers In Section 11 3 11 Busses it becomes clear that there are in fact other useful places to connect an audio rate UGen through an effect processor for example and the Out UGen can help you do that 153 Chapter 11 SuperCollider 11 3 10 2 SynthDef A SynthDef is what we use to tell the server how to create sound In order to truly understand what SynthDef accomplishes we need to recall the disconnect between the interpreter and the server In reality the interpreter has no idea how to make sound or work with audio hardware The server
337. rt an existing audio file 1 Whip out the regions part of the panel on the right hand side of the interface 61 Chapter 7 Ardour 10 11 12 Right click anywhere in the box Select Import to Region List The Add existing audio window will be opeend You can use three different tabs to select an audio file to add Browse Files does this covered here Search Tags does this Search Freesound does this Using Browse Files navigate to a sound that you want to add Although certain other file formats are supported like FLAC it is probably best to add WAV or AIFF files Certain information about the audio file will be displayed on the right hand side of the window This portion of the window also allows you to audition the file before importing it that is you can hear it by using the Play and Stop buttons in the window without affecting your current project If the file that you selected has a sample rate that is not the same as that of the current project then the sample rate will be highlighted in red You can choose to import it anyway in which case Ardour warns you again If you import a file in a different sample rate than that of the current project it will be played back in the project s sample rate This will result in incorrect speed and pitch There are a number of other options displayed along the bottom of the window You can choose to add files as new tracks which put
338. rver click Stop 5 Click Messages to see messages which are usually errors or warnings 6 Click Status to see various statistics about the currently running server 7 Click Connections button to see and adjust the connections between applications and audio hardware JACK operates with special real time privileges You must add all users to the jackuser and pulse rt groups so they can use JACK For instructions to add users to groups see Chapter 22 Users and Groups of the Fedora Deployment Guide available at hitp docs fedoraproject org Do not add users to these groups if they will not use JACK With the default configuration of QjackCtl it chooses the default sound card which actually goes through the ALSA sound server We can avoid this and use the ALSA drivers without the sound server which will help JACK to maintain accurately low latencies The following procedure configures JACK to connect to the ALSA driver directly 14 Using QjackCtl 1 Open a terminal In GNOME choose Applications System Terminal In KDE click on the application launcher then choose System Konsole 2 Execute this command cat proc asound cards 3 The cat program outputs a list of sound cards in your computer which looks similar to this list 0 SB HDA Intel HDA ATI SB HDA ATI SB at Oxf7ff4000 irq 16 1 MobilePre USB Audio MobilePre M Audio MobilePre at usb 0000 00 13 0 2 In this example output the square
339. s meaning that some KDE software will need to be installed in order to use Frescobaldi This is a significant disadvantage for some users but the benefits of using Frescobaldi far outweigh the extra hard drive space that will be required 13 1 Frescobaldi Makes LilyPond Easier Using LilyPond with Frescobaldi is the recommended method for this User Guide All three case studies in the LilyPond chapter link maybe use Frescobaldi This is because the writers feel that Frescobaldi truly makes using LilyPond an easier thing to do Here are some of the benefits The text editing component from Kate PDF preview component from Okular and help file component from Konqueror are from applications that you may already know how to use The one window setup of the application allows you to view either the source file and its output or the source file and a help document side by side This is perfect for today s widescreen monitors The Setup new score tool greatly increases the speed of creating a new score and offers some advanced configuration options that might otherwise take hours to discover The Quick Insert sidebar on the left hand side of the window makes it easy to insert articulation trill and other marks These would often otherwise require checking a reference document The LilyPond menu provides several further tools to help adjust and troubleshoot your scores Careful integration with system tools allows you to in
340. s so being able to program them with a series of instructions makes sense 11 3 3 2 Functional Programming Functional programming is also easy to understand but it can be a little bit more difficult to think about complex tasks Functional programs use Functions to complete all of their work This is not strictly possible in SuperCollider it is more imperative than functional but the creative use of Functions can easily solve some problems that are difficult to write with an imperative approach The following example is an extension of the Imperative example Pretend that the following Functions exist and do the following tasks getinput allows the user to enter a number and returns that number add adds together the numbers given as arguments returning the sum postln add getinput getinput SuperCollider will always execute the inner most Functions first This is how the interpreter executes the single line program above 1 Execute the left call of getinput 2 Execute the right call of getinput 3 Execute add with the two numbers returned by getinput 4 Execute postln with the number returned by add Both imperative and functional programming have advantages and disadvantages SuperCollider will allow you to use either approach or a mix of both when solving problems 11 3 3 3 Object Oriented Programming Object oriented programming is more difficult to think about than imperative or functional When using this p
341. s and pitches to find a pattern of four quarter notes that you want to repeat in each measure c When you re happy with your pattern close the editor Select the newly created percussion segment then from the menu select Edit Copy Move the transport s playhead to the end of the first measure First move it to the beginning then press the fast forward button to advance it to the end of the first measure Be sure that the second track is still selected Press Ctrl v or from the menu choose Edit gt Paste a few times so that the percussion track fills up the same space as the bassline 102 Spice up the Percussion 9 4 3 Spice up the Percussion 1 10 11 12 Four quarter notes isn t really a suitable percussion accompaniment so let s make it more interesting Open the first percussion segment in the standard notation editor by double clicking it From the menu select Edit gt Select Whole Staff Then from the menu select Adjust Notes Eighth Note This compressed the notes which isn t what you wanted Undo the change with Edit gt Undo Again make sure that the whole staff is selected From the menu select Adjust gt Notes gt Eighth Note Without Duration Change Now there are eighth note rests between the original rhythm You can add off beat accents as you wish in the space where the rests are You can switch to the percussion matrix editor or stick with the notati
342. s because the Array was only declared with two slots and you can t add three Objects into two slots So why did this work the first time SuperCollider was programmed to help us fit additional items into an Array If an Array has reached its capacity SuperCollider will automatically make a new larger Array for us and returns that from the add method Therefore any time you add an element to an Array you should always re assign the result so that you don t have to worry about whether you exceeded the Array s capacity 11 3 6 1 2 Accessing an Array s Elements There are two ways to access individual elements within an Array One way is object oriented and one way is more traditional inspired by programming languages such as the wildly popular C language The object oriented style uses the at and put methods The traditional style uses square brackets with an index number The following examples produce equivalent output The first uses the object oriented style and the second uses the traditional style var tA Array new 3 tA tA add 5 tA tA add 3 tA tA add 17 tA at postin outputs 5 tA at 1 postin outputs 3 tA at 2 postln outputs 17 tA put 24 assigns 24 to element 0 133 Chapter 11 SuperCollider tA at postin outputs 24 nil var tA Array new 3 tA tA add 5 tA tA add 3 tA tA add 17 tA 0 postln outputs 5 tA 1 pos
343. s each file in its own track set to normal mode then adds it to the region list as new tape tracks which puts each file in its own track set to tape mode then adds it to the region list to region list which puts each file in the region list but does not automatically put it in any tracks Note that when you choose to automatically create new tracks Ardour adds the region to the new track with the region starting at the current location of the transport The other options in this list are self explanatory It is usually best to convert using the best quality since quality can always be reduced later which saves space If you chose not to automatically create tracks then you will need to add the imported regions into a track before they will be played in your session You can do this easily by selecting the region from the Regions box on the right and dragging it to a track 7 3 Files for the Tutorial These tutorial files represent the material required to create a finished version of a song called Here Is How written by Esther Wheaton The song was released as part of her first album Not Legendary and she has released the source files for this song under I this licence probably CC BY SA I For more information on the artist please refer to her Esther Wheaton s MySpace Page available at http www myspace com estherwheaton 62 Editing a Song Tutorial The material presented for your us
344. s going to be pasted but first you must select a place to put it a Move the cursor so that the rectangle appears just after the end right most edge of the first MIDI clip b You can use the scrollbar arrows to scroll the main window but it can be difficult because the cursor has changed You can also scroll the main window by pressing Control and using your mouse s scroll wheel You can also scroll by carefully moving the mouse cursor to the edge of the main part thing c Itis not important to get the rectangle exactly where it will stay but just near where it needs to go d Left click when you have placed the rectangle where you want it 4 Position the transport so that you can listen to the transition from the end of the first clip into the beginning of the second clip Press Play on the transport control to listen then stop it when you are done 5 If you need to adjust the position of the second clip then click and drag it into the desired position Re listen to verify that you placed the clip where you want it to stay 94 Compose the Next Part 8 4 8 Compose the Next Part It s difficult to explain but this part feels more chord focussed to me even though it s very similar to the first part decided to show this by using the same generative idea as the first part but with two simultaneous pitches instead of one At the end of the segment included a brief gathering of randomized pitches with long
