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Small ruminant management and feeding with high quality

1. ELA I Manual harvesting of mulberry with machete in Costa Rica Mechanical harvest There are not many examples of mechanical harvest in the region However in the case of herbaceous legumes it would not be difficult to adapt the grass harvesters as the one showed in Figure 5 Grass harvester in Suriname 47 For woody perennials like mulberry or leucaena there is no much experience in the region neither In Australia sugarcane harvesters have been adapted to cut leucaena Figure 6 more to cut it back and allow better use by animals rather than for cut and carry systems With these woody plants it is customary to chop the whole forage including branches and young stems into small fractions This operation facilitates handling and mixing but it prevent the animals to choose the most nutritive fraction of the forage and also complicates the consumption of the bark which animals enjoy pealing from the woody stems after they have finished with the leaves What is better for the farmer in this case might not be the best for the animals Mechanical harvest of leucaena harvester in Australia Photos from M Shelton In some Central American and Caribbean farms it is common to pass all harvested through a chopper before feeding it to the animals There are dairy goat farms in Costa Rica where they harvest mulberry and King grass chop them and then mix them in a proportion of 75 80 mulberry and 20 25 grass 48
2. Fruit tree plantations with legume cover crops With an initial support from a letter of agreement when one of the authors M D S nchez was working at FAO headquarters in Rome scientists in the Ciego de Avila province Cuba initiated a series of studies and research trials in order to develop production systems for sheep associated to citrus and other fruit tree plantations using legume cover crops Borroto et al 2007 One of the most successful species for these systems was Teramnus labialis but other legume species also gave good results These legumes are more palatable than the citrus foliage and consequently the animals tend to reduce tree damage It is however of outmost importance no to leave the animals in the orchards for long periods of time certainly never beyond grazing times to prevent vicious behavior during resting times Other methods like aversion with Lithium Chloride Burritt and Provenza 1990 can be used to persuade the animals not to consume the tree leaves Intensive silvopastoral systems Following the tremendous success of the leucaena based systems that have having for cattle both in Colombia and in M xico these intensive silvopastoral systems are now starting to be used for small ruminant production sheep in particular All the advantages concerning forage quality and quantity and animal comfort remain with very attractive growth rates These systems have finally demonstrated the vital role of legumes as
3. Family tribe Family Fabaceae Leguminosae or Papilionaceae tribe Aeschynomeneae Common names English Forage peanut pinto peanut Spanish Mani forrajero mani perenne Morphological description Stoloniferous perennial herb with a strong taproot on the older crowns and a dense mat of stolons Stems initially prostrate becoming ascendant up to 50 cm in height depending on environment and provenance Tetrafoliolate leaves with ovate leaflets up to 4 5 cm x 3 5 cm Flowers on short axillary racemes 12 17 mm wide yellow Terminal pods with 1 or 2 seeds Seed size varies markedly with provenance average 7 000 seeds kg 4 000 9 000 Distribution Native to South America Brazil Bahia Goias Minas Gerais states Generally occurs under low open forest native vegetation Now grown throughout the wet tropics and subtropics and the upland tropics up to 1 400 m a s I Uses applications Fodder Integrated into permanent pasture for intensive grazing systems Some provenances are used for cut and carry Cover crop in fruit orchards in coffee and other trees Ornamental used in gardens as lawn Ecology Soil requirements Generally found on red sandy loam river bottom soils of low to moderate fertility and high aluminum saturation particularly in wet or flooded lowlands during the wet season Not restricted by soil texture Successful on soils with pH ranging from 4 5 7 0 although growth reduced below pH 5 4 It prefers mod
4. Two kinds of feeders are usually used the normal troughs for dry feeds concentrates agro industrial by products etc and the hay rack type for fresh and dry forage Feed troughs Several characteristics are important for these feeders to be functional e Easiness for cleaning e Access that allows only the head and neck to get in never the feet e Access that prevents the young to enter to step on and contaminate the feed e Access that prevents the adults to easily retrieve their heads with forage still in their mouth to reduce wastage Racks The important characteristics for forage racks are Large enough to hold sufficient forage so as to reduce delivery to once or twice a day Position high enough to simulate browsing animal performance is better when animals eat with their head pointing upwards Large enough access for the animals to easily consume the forage but small enough to prevent them pulling out the branches Access to feeders 16 Both feeder types should be ideally located under a roof to prevent feed damages from rain water and should be long enough to allow all the animals present in a particular pen to eat at the same time this to avoid fighting and injuries Within the corrals and pens feeders should be located where there is easy access to deliver the feed forage and to remove the waste Creep feeders These are feeders specifically designed for access only by the young and allow spec
5. www conafor gob mx 8080 documentos docs 13 920Enterolobium 20cycloc arpum pdf Echenique Manrique R and R A Plumptre 1990 A guide to the use of Mexican and Belizean timbers Tropical Forestry Paper 20 Oxford Forestry Institute 175 p Francis J K 1988 Enterolobium cyclocarpum Jacq Griseb Guanacaste Earpod tree Leguminosae Legume Family USDA Forest Service Southern Forest Experiment Station SO ITF SM 15 http www fs fed us global iitf Enterolobiumcyclocarpum pdf Janzen D H 1983 Enterolobium cyclocarpum In D H Janzen ed Costa Rican Natural History Univ Chicago Press Chicago IL 816 p http www acguanacaste ac cr investigacion historia natural de costa rica Little E L R O Woodbury and F H Wadsworth 1974 Trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands Vol 2 USDA Agric Handbook No 449 p 258 259 http academic uprm edu jmari arbolespriv2 pdf NFTA 1990 Enterolobium cyclocarpum The Ear Pod Tree for Pasture Fodder and Wood Nitrogen Fixing Trees Highlinghts 90 05 http www worldagroforestry org sea Publications files book BKO007 04 BK0007 04 5 PDF Standley P C and J A Steyermark 1946 Enterolobium In Flora of Guatemala Fieldiana Botany 24 V 32 34 http www biodiversitylibrary org item 19662 page 17 mode 1up 59 60 High Stratum Species Prosopis juliflora Scientific name Prosopis juliflora Sw DC Synonyms Acacia cumanensis Humb 8 Bonpl Ex Willd Alg
6. 446 p FAO 1988 Mulberry cultivation FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No 73 1 Rome 127 p S nchez M D 2002 Mulberry an exceptional forage available almost worldwide World Animal Review 93 2 36 46 http www fao org ag aga AGAP frg Mulberry Papers HTML Mulbwar2 htm 92 93 94 Species for cut and carry Gliricidia Sepium Scientific name Gliricidia sepium Jacq Kunth ex Walp Synonyms Robinia sepium Jacq Family tribe Family Fabaceae Leguminosae Papilionaceae subfamily Faboideae tribe Robinieae Common names English Gliricidia Nicaraguan cocoa shade quick stick Spanish cocuite madre de cacao madriado matarat n madero negro pi n cubano Morphological description Small to medium sized leguminous tree up to 10 12 m high Branching frequently from the base with basal diameters reaching 50 70 cm Trees display spreading crowns Leaves are odd pinnate usually alternate sub opposite or opposite approximately 30 cm long Inflorescences appear as clustered racemes 5 15 cm long Flowers bright pink to lilac tinged with white according to the variety Pods are green 10 17 cm long sometimes tinged reddish purple when unripe Seeds 4 10 pod oblong yellow brown to brown and almost black shiny minutely pitted Seed size varies with provenance between 4 700 y 11 000 seeds kg Distribution Native to dry forest areas of Mexico and Central America Widely common in the Caribbean
7. 95 Uses Fodder From lopping and protein banks Leaves are dried for leaf meal Live fence Widely used as live fence Shade Common shade for coffee and cocoa Support For pepper and vanilla plants Ecology Soil requirements Adapted to a wide range of well drained soils In its native range often found on highly eroded soils of volcanic origin with pH 4 5 6 2 but is also found on sands heavy clays and slightly alkaline calcareous limestone soils However also suitable for acid infertile soils Not tolerant to high aluminum saturation It does not grow well on wet or waterlogged soils Moisture Drought tolerant and adapted to an annual rainfall regime of 650 3 500 mm Largely deciduous where dry seasons are moderate to severe but evergreen where there is sufficient moisture throughout the year Temperature Mean annual temperatures across the native range vary from 21 29 C Leaves abscise when night temperatures fall below 15 C Altitude It grows to an altitude of 1 200 m a s l and in its native range possibly to as high as 1 600 m a s Light It does not tolerate medium to heavy shade Reproductive behaviour Strongly self incompatible despite having hermaphrodite flowers pollinated by insects Flowering begins at the start of the dry season at about 6 8 months of age A tree can produce vast numbers of flowers up to 30 000 that attract a wide variety of insects Pod ripening takes 45 60 days In very wet areas pla