345. s in the volume level meter check that your audio interface and microphone are correctly connected and powered on If your equipment was not properly connected adjust the volume of the recording inputs on your audio interface now 8 Ifyou still do not see moving red bars see Section 5 3 2 Configuring Audacity for Your Sound Card 9 Click the Record button to start a test recording Sing talk or make noise into the microphone 10 After a few seconds click the Stop button to stop the test recording 11 Click the Play button to hear the recorded audio 12 If the recording sounds bad you configure Audacity manually See Section 5 3 2 Configuring Audacity for Your Sound Card 5 3 Configuration 5 3 1 When You Run Audacity for the First Time When you run Audacity for the first time you will be asked to select a language to use for the interface Before you use Audacity we encourage you to follow the post installation test instructions above 5 3 2 Configuring Audacity for Your Sound Card Audacity configures itself automatically If your computer has multiple sound cards or your sound cards have an unusual setup Audacity guesses which input and output you will use Audacity sometimes guesses incorrectly so you can configure it yourself Audacity sometimes works but has poor performance or low quality audio If Audacity runs poorly on your computer you should configure the sound cards manually Follow these steps to c
346. s of rests In this case all of the winds and the timpani have thirteen or more measures of rests before their first entrance 2 Let s put in those thirteen measures first 1 Inthe NOTES section find the flute section and put in R2 13 2 The Rsymbol means full bar rest or full measure rest LilyPond draws full bar rests differently than rests than rests that simply take up the length of a whole bar 3 The symbol is a bar check symbol See Section 12 4 8 2 Bar Check Symbol for more information 4 Copy and past that into the rest of the winds and the timpani 3 The timpani and trumpet clarini parts have six further full measures of rest before the measure with a fermata The fermata can t be included in the multi measure rest so we ll treat it separately Add R2 6 to the timpani and trumpets parts 4 The horns bassoons and second oboe have one further measure of rests so add R2 to those parts Full measure rests should always have a capital letter R This tells LilyPond to properly center the rest in the bar 12 6 4 2 Continuing with the Wind and Timpani Parts 1 Now we need to start adding notes We ll start with the parts that have only rests a The trumpets and timpani have no notes in the slow introduction so all they need is the three beat measure with a fermata on the third beat b Rests are notated as though they were a pitch called r That is to say if you want to input a rest then you i
347. sample formats are 16 bits and 24 bits 8 bit samples are low quality and not used often 20 bit samples are not commonly used on computers 32 bit samples are possible but not supported by most audio interfaces Chapter 1 Sound Cards and Digital Audio 1 3 3 Sample Rate The sample rate is the number of samples played in each second Sample rates are measured in Hertz abbreviated Hz which means per second or in kilohertz abbreviated kHz which means per second times one thousand The sample rate used on audio CDs can be written as 44 100 Hz or 44 1 kHz which both have the same meaning Common sample rates are 44 1 kHz 48 kHz and 96 kHz Other possible sample rates include 22 kHz 88 2 kHz and 192 kHz 1 3 4 Bit Rate Bit rate is the number of bits in a given time period Bit rate is usually measured in kilobits per second abbreviated kbps or kb s This measurement is generally used to refer to amount of information stored in a lossy compressed audio format In order to calculate the bit rate multiply the sample rate and the sample format For example the bit rate of an audio CD 705 6 kb s is the sample rate 44 1 kHz multiplied by the sample format 16 bits MP3 format files are commonly encoded with a 128 kb s bit rate 1 3 5 Conclusions Both sample rate and sample format have an impact on potential sound quality The capabilities of your audio equipment and your intended use of the audio sig
348. se Although it may seem overly negative to say so humans intuitively recognize that this inaccuracy is part of real world acoustic music so the chorus effect helps to add a realistic sound to some performances These are the settings offered by Qsynth N Adjusts the number of effect stages which allows you to control the approximate number of discrete instruments perceived Level Adjusts the volume level of the effect Speed Adjusts the speed of the chorus and so the range of time over which the notes are spread Depth Adjusts the perceived depth of the stereo image 10 7 Multiple FluidSynth Instances with Qsynth Rarely will you need more than one instance of FluidSynth because QSynth FluidSynth together offer up to 256 independent input channels and the ability to control the reverb and chorus effects independently by channel The most common use of multiple FluidSynth instances is if you want to use multiple MIDI instruments In other words if you want to use multiple SoundFonts at the same time you will need to use one instance of FluidSynth for each SoundFont Thankfully Qsynth allows us to do this almost effortlessly Each instance of FluidSynth is created and controlled by in effect running the FluidSynth synthesis application multiple times The reality is that since Qsynth controls the FluidSynth engine directly it simply starts the synthesis engine directly creating multiple instance of that engine This
349. se it s supposed to be a drone it should change only very gradually so used a very small freqeuncy argument It still moves quite quickly but people won t want to listen to this too long anyway 14 I did something similar with the right channel addding a slowly changing drone and overtones above it 15 After some final volume adjustments feel that have completed the first part There is no way to know for sure that you ve finished until it happens Even then you may want to change your program later 11 4 4 Designing the Second Part The next thing that did was to design the second part This will not join them together yet and I m going to focus on something completely different so decided to do this in a separate file My inspiration for this part came from experimenting with the drones of the first part There are a virtually unlimited number of combinations of sets of overtones that could be created and the combinations of discrete frequencies into complex sounds is something that has fascinated me for a long time Moreover when thousands of discrete frequencies combine in such a way as to create what we think of as a violin playing one note it seems like a magical moment I m going to build up a set of pseudo random tones adding them one at a time in set increments As you will see this introduces a number of problems primarily because of the scheduling involved with the one by one introduction of tones and
350. see the other options that are available use PackageKit KPackagekit or yum to search for soundfont 10 1 1 How to Get a SoundFont There is a large selection of SoundFonts available for free on the internet and some are also available for purchase including a few very high quality SoundFonts The following three websites have links to SoundFont resources and some SoundFonts available for paid or free download No guarantee is made of the quality of the material provided or of the quality and security of the websites e S Christian Collins General User SoundFont available from http www schristiancollins com generaluser php HammerSound SoundFont Library available at http www hammersound net cgi bin soundlink pl e homemusician net SoundFont Library available at http soundfonts homemusician net e Synth Zone available at http www synthzone com soundfont htm See the Optional Installation SoundFont below for installation instructions 10 1 2 MIDI Instruments Banks Programs and Patches A MIDI instrument is the synthesizer itself If the synthesizer uses SoundFonts then the SoundFont also constitutes part of the instrument Each instrument can be thought of as a library which stores books 105 Chapter 10 FluidSynth Each instrument offers at least one but possibly several banks which store programs If a MIDI instrument is a library then a bank is like a particular shelf You must first
351. sions Boolean expressions are expressions which when executed result in either true or false Boolean expressions must use at least one boolean operator as listed above or a Function which returns a boolean value Boolean expressions can also use other operators and Functions 143 Chapter 11 SuperCollider 11 3 8 2 1 Simple Expressions Here are a few simple boolean expressions Of course variables can be used in place of constant numbers 5 lt 60 evaluates to false 42 42 evaluates to false 42 42 evaluates to true OQ isPositive evaluates to true isNegative 256 evaluates to true 11 3 8 2 2 Assignment Equality Mistake Beware the following pitfall common to a large number of programming languages a 42 evaluates to true or false depending on the value in a a 42 assigns the value 42 to a over writing the previously stored value One possible work around is to write the number first 42 a evaluates to true or false depending on the value in a 42 a causes an error because you can t assign a value to a constant number This way if you accidentally leave out one of the signs the interpreter will stop execution and produce an error rather than continuing with an unexpected assignment 11 3 8 2 3 Equality versus Identity The identity equivalence operators are not usually needed var a 12 24 48 var b 12 24 48 a
352. sssse emm 13 2 2 So nd Servers ere e P RP E ian oed he Cee ue ct doe du 13 2 2 1 PulseAU dio 5 re td Re RET ERR ERO A AA Ne Creme daa Esai 13 2 2 2 JACK Audio Connection Kit ssssssssssee emen 14 2 253 PhHODOD c oerte RI UR at oai e at olt 14 2 3 Using the JACK Audio Connection Kit sss 14 2 3 1 Installing and Configuring JACK ssssssem eem 14 2 3 2 Using QJackCll cete c DINH 15 2 3 3 Integrating PulseAudio with JACK sessee mH 15 3 Real Time and Low Latency 17 3 1 Why Low Latency Is Desirable sessssssss eme enne 17 3 2 Processor Scheduling s adentro e BRETT Ret neta ue nex e Oba EROR 17 3 3 The Real Time Linux Kernel sss ee nennen rene rne 18 3 4 Hard and Soft Real Time sssssssssssssssssseee ene eee nenne nnne rennen 18 3 5 Getting a Real Time Kernel in Fedora Linux sssee m 18 4 Planet CCRMA at Home 21 4 1 About Planet CCRMA at Home ssssssssssseseem ee mene nenne rne nnne nas 21 Musicians Guide 4 2 Deciding Whether to Use Planet CCRMA at Home 0cccceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeaeeees 4 2 1 Exclusive Software ceto tidie Pe eve Eder EIE Ye ORAR da nd 4 2 2 Security and Stability ijeta a iaia Aaea enie auia ina asad 4 2 3 A Possible Best Practices Solution sssessee apat 4 3 Using Software from Planet CCRMA at Home