8. FORAGE CONSERVATION One of the most serious problems of tropical livestock production is insufficient feed during the dry season Forage conservation is an option to overcome periods of feed shortage The main objective is to preserve the nutrients present in the forage as much as possible to lose the least amount of leaves or forage quality There are two options to conserve forage and feeds in general ensiling and drying Ensiling In the tropics grasses have been by tradition and for practical reasons the main forage used for conservation Recently however herbaceous and woody legumes have become an important part in livestock feeding During the ensiling process the acidity pH 3 5 4 5 resulting from the lactic acid production from carbohydrate fermentation stops any further enzymatic destruction of nutrients When the silo is well made it has pleasant odor and taste slightly acid and has conserved most of the nutritive value of the original fresh forage The ensiled forage will not have better nutritive value than that of the fresh forage it was made of The only case where final feed turns out better than the original stuff is when there is a chemical treatment as in the case of ammoniation of crop residues but this a different process all together Ensiling techniques and species The key aspects for good silage production are a good forage to start with fine chopping and excellent compaction air exclusion When the
9. Palatability acceptability Very palatable thus requiring grazing management to maintaining it in pastures Toxicity Seeds are a strong purgative Production potential Dry matter Yields up to 15 t of DM ha year and 4 200 kg of DM ha at 4 month In dryland conditions in the sub humid tropics it normally produces 2 6 t ha year DM 77 Animal production Liveweight gains of 0 7 1 3 kg ha day recorded for steers grazing pure Clitoria pastures Cattle grazing para grass Brachiaria mutica and C ternatea pasture gained 0 68 kg head day Seed production Hand harvest where economical but can achieve 700 kg ha by mechanical harvesting methods Irregular pod maturity affects best time of harvest as some pods will have shattered while flowers and green pods are still present A 7 4 TE A e gt VE boat Star Ee UPAR ey Further reading Conway M J McCosker K Osten V Coaker S and Pengelly B C 2001 Butterfly Pea A Legume Success Story in Cropping Lands of Central Queensland In Rowe B Mendham N and Donaghy D eds Proceedings of the 10th Australian Agronomy Conference Hobart http www regional org au au asa 2001 p 10 conway htm TopOfPage Fantz P R 1977 A monograph of the genus Clitoria Leguminosae Glycineae Doctoral Dissertation University of Florida Gainesville Fl G mez S M and Kalamani A 2003 Butterfly pea Clitoria ternatea A Nutritive Multipurpose Forage Legume for the Trop
10. They learn for their mothers and from other members of the flock by imitation what to eat and how and the also which plants and their parts to avoid so as order to prevent poisoning or physical discomfort Although sheep and goats could thrive in a variety of environments they tend to do better in semi arid lands and in island ecosystems with mostly dry weather and with a variety of shrubs and small trees where they find tender leaves fruits seeds and flowers Both species tend to look for and prefer the most nutritious and palatable feedstuffs within their reach However goats with their ability to stand up in their hind legs can reach higher and thus are able to consume more and sometimes better feed resources than sheep and they often look physically better Goats in the Caribbean and Latin America have not yet learn to climb trees as they do in North West Africa skill which allows them to ingest leaves and pods unavailable from the ground level y Free ranging sheep in Jamaica Free ranging sheep in Antigua Production constraints Since the introduction of the small ruminants the free ranging systems with minimum or no management have provided the meat that local populations demanded Nevertheless in most places it is no longer the case production levels are insufficient and unable to supply the constantly increasing demands from local and regional markets The most important losses in production come from offspring
11. may have gt 70 hard seed but can be scarified to reduce this level by soaking in water at 55 C for 25 minutes or at 85 C for 2 minutes Alternatively it can be mechanically scarified with an abrasive disc or rice polisher or treated with concentrated sulphuric acid for 10 minutes Mechanical harvesting normally has a scarifying effect on the seed Fairly promiscuous in its rhizobium requirements often nodulating adequately on native rhizobium but can respond to commercial inoculum Seed sown at 2 5 kg ha Where seed is scarce about 80 strike has been achieved with cuttings 15 20 cm long with lower leaves removed taken in the wet season and half of the stem buried horizontally to 3 5 cm Fertilizer Stylo responds well to improved soil fertility particularly phosphorus but it can grow on infertile soil partly due to endomycorrhiza found in roots In deficient soils 10 20 kg of phosphorus ha is recommended Compatibility It can be shaded out by taller grasses such as Panicum maximum lt suppresses weeds under correct management It dies out under excessive cutting or grazing Companion species Grasses Andropogon gayanus Chloris gayana Digitaria eriantha Heteropogon contortus Hyparrhenia rufa Melinis minutiflora Panicum maximum Pennisetum purpureum Setaria sphacelata Brachiaria brizantha B decumbens and B ruziziensis Pests and diseases The main diseases are anthracnose and head blight The former causes tar spo
12. most cases if land is available and conditions suitable However very humid conditions are not conducive to grazing systems for sheep due to feet problems and appropriate fencing is required for animal control and predator prevention Living fences They reduce the long term maintenance costs of fencing offer habitat for wildlife and provide seasonal high quality feed supplement Hedgerows and green barriers When grown along the contour in sloping lands reduce run off and erosion They can also be grown inside pastures or to reinforce fence lines Trees in pastures They can provide environmental services shelter shade nitrogen fixing etc forestry products like timber and firewood and additional seasonal feed pods 33 Table 2 Forage species for the Agroforestry Systems Cut and carry Grazing Living fences Trees in Browsing Hedgerows pastures Albizia saman Y Arachis pintoi Clitoria ternatea Enterolobium cyclocarpum Leucaena leucocepahla Gliricidia sepium Moringa oleifera Morus alba Neonotonia wightii Prosopis juliflora Stylosanthes guianensis Teramnus labialis Tithonia diversifolia Trichantera gigantea lt E E ANAS NS AYN NANON NN IIA VANA N SS 34 AGRONOMY OF HIGH QUALITY FORAGES The fact sheets include detailed information on the main characteristics establishment management and utilization of each forage species selected for this publication on small ruminant production General in
13. 12 months Breeding age 70 of adult weight 70 of adult weight Estrus cycle 21 days 18 24 days 17 days 13 19 days Estrus duration 24h 12 36h 30 h 24 36h Estrus signs Mucous discharge swollen Mature ewe look for ram might vulva bleating frequent tail wag tail amp mount others muzzle wagging ram around belly scrotum Young ewes often no signs Pregnancy 150 days 146 147 days 142 152 days duration The mating systems have been described above but in general both rams and bucks are generally very efficient in detecting females in heat and if the flock is united at the end of the day in a grazing system or if the males are mixed with females all day there would be hardly any female in heat that passes undetected If allowed males would mount the females many times an unnecessary effort particularly for expensive animals The advantage of hand mating is that males do not waste energy and semen by repeated copulation of single females in heat ANIMAL HANDLING Capturing If catching animals becomes a routine practice it needs to be done correctly to avoid stress and injuries There is a natural tendency to grab the animals by the hind legs however this practice can easily cause injuries The correct and safe way is by grabbing small ruminants by their rear flank and then to hold them by keeping their head facing upwards with one hand while pushing from the back with the other hand The shepherd s crook becomes very han
14. Dried foliage mill and pellets have produced good outcomes in pigs rabbits and poultry Other small herbivores guinea pigs iguanas and snails could also be fed mulberry leaves Seed production In some mulberry varieties seeds should be removed from the fruit as soon as ready by squashing with plenty of water to separate seeds from pulp Seeds can be dried and stored for several months although immediate sowing is recommended Further reading FAO 2000 Mulberry for Animal Production M D S nchez Ed Animal Production and Health Paper 147 Rome http www fao org docrep 005 x9895e x9895e00 htm Benavides J E 1999 Utilizaci n de la morera en sistemas de producci n animal En S nchez M D 8 Rosales M Agroforester a para la producci n animal en Latinoam rica Memorias de la conferencia electr nica Estudio FAO Producci n y Sanidad Animal 143 FAO Roma 275 281 http www fao org docrep 014 x1213s x1213s pdf Boschini C Dormond H and Castro A 1998 Producci n de biomasa de la morera Morus alba en la meseta central de Costa Rica Agronom a Mesoamericana 9 2 31 Cifuentes C A y Sohn K W 1998 Manual t cnico de sericultura Cultivo de la morera y cr a del gusano de seda en el tr pico Convenio SENA CDTS Colombia 438 p Milera Milagros Ed 2011 Morera un nuevo forraje para la alimentaci n del ganado Estaci n Experimental de Pastos y Forrajes Indio Hatuey Cuba Editorial Palcograf