353. sual inspection The principle is the same with computer hardware drivers since the computer already knows how to operate sound cards it just needs a few simple instructions the driver in order to know how to operate any particular sound card 2 1 How Linux Deals with Audio Hardware In Linux the core of the operating system provides hardware drivers for most audio hardware The hardware drivers and the instructions that other software can use to connect to those drivers are collectively called ALSA which stands for Advanced Linux Sound Architecture ALSA is the most direct way that software applications can interact with audio and MIDI hardware and it used to be the most common way However in order to include all of the features that a software application might want to use ALSA is quite complex and can be error prone For this and many other reasons another level of abstraction is normally used and this makes it easier for software applications to take advantage of the features they need 2 2 Sound Servers Sound servers are programs that run in the background meaning that they do not have a user interface Sound servers provide a level of abstraction to automate some aspects of using ALSA and to allow multiple applications to simultaneously access your audio hardware The three sound servers discussed in this chapter have different goals and different features The sound server you should use depends on what you are doing
354. system including application names dialog box text labeled buttons check box and radio button labels menu titles and sub menu titles For example Choose System Preferences Mouse from the main menu bar to launch Mouse Preferences In the Buttons tab click the Left handed mouse check box and click https fedorahosted org liberation fonts xi Preface Close to switch the primary mouse button from the left to the right making the mouse suitable for use in the left hand To insert a special character into a gedit file choose Applications Accessories Character Map from the main menu bar Next choose Search Find from the Character Map menu bar type the name of the character in the Search field and click Next The character you sought will be highlighted in the Character Table Double click this highlighted character to place it in the Text to copy field and then click the Copy button Now switch back to your document and choose Edit Paste from the gedit menu bar The above text includes application names system wide menu names and items application specific menu names and buttons and text found within a GUI interface all presented in proportional bold and all distinguishable by context Mono spaced Bold ItalicorProportional Bold Italic Whether mono spaced bold or proportional bold the addition of italics indicates replaceable or variable text Italics denotes text you do not input literally
355. t 11 3 6 Collections A collection is just that a collection of Objects Collections are simply a means of organizing a large amount of data without having to assign a variable name for each portion of data Compared to other programming languages SuperCollider provides a relatively large number of Collections in the standard library We have already seen an example of a Collection as multichannel audio arrays An Array is a kind of Collection in object oriented terminology the Array Class is a sub class of the Collection Class and inherits its behaviours Conversely the Collection Class is the super class of the Array Class The Collection Class itself is not to be used it is designed to provide common features so that it is easier to write Classes for collections As with all the chapters from this point on it is not necessary to read this in sequence If you prefer you can skip it and return later when you need to manage a large set of data 11 3 6 1 Array Arrays have been traditionally been very popular with programmers In SuperCollider they are capable of storing a large number of Objects and they provide advanced behaviours that are normally not associated with Arrays They are not as indespensible as they used to be Most programming languages now provide or can easily be extended to add Lists Trees and other kinds of data storage structures which offer more capabilities and are easier to use and to think about
356. t music will have different requirements but the main purpose of adjusting the panning for this sort of recorded acoustic music is to ensure that each performer has a unique and unchanging position in the stereo image When humans are listening to music they implicitly ascribe a location to the sound where their brain thinks it should be coming from When listening to recorded music we understand that the sound is actually coming from speakers or a set of headphones and that the performers are not actually there Even so it can be difficult tiring and unpleasant to listen to music where the imagined position of a performer or sound is constantly changing just as it s difficult and tiring to listen to music which is has poorly balanced levels As if it weren t already difficult enough the stereo image is created in our minds as a complex combination of many factors quieter sounds and later sounds seem to be farther away than louder and earlier sounds Although the DAW s panner can only put the signal somewhere in a straight line between all the way left and all the way right our brains process sound as existing in a three dimensional world A master audio engineer will be able to control these factors with relative ease but for us it s going to involve much more trial and error A particular obstacle with this session is that the regions with the soloist put her in a different imagined position than the regions where the soloist is si
357. t any time if you later decide to link the transport in multiple applications The Metronome section allows you to use a short audio file as the metronome sound rather than the standard MIDI based metronome You can choose the same file for beat and bar if you prefer The Dedicated audio metronome outputs option outputs the audio metronome s signal through separate outputs in JACK This is Ardour s default behaviour 8 2 2 MIDI Options Adjusting the File format allows you to change how MIDI clips are stored You will not need to adjust this unless required by an external application Refer to Musical Instrument Digital Interface Standard MIDI mid or smf Wikipedia at http en wikipedia org wiki Musical Instrument Digital InterfacestStandard MIDI 28 mid or smf 29 for more information about file types MMC stands for MIDI Machine Control and it allows multiple MIDI connected devices to interact and control each other Setting the Transport mode to a setting other than None allows it be controlled by MMC messages None will have Qtractor ignore incoming MMC messages and not provide outgoing MMC messages Input will have Qtractor follow incoming MMC instructions but not provide outgoing MMC messages Output will have Qtractor ignore incoming MMS messages but provide outgoing MMC messages 86 Configuring MIDI Channel Names Duplex will have Qtractor follow incoming MMC instruct
358. t used a DAW before 9 1 2 Software Requirements Rosegarden uses the JACK Audio Connection Kit You should install JACK before installing Rosegarden See Section 2 3 1 Installing and Configuring JACK for instructions to install JACK 9 1 3 Hardware Requirements You need an audio interface to use Rosegarden If you will record audio with Rosegarden you must have at least one microphone connected to your audio interface You do not need a microphone to record audio signals from other JACK aware programs like FluidSynth and SuperCollider 9 1 4 Other Requirements You need a MIDI synthesizer to use Rosegarden as a MIDI sequencer You can use hardware based and software based synthesizers with Rosegarden We recommend using the software based FluidSynth MIDI synthesizer See Chapter 10 FluidSynth for information about FluidSynth 9 1 5 Installation Use PackageKit or KPackagekKit to install the rosegarden4 packge Other required software is installed automatically 9 2 Configuration 9 2 1 Setup JACK and Qsynth 1 Start QjackCtl to control JACK 2 Start Qsynth to control FluidSynth 3 In order to receive MIDI input from Rosegarden Qsynth will need to be configured to use the alsa seq MIDI Driver Instructions for doing this can be found in Section 10 4 4 MIDI Input Configuration 4 You may want to disconnect all JACK connections except for those that you want to use with Rosegarden Open QjackCtl s Connect win
359. t you want them to display Bars Beats displays the number of bars and beats Minutes Seconds displays the time since beginning of track Timecode displays frames per second timecode usually for work with films Samples displays the samples since start If you do not need both clocks you can turn one of them off The snap mode menu is located between the timeline and the clocks This menu controls where regions may move You need to change these as you work with a session depending on the current activity The left menu contains No Grid regions can move freely Grid regions must start on the nearest grid point Magnetic regions can move freely but when they are near a grid point they automatically snap to it The middle menu controls where to place the grid lines by timecode by clock time by beats and bars or by regions The timeline which contains many rulers showing different time marking scales is located at the top of the canvas area underneath the toolbars Use the right click menu to select which rulers you want to display The rulers you should choose depends on the clock settings and the snap mode 55 Chapter 7 Ardour 7 2 4 Connecting Audio Sources to Ardour The name of the track onto which you want to record should be the name of the input in JACK 7 2 5 Setting up the Busses and Tracks Refer to Section 1 4 2 Busses Master Bus and Sub Master Bus for a general discussion of busses
360. tab 10 5 Assigning Programs to Channels with Qsynth The best way to do this is through your MIDI sequencer like Qtractor or Rosegarden If you are using an application which doesn t allow you to send program change messages or if you need to configure programs for another reason you can follow these instructions 1 Inthe main Qsynth window click Channels to open the Channels window 2 Inthe Channels window each channel will by default look like 3 Toassign a program to a channel click on the row of the channel that you want to assign 4 Selectthe bank and program number that you want using the name SFID and Soundfont columns to guide you 5 Repeat this process for all of the channels that you wish to assign 6 Ifyou are not going to use a channel there is no harm in assigning it a program anyway However assigning a program to a channel that you will not use can lead to confusion especially if you later forget that you intended to not use that channel 7 Remember that channel 10 is reserved for percussion instruments and should not be changed from a General MIDI percussion program 10 5 1 Changing the Number of MIDI Input Channels You can increase the number of MIDI input channels offered by FluidSynth Although QSynth will let you set any number between 1 and 256 channels will be added and removed only in sets of 16 Qsynth will automatically create the lowest number of channels that will allow as many ch