15. It has however two main disadvantages the first is that the farmer never knows exactly when the females are going to give birth although experience and close observation can give some clues of the proximity of parturition But the second and most important is the fact the young females become usually pregnant at their first estrus which normally occurs when they are still growing well before they attain their potential body size Since physiologically pregnancy has priority over growth these young females remain small and in turn give birth to smaller than average offspring which have higher mortality risks in early life both from their smaller size and from the less milk production capacity of their rather stunted mothers The only way to avoid unwanted breeding is by keeping apart the adult males from the rest of the flock or at least from the females and to separate or to castrate the young males Seasonal breeding In large flocks or when there seasonal variation in forage availability or quality it is better to breed at pre determined dates This way the farmer with a large flock will know when the season for lambing or kidding will begin and can prepare for it with extra labor pen space and feed resources 20 In the production systems section the seasonal breeding to achieve 1 5 parturitions per year every 8 months was explained The scheme is below the physiological potential but for large flocks it makes sense so as
16. Nutritive value Ripe pods are highly palatable on dry matter basis they contain 12 14 crude protein and a high level of energy 75 TDN Seeds contain 31 37 protein Pods should be finely ground before feeding as grain replacement 62 Seed Seed storage behaviour is orthodox 60 germination following 50 years storage viability can be maintained for several years in hermetic storage at 10 deg C with 5 9 mc no loss in viability following 24 hours of immersion in liquid nitrogen for seeds at 7 mc and 5 mc There are 20 000 26 000 seeds kg 63 Further Reading Clinch N J L Bennison J J and Paterson R T 1993 Use of Trees by Livestock 1 Prosopis UK Natural Resources Institute 17p FAO 1988 The Current State of Knowledge on Prosopis juliflora Internacional Conference on Prosopis Recife Brazil 25 29 August 1986 http www fao org docrep 006 ad317e AD317E00 htm TOC Ribaski J 2001 Potencial del algarrobo Prosopis juliflora en sistemas silvopastoriles en el semi rido de Brasil En Il Conferencia Electr nica sobre Agroforester a para la Producci n Animal en Am rica Latina M D S nchez Ed FAO Roma 141 155 ftp ftp fao org docrep fao 005 y4435s y4435s03 paf 64 Medium Stratum Species Shrubs Leucaena leucocephala Scientific name Leucaena leucocephala Lam De Wit subsp glabrata Rose Z rate ixtahuacana C E Hughes Leucocephala Synonyms Acacia leucocephala Lam Link Leu
17. Recent developments show great promise for both biomass production and industrial processing of high value forage into meals Some of the plants have low content of fiber and minimum percentage of anti nutritive factors e g Moringa and Mulberry Several institutions in Cuba are obtaining good results in the utilization of dried foliage in feeding monogastric rabbits chicken ducks etc and ruminants goats sheep and cows The comparison between fodder trees and commercial concentrate is presented in Table 9 Trees have higher content of crude protein but lower metabolizable energy than cereal concentrates 51 Goats on low quality hay Table 9 Comparison of nutrient composition between fodder trees and commercial concentrate DM CP ME MJ kg DMI Leucaena leucocephala 90 4 20 1 8 88 Gliricidia sepium 97 7 24 7 9 26 Albizia lebbeck 95 7 23 9 8 92 Morus alba 96 7 24 9 10 17 Commercial concentrate 86 2 18 2 1155 DM Dry matter CP Crude protein ME Metabolizable energy Adapted from Sav n et al 2005 Pelleting of fodder plants represents a good option to substitute cereal concentrates The technology for processing and treating forage in the tropics must take into account the following parameters of the raw materials before entering the pelleting factory mill sieve diameter humidity content and meal density Recent research suggests that in the tropics it is possible to obtai
18. Stylosanthes guianensis cv Pucallpa in the American tropical rain forest ecosystem Tropical Grasslands 25 3 262 267 http tropicalgrasslands asn au Tropical 20Grasslands 20Journal 20archive P DFs Vol 25 1991 Vol 25 03 91 pp262 267 pdf Burt R Williams W T and Grof B 1980 Stylosanthes structure adaptation and utilization In Summerfield R y H A Bunting Eds Advances in Legume Science Proceedings International Legume Conference Kew England p553 558 Edye L A 1984 Agronomic variation and potential utilization of Stylosanthes In Stace H M and Edye L A Eds The Biology and agronomy of Stylosanthes Sydney Academic Press 547 570 Machado H y Chao L 1980 Stylosanthes Pastos y Forrajes 3 3 321 333 Sousa Costa N M and Ferreira M B 1984 Some brazilian species of Stylosanthes In Stace H M and Edye L A Eds The Biology and agronomy of Stylosanthes Sydney Academic Press p547 570 111 Stace Helen M and Cameron 1984 In Stace Helen M and Edye L A Eds The Biology and agronomy of Stylosanthes Sydney Academic Press Horne P M and St r W W P M 2001 Developing forage technologies with smallholder farmers how to grow manage and use forages ACIAR Monograph No 88 96p http ciat library ciat cgiar org articulos ciat asia Developing Agricultural Solutions Smallho Ider _farmers pdf 112 Low Stratum Species Arachis pintoi Scientific name Arachis pintoi