361. tch_low rand SinOsc ar freq freg mul 0 01 SinOsc ar freq freq mul 0 01 J u number of SinOscs do arg index t c sched 5 index 1 so so add func value play number_of_SinOscs do arg index t_c sched 51 so index free 184 Making a Useful Section out of the Second Part Notice that changed the name of the variables and the indentation in the func sub Function to make it easier to read This isn t a particularly difficult change Now let s allow the user to set the length of time between each SinOsc appears We will need one more argument used in the scheduling command Try to accomplish this yourself and if you run into difficulty the next paragraph contains some tips The change to the do loop which schedules the SinOsc s to play is almost trivial My new argument is called pause length meaning the length of the pause in seconds between adding each SinOsc so get this modification number of SinOscs do t arg time secondPart clock sched 1 time 5 sounds sounds add func play 3 Again changed the indentation and the names of the variables in this sub Function Recall that the 1 portion is designed to add a one second pause to the start of the Function s execution The problem comes in the next do loop where we have to know how the number of beats from now will be five seconds after the last SinOsc is added We ll have
362. te variables Remember that the first argument to switch in this case it s testA tesB is compared to the first argument of possibe result with the equality operator When evaluating which switch to use the SuperCollider interpreter will always apply the ast one that evaluates to true switch 5 5 one postln 5 two postln j 5 three postln nil All of these cases are true but this will always result in three being printed 11 3 8 5 In This Case Do This Case and switch structures look similar but work in subtly different way A switch structure is like a railway switch allowing one train to be routed onto the right track according to qualities of the train A case structure on the other hand works like somebody trying to decide how to get to work The person might ask themselves how far they are going how long they have to get to work how fast the available options are what the available options cost and so on While in a switch structure the path of execution is determined by examining only one Object a case structure determines the path of execution based on any number of things Here is the syntax of a case structure case lt replaceable gt booleanFunction lt replaceable gt lt replaceable gt resultFunction lt replaceable gt lt replaceable gt booleanFunction lt replaceable gt lt replaceable gt resultFunction lt replaceable gt lt replaceable gt booleanFunct
363. ten to accomodate it SinOsc ar freq In kr controlRateBus 1 mul 0 2 play Now you ve managed to spice up an otherwise boring synth 164 Busses Also control rate Bus ses don t need to be constantly changing Unlike an audio rate Bus a control rate Bus will hold the last inputted value until another value is provided You can the value of a control rate Bus with the set message and a single argument which is the value You can also get the current value whether created by set or a UGen by using the get message and sending a Function with one argument var bus Bus control s bus set 12 bus get arg val val postln bus free bus nil When running this example you ll notice that the 12 doesn t get posted until after the program finishes with nil This is because of the latency between when the interpreter asks the server to do something and when the server does it The amount of time it takes for the server to complete a command is usually very small but as you can see it can make an important difference to your program This latency is also the reason that you can t call SsynthDef new and Synth new atthe exact same time This latency is also the reason that we have to provide a single argument function as an argument to the get function Since the function won t immediately be able to get the value of the bus from the server we can t expect the value to be returned by the f
364. that the transposition is set correctly 3 The hornF section should already have a Ntransposition g segment from earlier This tells LilyPond that the following notes are not in concert pitch but rather are in G A transposition statement tells LilyPond in absolute pitch which pitch actually sounds when the player plays a written c In this case the sound pitch is a perfect fourth below c If we wanted it to be a perfect fifth higher then we would need to write transposition g butthat s not accurate for this case 4 Our next obstacle is not actually a problem with LilyPond but with how Frescobaldi set up the score for us The score that we wish to notate does not have a written key signature for the horn but the global section near the top of the file includes one G Major If this score were particularly complicated or if it contained a large number of transposing instruments then it would be best to remove the Nkey g declartion from the global section and including it in every instrument as necessary However since there is only one transposing instrument we might be better off simply removing the global from the horn 5 do the rest of this stuff to get that done right 6 makea note in the global section of which instruments don t use it 7 While you re at it do the same for the trumpets and timpani parts which also do not use a printed key signature 8 The other issue with the horn part is that two pitches are
365. the 16 bit format which is the sample format of audio CDs Sample endianness is a difficult concept to understand and it has no effect on the resulting audio just how it is stored Unless you are using a rare PowerPC computer choose the Little endian Intel option A higher sample rate explained in Section 1 3 3 Sample Rate allows a greater amount of audio information to be stored but increases the size of audio files Convesion quality and dither type are not available options for the file formats offered in Fedora Linux The CD Marker File Type allows you to export a CUE or TOC format list of CD tracks in the exported file This is most useful when exporting a whole session which contains a whole CD that would be subsequently burned to disc 84 Chapter 8 Qtractor Qtractor is a relatively new application created and maintained by the same developers who are responsible for QjackCtl and Qsynth both covered in other chapters of this Guide It offers much more flexibility than Audacity but is still easier to use than Ardour or Rosegarden As such it serves as the perfect starting point for people first discovering software based DAWs But Qtractor is much more than just a starting point its simplicity is its greatest strength Ardour and Rosegarden may offer more features but Qtractor takes much less time to learn After the initial learning curve you will be able to complete almost every audio or M
366. the blue coloured regions still have their original names and the canvas area doesn t have any region called Clarinet 2 If this bothers you you can rename the other regions to suit 70 Compare Multiple Recordings of the Same Thing 7 4 5 2 Clarinet_3 and Clarinet_4 Regions Listen to the Clarinet_3 and Clarinet_4 regions Clarinet_4 starts with the same material that s in Clarinet_3 and ends with the same material that s in Clarinet_1A and Clarinet_1B First rename the Clarinet 3 regions to Clarinet 3A and the Clarinet 4 regions to Clarinet 3B Then we ll extract the Clarinet 1 like portion from the Clarinet 3B regions 1 10 11 12 13 Under the transport toolbar select the Select Move Ranges tool which looks like a double ended left to right arrow with vertical lines at the sides The cursor will change to look like a text editing Scroll to the end of the Clarinet_3B regions so you can see the part the sounds like the Clarinet 1 regions Click and drag the mouse over the Clarinet 1 like region in one of the tracks to select them Because of the edit group Ardour will automatically select the same area of both tracks We have to be sure to select all of the Clarinet 1 like material so after you ve selected a range right click on the range and select Play Range from the menu If you want to adjust the selected range use the darker squares at the top corners of the range selecti
367. the canvas area C Also notice that you can no longer move the region with the Select Move Objects tool 2 Now place a marker to show the exact moment when it starts six seconds into the session a Zoom in appropriately so that you can see where the six second mark on the ruler should go but you needn t see it yet Hold the Ctrl button on the keyboard and use the mouse s scrollwheel to zoom in or press the button on the keyboard to zoom in and the button to zoom Out b Move the cursor to near the six second mark again not important to be precise yet and right click in the Location Markers row Select New location marker from the menu c Click and drag the yellow green arrow that appears so that the yellow clock shows 00 00 06 000 indicating six seconds precisely Release the mouse d Move the cursor over the marker so it changes colours from yellow green to red tan coral Right click and select Lock from the menu so that the marker will not be accidentally moved e Again right click while the cursor is over the marker Select Rename from the menu f Asmall window will appear Write the name of the maker marimba start and click Rename to set the new name 3 Since we will be adjusting the placement of regions in the timeline very precisely we will need to use different 5nap Grid Mode Each setting is useful for a different kind of task We can change the mode using the toolbar just above the
368. the end of the first sub section measures 164 166 inclusive included a long downward 12 tone scale which was inspired by the much smaller downward scale in Beethoven s piece The next sub section is an exact repeat of ideas but with different pitches a smaller pitch range and a slightly different ending 8 4 16 Qtractor s Measures 177 to the End There are no new techniques used in this section This part of piece was intended to mirror Beethoven s score quite obviously The only real bit of trickery that played was looking at Beethoven s score and incorporating particular notes the chord in 97 Chapter 8 Qtractor measure 212 is composed of the same pitches that are used in the chord in the audio file in measure 210 It sounds very different because of the real piano vs MIDI piano issue and because the tuning of the piano in the recording is different than the tuning of the MIDI piano Also the chord in the second beat of measure 213 is the first chord of the movement following the one recorded in the audio file By including this then resolving it then re introducing it intend to play with the expectations of a listener that may already be familiar with Beethoven s sonata 98 Chapter 9 Rosegarden 9 1 Requirements and Installation 9 1 1 Knowledge Requirements Rosegarden s user interface is similar to other DAWs We recommend that you read Section 6 4 User Interface if you have no
369. the end of this passage was a feeble attempt to establish A Major tonality in the highest register that used 8 4 14 Qtractor s Measures 139 to 158 There are no new techniques used in this section We maintained two beat spacing of primary notes and began with only two three registers The lowest register is just an occasional reinforcement of the uppermost as in the audio file at this point We used copy and pasting to create the quickly moving middle line As the section progresses the middle line gains a simultaneous addition This eventually becomes more adventurous at first jumping into a very high register then leading downwards towards its place in the next section in the lowest register 8 4 15 Qtractor s Measures 158 to 176 There are no new techniques in this section made extensive use of copy and pasting and especially of partial randomization adding the first note of a flourish randomizing it then copy and pasting the rest of the flourish into place at the appropriate pitch level At this point had basically dropped any obvious reference to my theme as happens in the Beethoven score Of course its influence is still there every four beats my middle voice repeats the same pitches and sustains them for the next four beats Also the upper voice in my part shares the same sort of single repeated pitch idea that makes up Beethoven s upper voice There is also a weak rhythmic similarity between the two Near
370. the result is inf representing infinity Try modifying the code so that it will divide by zero and see what happens 11 3 8 2 5 Order of Precedence In complicated boolean expressions it s important to clarify the order in which you want sub expressions to be executed This order is called the order of precedence or order of operations see Order of Operations Wikipedia available at http en wikipedia org wiki Order of operations for more information In computer science different programming languages enforce different orders of precedence so you should use parentheses to clarify your intended order to proactively avoid later confusion The interpreter will evaluate an expression from left to right and always fully evaluate parentheses before continuing Even simple expression can benefit from parentheses These produce the same results 145 Chapter 11 SuperCollider var a 5 5 amp amp 17 5 var b 5 5 amp amp 17 5 parentheses help to clarify a b evaluates to true var a 5 isPositive amp amp isNegative 6 12 5 42 1 18 var b 5 isPositive amp amp isNegative 6 12 5 42 1 gt 18 parentheses help to clarify a amp amp b evaluates to true And perhaps even more surprisingly APE os a Ges amp 22s A p evaluates to false They re equal the interpreter doesn t follow the standard mathematical order
371. the server and make some synths you ve collected a few Synth Objects and you wonder what to do with them next Of course you could listen to them but you can also change the arguments that you used and stop it 159 Chapter 11 SuperCollider To change the arguments used by a synth send it the set message with a list of arguments variableHoldingSynth set argumenti value argument2 value This helps to save even more time and memory rather than destroying and creating synths all the time you can simply change pre existing ones This modification of the ten pseudo random tones example includes an extra line that lets you change the tones without destroying and re creating the synths run this first h List new run this second var myRandFunc arg frequency 440 Out ar 0 SinOsc ar freq frequency mul 0 025 J SynthDef new myRandFunc myRandFunc send s run this third 10 do h add Synth new myRandFunc frequency 440 rand 440 run this fourth as many times as you please h do arg item item set frequency 440 rand 440 The reason that you have to run each of those segments separately is two fold we need to store the List of Synth s in a single letter variable because for this simple demonstration this is the most efficient way second for the asynchronous behaviour of the server that was previously noted as causing
372. the two frequently The following instructions will configure PulseAudio so that its input and output is routed through JACK 1 Use PackageKit or KPackagekit to install the pulseaudio module jack package 2 Approve the installation and ensure that it is carried out properly 3 You ll need to edit the PulseAudio configuration file to use the JACK module a Be careful You will be editing an important system file as the root user b Run the following command in a terminal sudo c gedit etc pulse default pa c Add the following lines underneath the line that says code load module module alsa sink code 15 Chapter 2 Software for Sound Cards load module module jack sink load module module jack source Restart PulseAudio by running the following command in a terminal killall pulseaudio PulseAudio restarts automatically Confirm that this has worked by opening QjackCtl The display should confirm that JACK is Active In the Connect window on the Audio tab there should be PulseAudio devices on each side and they should be connected to system devices on the opposite sides Open QjackCtl s Setup window then click on the Options tab Uncheck Execute script after Shutdown killall jackd If you did not make this change then QjackCtl would stop the JACK server from running every time the program quits Since PulseAudio is still expecting to use JACK after that you shouldn t do this any more When PulseAud
373. time Try running each of the following SystemClock beats TempoClock default beats thisThread clock beats This can be useful for scheduling events in an absolute way or for a number of other things 169 Chapter 11 SuperCollider 11 3 13 4 Relative Scheduling The standard way to schedule things is in a certain number of beats from now If you re scheduling on a SystemClock one beat is equal to one second If you re scheduling on a TempoClock one beat is equal to whatever the current setting is To schedule things on a clock use the sched Function nameOfClocksched beatsFromNow FunctionToExecute The interpreter will let you schedule just about anything but there s no point in scheduling something other than a Function scheduling a five won t have any effect try it SystemClock sched 5 5 It looks like nothing happens The 5 does happen but well it doesn t do anything Scheduling a Function will do something SystemClock sched 5 5 postln When you run this there are two things to notice The interpreter prints out SystemClock first This is to let you know that it did the scheduling as requested The five prints out endlessly in five second intervals For an explanation see Repeated Scheduling 11 3 13 5 Repeated Scheduling If you schedule a Function that returns a number the interpreter will schedule the Function to re run in that many beats This will print 5 e
374. tin outputs tA 2 postln outputs 17 wo tA 0 24 assigns 24 to element 0 tA 0 postln outputs 24 pase Different people prefer different styles of accessing Arrays 11 3 6 2 List An List is a Collection with an infinite maximum size It is the programmer s responsibility to maintain a meaningful order and to remember the meaning of the data Data in a List is called elements each of which is assigned a specific index number Index numbers begin at 0 Any mix of Objects can be stored in a List including a List Lists and Arrays are very similar but SuperCollider manages some of the dirty work for you when you use the List Class 11 3 6 2 1 Building a List There are four methods which instantiate a List These are all Class methods meaning they do not operate on a specific List but can be used to make any List List newcreates a List You can also specify the initial number of elements as an argument if you choose e List newClear x creates a List with x number of slots filled with nil List copyInstance aList createsa List which is a copy of aList List newUsing anArray creates a List with the same elements as anArray 11 3 6 2 2 Adding to an Existing List These are instance methods meaning that they operate on a specific list e put index item adds item into the List at index number index e add item adds item to the end of a List e addFirst item adds item to th
375. tings When one setting is changed it tends to have an effect on other settings so if you set the level of a track once then change its panning you should check that the levels you set are still desirable they ll probably need some tweaking however minor it may be 7 5 1 Setting the Session for Stereo Output and Disabling Edit Groups Part of the reason that the session sounds so bad is that all of the audio has been routed through both the left and right channels equally making it a mono recording even though we have the material of a stereo recording This could easily have been done sooner but it wouldn t have made much of a difference until now Whereas mixing was focussed on getting the regions assembled so that they are like the song mixing is about fine tuning the regions and tracks so that they make the song sound great Disabling the edit groups is also a good idea because leaving them enabled actually reduces functionality in this stage of production With edit groups enabled any change that we make to one of 77 Chapter 7 Ardour the tracks will automatically be made to the other track too We want to be able to adjust the tracks independently for cases where both tracks need the same adjustment we will use the sub master bus to which they re attached These steps will disable the edit groups and re configure this session s tracks for stereo output 1 2 3 We need to adjust tracks independe
376. tion and it doesn t conflict with other tracks then it s probably better to leave it alone 3 Here s what hear It may be different from what you hear especially if you happened to do your initial level setting differently Both of the marimba tracks are consistent throughout The marimba tracks seem to be about 5 metres in front of me of to the left a bit The marimba2 tracks seem to be about the same distance away but almost directly to my right All of the strings regions seem to be consistent with the violin placed just left of centre and the cello just right of centre They seem to be a bit closer than the marimbas The clarinet seems to be on the opposite side of the higher marimba about 5 metres away half way between in front and to the left The vocal ensemble seems to be standing in the same place as the strings but extending a bit more to the right The solo vocalist seems to be standing in the same place as the male singers in the vocal ensemble 4 Here s how plan to fix it directions are given assuming the listener is looking north Establish two rows of performers surrounding the listener in a semi circle The strings will be in the closer row to the north west This requires moving them to the left a bit The vocal soloist will be in the closer row just east of north the middle This requires moving her to the left just a little bit The vocal ensemble will be in the closer row
377. tself automatically but it may not use the configuration you want You need to test Audacity before recording so that you know that it works Follow the instructions in Section 5 2 5 Post Installation Test Playback and Section 5 2 6 Post Installation Test Recording to test Audacity 5 2 4 Installation with MP3 Support This method installs Audacity from the RPM Fusion repository This version of Audacity uses an MP3 library and can process MP3 files The Fedora Project cannot provide support for this version of Audacity because it is not prepared by Fedora 1 Run this command in a terminal su c yum localinstall nogpgcheck http download1 rpmfusion org free fedora N rpmfusion free release stable noarch rpmhttp downloadi rpmfusion org nonfree N fedora rpmfusion nonfree release stable noarch rpm Note that this a single command broken into three lines here for presentation reasons 2 Use PackageKit or KPackagekit to install the audacity freeworld package 3 The proposed installation includes Audacity and all of the libraries that Audacity uses Continue installing Audacity by reviewing and approving the proposed installation 4 Audacity configures itself automatically but it may not use the configuration you want You need to test Audacity before recording so that you know that it works Follow the instructions in Section 5 2 5 Post Installation Test Playback and Section 5 2 6 Post Installation Test Record
378. uage you will start learning SuperCollider with the basic commands that are of little use by themselves However since the language is so flexible even the most basic commands can be combined in ways that create highly complex behaviours The example program Method One was written with the goal of illustrating how a single sound generating object can be used to create an entire composition This tutorial does not begin with audio generating code which helps to emphasize that SuperCollider is primarily a programming language This portion of the Guide is designed as a reference textbook which you can use both to learn the SuperCollider language in the first place and to remind yourself about the language s features afterwards The section is most effective when read in small portions 11 3 1 First Steps 11 3 1 1 The Different Parts of SuperCollider As you discovered when installing SuperCollider there are actually many different components involved with SuperCollider Here is a list of some of them with brief descriptions of their purpose 117 Chapter 11 SuperCollider Programming language this is an abstract set of rules and guidelines that allow you to write down instructions for producing sounds Interpreter this is what is run in GEdit it transforms the programming language instructions written by you into useful instructions for the server also called the client Server this is what synthesizes th
379. uate 116 Other Tips for Using GEdit with SuperCollider 4 To stop all sound on the server press Esc on the keyboard or from the menu select SuperCollider Stop Sound 5 Ifthe server successfully executes the code then it will output something to the SuperCollider output pane The output will be different depending on what SuperCollider asked the server to do but will usually either look like this Synth temp_0 1000 or this RESULT 0 11 2 4 Other Tips for Using GEdit with SuperCollider If you close GEdit while the SuperCollider server is running then GEdit will automatically shut down the server If JACK is started by SuperCollider then it will automatically terminate when the SuperCollider server terminates SuperCollider will automatically attempt to connect its outputs to the system s outputs If your audio output doesn t work then you should use QjackCtl to verify that it is correctly connected Other functions available in the SuperCollider menu include Find Help Opens the SuperCollider help file for currently selected object Find Definition Opens the SuperCollider source file for the currently selected object Restart Interpreter Restarts the SuperCollider interpreter also closes running servers but does not restart them Clear output Clears all output from the SuperCollider output pane 11 3 Basic Programming in SuperCollider As with any programming lang
380. ularly prone to these forms of partial correctness When you encounter a rough spot with your aural skills development remember that it takes a significant amount of time and effort to build your musical sensibility It is easier for some people than for others and most people will have an easier time with some exercises than with others Although the prevailing cultural thought about musical sensibility and aural skillls still suggests that an individual either posesses musical ability or cannot acquire it recent research has suggested that any hearing person with enough determination dedication and the right instruction can develop their musical sensibility and aural skills to a very high level With that in mind the following sections aim to help you incorporate Solfege as part of a complete aural skills development program 14 3 1 Aural Skills and Musical Sensibility When somebody decides to receive musical training what they are really doing is developing skills and acquiring stylistic knowledge required for participation in a particular kind of music There are many different kinds of training and the time spent in a classroom is not as important to musical development as time spent elsewhere taking part in real musical situations Many different kinds of skills are useful for musicians depending on the kind of music in which they intend to participate A folk singer who plays guitar might wish to memorize the chord progressions m
381. unction Instead when get gets the value of the bus from the server it runs the function that you gave it 11 3 11 5 Using Busses Audio Rate Example var tutorialDecayPink arg outBus 0 effectBus direct 0 5 controls proportion of direct processed sound var source Decaying pulses of PinkNoise source Decay2 ar in Impulse ar freq 1 phase 0 25 attackTime 0 01 decayTime 0 2 mul PinkNoise ar Out ar outBus source direct main output Out ar effectBus source 1 direct effects output var tutorialDecaySine t arg outBus 0 effectBus direct 0 5 controls proportion of direct processed sound var source Decaying pulses of a modulating Sine wave source Decay2 ar in Impulse ar freq 0 3 phase 0 25 attackTime 0 3 decayTime 1 mul SinOsc ar freq SinOsc kr freq 0 2 mul 110 add 440 Out ar outBus source direct main output 165 Chapter 11 SuperCollider Out ar effectBus source 1 direct effects output var tutorialReverb arg outBus 0 inBus default outBus is audio interface var input input In ar inBus 1 16 do input AllpassC ar in input maxdelaytime 0 04 delaytime Rand 0 001 0 04 dup decaytime 3 Out ar outBus input send synthesis information to the server SynthDef NtutorialReverb tutorialReverb send s SynthDef NtutorialDecayPink tut
382. und cards often include an external device connected to the sound card to which the audio equipment is connected You cannot use these sound cards with a notebook or netbook computer 1 2 3 External FireWire Connection FireWire connected sound cards are not as popular as USB connected sound cards but they are generally higher quality This is partly because FireWire connected sound cards use FireWire s guaranteed bandwidth and bus mastering capabilities which both reduce latency High speed FireWire connections are also available on older computers without a high speed USB connection FireWire devices are sometimes incompatible with the standard Fedora Linux kernel If you have a FireWire connected sound card you should use the kernel from Planet CCRMA at Home Refer to Section 3 5 Getting a Real Time Kernel in Fedora Linux for instructions to install the Planet CCRMA at Home kernel 1 2 4 External USB Connection Sound cards connected by USB are becoming more popular especially because notebook and netbook computer are becoming more popular The quality can be as good as an internally connected sound card but the USB connection may add additional latency USB connected sound cards are generally the most affordable sound card for amateur musicians who want a high quality sound card 1 2 5 Choosing a Connection Type The connection type is only one of the considerations when choosing a sound card If you have a desktop computer
383. uperCollider program written and heavily commented specifically for use with this guide You should play this example and experiment with changing the frequencies volumes and so on The fully commented version provides a full explanation of how the function works sets up the frequencies of both channels var frequencyL SinOsc kr freq 10 mul 200 add 400 oscillating var frequencyR SinOsc kr freq 1 mul 50 add 150 oscillating var frequencyL drone SinOsc kr freq 0 03 mul 20 add 100 drone var frequencyR drone SinOsc kr freq 0 01 mul 20 add 210 drone 131 Chapter 11 SuperCollider changes the volume of the oscillating part in the left channel var volumeL SinOsc kr freq 0 5 mul 0 02 add 0 03 left channel var left SinOsc ar freq frequencyL mul volumeL this is the oscillating part SinOsc ar freg frequencyL drone 2 frequencyL drone mul 0 02 the rest make up the drone SinOsc ar freg 5 frequencyL drone 7 frequencyL drone mul 0 005 SinOsc ar freqg 13 frequencyL drone 28 frequencyL drone mul 0 001 right channel var right SinOsc ar freq frequencyR mul 0 1 this is the oscillating part SinOsc ar freg frequencyR drone 2 frequencyR drone mul 0 02 the rest make up the drone SinOsc ar freq 4 frequencyR_drone mul 0 005 SinOsc ar freg 64 frequencyR drone 128 frequencyR drone mul 0 01 J high frequencies left righ
384. ust always begin with a lower case letter Use variables to write programs that do the following tasks 1 Perform arithmetic with an uninitialized variable An error should appear when the program is executed 2 Calculate the value of y if all other values are known for the quadratic equation y a x x b xtc 3 Re write the Hello World Program so that it will say Hello to a name stored in a variable Remember that you can use the interpreter to automatically output the last line of a function 11 3 2 3 Functions A Function is a statement or a series of statements that we want to use many times When a Function is assigned to a variable you can execute the Function as many times as you wish Any statements that happen between braces like this are treated as a Function Functions are executed by passing them the value message as in the following example Here is a Function that is not assigned to a variable and is executed once Hello World postln j value Notice that there are two semicolons one after the statement within the Function and one after the value message that tells the Function to execute Here is a Function with identical function assigned to a variable and executed twice var myFunction Hello World postln note two semicolons myFunction value myFunction value 11 3 2 4 Function Arguments The most useful aspect of Functions is that they can produce varying results
385. ust the balance to the right which decreases the volume level of the left speaker This is not an ideal solution but sometimes it is impossible or impractical to set up your speakers correctly You should adjust the balance only at final playback Figure 1 5 Balance 1 4 5 Time Timeline and Time Shifting There are many ways to measure musical time The four most popular time scales for digital audio are Bars and Beats Usually used for MIDI work and called BBT meaning Bars Beats and Ticks A tick is a partial beat Minutes and Seconds Usually used for audio work SMPTE Timecode Invented for high precision coordination of audio and video but can be used with audio alone Samples Relating directly to the format of the underlying audio file a sample is the shortest possible length of time in an audio file See Section 1 3 Sample Sample Rate Sample Format and Bit Rate for more information Chapter 1 Sound Cards and Digital Audio Most audio software particularly digital audio workstations DAWs allow the user to choose which scale they prefer DAWs use a timeline to display the progression of time in a session allowing you to do time shifting that is adjust the time in the timeline when a region starts to be played Time is represented horizontally where the leftmost point is the beginning of the session zero regardless of the unit of measurement and the rightmost point is some distance after the
386. ut only a little at the end You can cut out the talking or deal with it later Voice Voice 1 2 3 4 Simply remove the silence from beginning and end leaving the mistakes which we ll take care of later 69 Chapter 7 Ardour ens Here Is How 1 2 3 It s too difficult for now to trim all of the extra noise so just get most of it The breating and shuffling can be removed later ens Create the Inconceivable For now keep both of the attempts Later we ll choose which one we prefer Marimba Marimba 1 Don t trim the beginning of this region we ll use it to time the start of the session You can trim the silence at the end but be sure that you don t clip it while the sound of the marimba is still ringing Marimba 2 3 4 5 6 7 Trim the silence around these as desired still being careful not to clip the marimba while it s still ringing This may require cautious listening at high volume settings Now that we have roughly trimmed the silence surrounding the portions of audio that we really want we ll have an easier time putting them in the right order 7 4 5 Compare Multiple Recordings of the Same Thing Part of the power of recording with a DAW is that the same material can be capture multiple times Mixing and matching like this allows us to seek the perfect performance of a piece of music A few of the regions in this file are multiple takes of the same material There are a few occasions where w
387. ute pitch equivalent LilyPond prints a warning if the pitches do not match then continues with the absolute pitch You should correct the relative pitch when LilyPond prints a warning The octave check symbols is The symbol appears after the note and is followed by a comma apostrophe or neither depending on the intended relative octave of the pitch Here is an example use of the octave check symbol c z In this example the absolute pitch is c which LilyPond knows because of the c at the left and the after the symbol How does this example work c 4 There is a 4 after the symbol instead of a comma or apostrophe The absolute pitch is c which LilyPond knows because of the c to the left of the symbol and because there is no comma or apostrophe to the right of the symbol LilyPond understands the 4 as quarter note You should use the octave check symbol when you need it New users use the octave check symbol more frequently than experienced users 198 Working on a Counterpoint Exercise Tutorial 12 4 8 2 Bar Check Symbol The bar check symbol tests whether a barline is printed at that point in the music LilyPond prints a warning if the bar check symbol does not line up with a barline in the score then processes the rest of the file You must correct an inputting mistake when LilyPond prints a warning The bar check symbol is We recommend including a bar check symbol at the end of ev
388. uts and Outputs tabs allow you to view and configure the input and output connections of the selected track or bus The two Redirects tabs allow you to configure plug in settings which are not discussed in this tutorial b Select the Bus marimba1 bus from the list You should recognize the Input and Output tabs Verify that the marimba1 L track is connected to this bus input and that the bus output is connected to the master bus inputs c Add both outputs of the marimba1 R track to the bus input list d Check the outputs of the marimba1 R track This isn t quite what we wanted so remove the master bus connection e Adjust the remaining tracks so that they are connected as described in the table below f Verify the connections by viewing the busses Input tabs g Verify that only the five busses are connected to the master bus inputs 66 Add Regions to Tracks Audio MIDI ALSA Readable Clients Output Pc v Y ardour 9 auditioner out 1 auditioner out 2 Bus clarinet out 1 Bus clarinet out 2 Bus marimbal out 1 Bus marimbal out 2 Bus marimba2 out 1 Bus marimba2 out 2 Bus strings out 1 ff Bus strings out 2 ff Bus voice out 1 f Bus voice out 2 clarinet L out 1 carinet L out 2 clarinet R out 1 f clarinet R out 2 amp clicklout 1 click out 2 EXAMPLE out 1 EXAMPLE out 2 ff marimbal L out 1 ff marimba1 L out 2 marimbal R out 1 marimbal R out 2 marimba2
389. ve the function and find out You only hear some of the SinOsc s Which ones The first two representing the left and right channels If your audio interface has more than two channels you may be able to hear more than those first two channels There is another function offered by the Mix class and it is a kind of loop The function is called Fill and it takes two arguments the number of times to run a function and the function to run The function is provided with one argument like in a do loop which is the number of times the function has already been run var n 8 var sineFunc 151 Chapter 11 SuperCollider arg iteration var freq 440 iteration SinOsc ar freq freq mul 1 n J Mix fill n sineFunc play As you can see the fill function itself is quite simple you provide the number of UGen s to create and a function that creates UGen s It s the sineFunc function that is a little confusing The argument is called iteration because it holds how many times the function has already been run how many iterations have happened already It uses this value to help calculate the frequency stored in a variable called freq and then creates a SinOsc UGen The mul argument helps to automatically control the volume level Since the total volume should be no more than 1 0 the sineFunc function calculates UGen s volume by dividing 1 the maximum level by the number of UGen s that will be created The
390. ver stops running all synthesis information given with send is lost The load Function on the other hand sends the synthesis information to the server which stores it on disk and in memory Every time the server is started it loads all of the synthesis information previously sent to it with the load Function The definition remains until you delete it specifically This is most useful for a SynthDef that takes up a lot of memory and which would use considerable network time to transfer to the server whenever the server is run It is also useful to use the load Function instead of send when there are a lot of SynthDef s regardless of the size of each one The idea is the same avoid sending the SynthDef in order to save time The syntax and usage for load is the same as for send 11 3 10 4 Symbols As stated in the section about variables a symbol is simply something which represents something else When used in the context of a SynthDef a symbol is a string of characters that refers to a SynthDef that we ve already sent to the server What wasn t mentioned in the section about variables is that in addition to the symbols that can be used as variable names the SuperCollider language provides a distinct data type like numbers or strings for symbols Many programming languages don t provide a symbol data type so many programmers do not use them extensively but they are very handy for situations like this As local variabl
391. very five seconds until you press Esc to stop execution SystemClock sched 5 5 postln To avoid this you can end your Function with nil which has been done sometimes through this guide SystemClock sched 5 5 postln nil This will print 5 in five seconds and then stop 11 3 13 6 Working with the TempoClock Class Here is a brief explanation of some Functions available with the TempoClock Class Throughout this section the variable t is used to represent any particular TempoClock var t TempoClock new tempo beats This creates a new TempoClock The arguments are optional and have the following meanings tempo tempo of the clock given in beats per second To input a value in beats per minute divide it by 60 Defaults to 60 beats per minute or one per second beats starts the clock at this time Default is zero 170 How to Get Help t stop if mile Equivalent to the free method for a Synth of Bus Object This stops the clock discards all scheduled events and releases the resources used to run the clock Setting the variable to nil afterwards is optional but recommended to avoid later programming mistakes t clear Discards all scheduled events but keeps the clock running t tempo Returns the current tempo in beats per second t tempo newTempo Allows you to change the clock s tempo The new tempo should be in beats per second To input a tempo in beats per m
392. volumes 4 Set the number of channels that youw ant int he bus 5 Once you have the new bus change its name by doing whatever suggest naming it something that makes it obvious you are using the bus for recording rather than exporting like REC Bus 6 Ardour automatically sets up busses to be used with audio being outputted Furthermore the volume level control only works on audio beign outputted from a track or bus This is why you cannot use the track s volume level control to adjust the input volume for that track 7 Use QjackCtl to reconnect like this for help refer to Section 7 2 9 Routing Audio and Managing JACK Connections a Disconnect all of the connections to from the bus you want to use for recording recording bus b Ensure that nothing is connected to the input of the track onto which you want to record recording track c Connectthe microphone the input source to the recording bus input d Connectthe input bus output to the recording track s input e Ensure that the recording track s output is connected to the master input this is the master output bus which should be present in all projects and through which all output audio should be routed Remember only one track to be recorded can be routed through a bus for this purpose because a bus can only output one stream of audio Here is an algorithm to test whether your tracks are set at a good recording volume This should be done be
393. w that the sound is chairs being moved across the floor in a room upstairs from the recording studio I m going to call the regions Chairs L and Chairs R Then remove the noise of the chairs from the Strings 1 regions Since the marimba2 tracks aren t yet being used we can put the Chairs regions there at least for now just to remember that we have them 71 Chapter 7 Ardour 5 Listen to the Strings 1 region You ll notice that the noise of the chairs continues throughout the region We can remove it later 6 You wouldn t know this without carefully listening to the song or having the sheet music for Here Is How so I ll tell you the musicians make a mistake near the end of this region which is why the violinist says sorry just after that 7 We ll need to remove the error so adjust the end of the track to make it about six seconds earlier In the canvas view you want to put the end of the region just before the second last blob 7 4 5 4 Strings Regions These four regions are all tied together and the material overlaps between them Strings 2 covers most of the same material as Strings 1 and goes for a bit longer It doesn t have the noise of the chairs but there is a playing mistake after about the first minute and 20 seconds 1 20 so we can t use the end 1 Trim the last 32 seconds or so 2 Rename this region to Strings 1B 3 Rename the Strings 1 regions to Strings 1A to match with 1B
394. which needs no end no position indicator e fora staccato mark e gt for an accent e fora tenuto mark 193 Chapter 12 LilyPond for a marcato mark fora portato mark dot and line There are three position indicators which means to put the articulation mark wherever LilyPond thinks it makes sense e which means to put the articulation mark below the note head which means to put the articulation mark above the note head These position indicators will sometimes result in notes like g4 g4 and g4 but although this may look incorrect it is perfectly acceptable 12 4 4 Simultaneity Simply put anything enclosed inside lt lt and gt gt is considered by LilyPond to happen simultaneously This can be used in any context and any Context see above below It is possible to tell LilyPond that you want two notes to happen at the same time in the same voice yielding a chord at the same time on the same staff yielding polyphony and so on Moreover any score with multiple staves will use lt lt and gt gt to tell LilyPond that the parts should begin at the same time and creative use of lt lt and gt gt is one of the keys to advanced notation It is not important to understand simultaneity at first By observing how Frescobaldi creates scores for you and how examples on the internet take advantage of these symbols you will eventually understand how to use them 12 4 5 Chords
395. would have been The loop always begins at the start of the Collection and progresses with each element in order to the end The second argument really is the integers from zero to one less than the number of elements in the Collection increasing by one each time the loop executes aFunction 11 3 7 2 Do This This Many Times Another way to write a do loop takes advantage of SuperCollider s flexibility and is really the same as one of the methods above It s basically equivalent to telling the interpreter to run this Function this many times The syntax looks like this aNumber do aFunction number This causes aFunction to be execute aNumber times The interpreter still provdies two arguments to aFunction but they are the same it is the integers from zero to one less than aNumber You might also think of it as the number of times that aFunction has been executed prior to this particular execution 11 3 7 3 Example Do Loops These examples illustrate different ways to use do loops for trivial tasks var tL List new tL 27 46 102 81 34 0 39 26 203 62 do tL arg item rep rep item postln nal This example is of the first syntax shown For each element in tL the interpreter executes the function once giving it first the corresponding element of the Collection and then the iteration counter which happens to be equal to the element s List index number 140 Repeated Execution
396. y turned into a score To do this from the menu select File gt Export gt Export LilyPond File After you select a location to save the file Rosegarden allows you to control some score settings while exporting After exporting a LilyPond file you should inspect it with Frescobaldi before relying on it to be correct computers sometimes make mistakes 9 4 Write a Song in Rosegarden Tutorial When using Rosegarden s notation editor the application may accidentally leave some notes playing longer than it should You can fix this if it bothers you by pressing the panic button in Qsynth If you are using another synthesizer with a panic button it should server the same function 9 4 1 Start the Score with a Bass Line 1 Start QjackCtl then Qsynth then Rosegarden 2 Forthis tutorial we ll be using the default Fluid R3 SoundFont but you can use any General MIDI SoundFont 3 Setup Rosegarden in JACK for MIDI use only 4 From the Rosegarden menu select Edit gt Preferences Click the MIDI tab then the General tab then select Send all MIDI controllers at start of each playback This will ensure that the MIDI synthesizer FluidSynth for this tutorial uses the right patches 5 Create a new segment a Click on the Draw tool on the toolbar it looks like a red pencil or press F3 on the keyboard b In the first track click and drag to select the area over the first two bars c When you release the m
397. y means of tapping on the keyboard Theory which tests your ability to name written intervals and scales and to correctly use solfa syllables 222 Making an Aural Skills Program Chords which tests your ability to perceive and identify chords built from various intervals played at various pitch levels and to sing such a chord Scales which tests your ability to perceive and identify scales and their modes Miscellaneous which includes a variety of exercises including Intonation which tests your ability to perceive and identify whether a second pitch is lower or higher than it should be Dictation which tests your ability to perceive and notate melodies Identify Tone which tests your ability to use relative pitch see Relative Pitch Wikipedia at http en wikipedia org wiki Relative pitch for more information Sing Twelve Random Tones which tests many skills Beats per Minute which tests your ability to determine a tempo Harmonic Progressions which tests your ability to perceive and apply Roman numeral chord symbols for a series of chords played together Hear Tones which helps you to train for relative pitch Cadences which tests your ability to perceive and apply Roman numeral chord symbols for two chords played together All of these exercises require the use of your aural skills outside an actual musical situation This may seem fruitless but it has long been recognized as an imp
398. y re basically the same so they probably belong together Use the mouse to click in the coloured bar of the region close to where the clarinet starts Ardour will automatically move the start of the region in both tracks Move the playhead by clicking in the rulers at the point where you want the playhead to be so that you can listen to the regions to ensure that you didn t cut out any of the useful audio If you want to adjust the beginning of the region carefully move the mouse cursor to the start of the region in the coloured bar The cursor should turn into a double ended left and right arrow If you happened to accidentally remove some of the useful clarinet sound you ll notice that it s still there In fact the beauty of trimming regions in this way is that it s non destructive meaning that the entire original region is still there Notice that when you made the first adjustment Ardour put an arrow beside the region name in the region list of the session sidebar If you click on the arrow you will see that there is another copy of the same region underneath but it s white Ardour wants you to know that the white coloured region is a modification of the blue coloured region If you drag the white coloured region into the canvas area you ll notice that it starts at the same time as the region you just modified It can also be dragged out to the full size of the original region which would create another modified version of the ori
399. y signature is changed for a significant number of measures and then suddenly changes back The cautionary accidental would be applied when the standard key signature returns to remind the musician of the key signature LilyPond Notation These are notated in LilyPond with an exclamation mark placed before the note value ces 16 12 7 4 5 Changing the Style of Crescendo Sometimes the composer or editor prefers to use the words crescendo or its abbreviation cresc instead of the lt style of crescendo In LilyPond these are handled by the same source file notation lt to start and to end explicitly However if you want to use text and a spanner dotted or dashed line for example instead of the lt sign you need to tell LilyPond This can be accomplished with the following command crescTextCresc After changing to this style of crescendo you can revert to the standard lt style with the following command crescHairpin The dimTextDim and dimHairpin commands do the same for a diminuendo 12 7 4 6 Polyphonic Sections of Homophonic Music Sometimes especially in piano music a passage of some measures will require polyphonic multi Voice notation in LilyPond even though most of the music does not In this case you would use the following format lt lt upper voice notes go here lower voice notes go here gt gt This is used a few times in both hands in the example score file When writing these se
400. yFont sf2 to verify that the permissions were set correctly a Modify the command as necessary to refer to your SoundFont file rather than myFont sf2 107 Chapter 10 FluidSynth b The output should resemble this rw r r 1 root root 9 2010 06 23 02 28 myFont sf2 but with a different date time and filename 6 Highly observant users may notice that the SELinux context of the new file is different from that of any Fedora installed SoundFont file As long as the type is usr_t which it should be by default then there is no practical difference no difference in enforcement between this and a Fedora installed SoundFont file If you don t know what this means or if you hadn t noticed it then it means that this additional SoundFont file should not create a new potential security problem 10 3 Using FluidSynth in a Terminal This is not the recommended way to use FluidSynth because the Qsynth graphical interface is much easier to use Qsynth automatically configures most of FluidSynth s settings by default allowing you to avoid focus on how you want to use FluidSynth rather than on how to use FluidSynth If you want to use FluidSynth in a terminal you can use the fluidsynth command The default sample rate is 44 1 kHz so if you want to use JACK at a different sample rate you need to use the r flag like this fluidsynth r 48000 When you start FluidSynth from a terminal it will normally start a shell of its own
401. ynthesizers with Qtractor We recommend using the software based FluidSynth MIDI synthesizer See Chapter 10 FluidSynth for information about FluidSynth 8 1 5 Installation Qtractor is not available from the Fedora software repositories Otractor is available from the Planet CCRMA at Home and RPM Fusion repositories If you have already enabled one of those repositories you should install Otractor from that repository If you have not already enabled one of those repositories we recommend that you install Qtractor from the Planet CCRMA at Home repository See Section 4 3 1 Installing the Planet CCRMA at Home Repositories for instructions to enable the Planet CCRMA at Home repository The Planet CCRMA at Home repository contains a wide variety of music and audio applications After you enable the RPM Fusion or Planet CCRMA at Home repository use PackageKit or KPackagekKit to install the qtractor packge Other required software is installed automatically 85 Chapter 8 Qtractor 8 2 Configuration Qtractor will work by itself without further configuration The options described here are for the settings you are most likely to want to discuss Click on View gt Options to open the Options window 8 2 1 Audio Options The Capture Export setting allows you to choose the format in which Qtractor stores its audio clips when recorded or exported You will be able to choose a file type such as WAV Microso
402. zation is a special kind of assignment because a variable cannot be used before it is initialized If a program attempts to use an un initialized variable the SuperCollider interpreter will cause an error For this reason you should always initialize a variable when you declare it There is a special way to do this 121 Chapter 11 SuperCollider var variableName nil Since you can t always assign a useful value you can pick an arbitrary one Assigning nil is common practice because it means nothing but without actually being nothing this avoids some errors Assigning zero is another possibility it is standard practice in many programming languages and will avoid most errors even if the variable is eventually supposed to hold another kind of object Intialization and declaration of multiple variables can also be done as a list var variableName 0 variableOtherName 0 Single letter variable names have a special purpose in SuperCollider They are already declared so you don t have to declare them They are also already initialized to nil so you don t have to do that either These variable names are intended to be used as a quick fix while you re experimenting with how to make a program work You should not use them in good quality programs The single letter variable s is automatically assigned to the server on the computer running the interpreter You should avoid re assigning that variable Variable names m

A guide to Fedora Linux`s audio creation and music capabilities.

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