19. all the production and health constraints can be rather easily overcome particularly if the housing is well designed and the diet is correct Feeding options for complete confinement systems Crop residue based diets Feeding small ruminants with agricultural residues has been practiced in many places and it currently is very important in China When crop residues are of high nutritive value like sweet potato vines or mulberry refusals for silkworm rearing for example there is no need for any other diet supplements since these forages are a complete feed on its own for sheep and goats But if the main diet component is a lower quality cereal straw then a nitrogen source is required for proper rumen functioning Unless the straw has been ammoniated with urea ammonia gas or ammonium bicarbonate when there is no need for extra nitrogen and only a source of by pass nutrients energy and or protein is used to boost animal performance FAO 2002 The molasses multi nutrient blocks are very useful supplements when feeding these low nitrogen basal feeds FAO 2007 Agro industrial by products based diets When a variety of agro industrial by products grains and some crop residues are available then the diets for small ruminants can be specifically designed to meet nutrient requirements Least cost formulation is used when many feedstuffs are available prices vary frequently and technical advice is available to farmers Otherwise the system pro
20. control in ruminants Electronic Conference Red Helmintol gica para Am rica Latina y el Caribe Animal Production and Health Division http cnia inta gov ar helminto Guidelines hel8 htm Fitzhugh H A and Bradford G E Eds 1983 Hair Sheep of Western Africa and the Americas a genetic resource for the tropics A Winrock International Study Westview Press Boulder Colorado 120 Green J S and Woodruff R A 1998 Livestock Guarding Dogs protecting sheep from predators USDA Agricultural Information Bulletin No 588 http www nal usda gov awic companimals quarddogs guarddogs htm GWA 1976 Dog Act Government of Western Australia Department of the Premier and Cabinet State Law Publisher http www slp wa gov au pco prod FileStore nsf Documents MRDocument 25299H FILE Dog 20Act 201976 20 20 05 q0 03 html OpenElement Hernandez I y S nchez M D 2004 Sylvopastoral systems in Latin America and their contribution to sustainable development and biodiversity Proceedings of an International Congress of Sylvopastoralism and Sustainable Land Management Lugo Espa a Mosquera M R McAdam J and Rigueiro A Eds CABI Publishing p 219 222 Higa T and Parr J 1994 Beneficial and effective microorganisms for a sustainable agriculture and environment International Nature Farming Research Center Atami Japan 16p http emproducts co uk downloads EM paf ICRAF 2013 Agro Forestry Tree Database Inter
21. countries led by Cuba The lead forage species has been mulberry Morus alba which by the way it is the best forage in terms of overall quality and potential yield if agronomic conditions are suitable Complete confinement dairy goat production systems with animals in elevated corrals and with mulberry foliage as the main feed have been very successful and productive as compared with the failed grass fed systems An essential element for the sustainability of these farms has been the recycling of nutrients from manure and urine back to the forages In grazing browsing systems for small ruminants the advancement has been much slower but there are good examples in Cuba with pedestal systems based on climbing legumes plantations with legume cover crops and confinement units with Leucaena Mulberry and Moringa and in Mexico with Leucaena browsing systems and to a lesser extent confinement systems with high quality forages mulberry and Hibiscus rosa sinensis As a result of the small ruminant project which supported this publication several initiatives in various Caribbean countries are under way that can change the course the future of small ruminant in the region The reconversion towards agroforestry systems has been mainly a movement led by the private sector and Non Government Organizations NGOs with an initial example and encouragement by research and academic institutions Except in Cuba where the government institutions h
22. dry matter have been obtained Severe leaf fall occurs following flowering in seasonally dry environments Harvesting of leaf in the early dry season will delay flowering preventing or limiting losses from leaf fall and maximizing regrowth Animal production Normally used as green forage protein supplement to low quality tropical forages and by products for cattle sheep and goats It may be used as the sole feed in the dry season Feeding levels have been 1 3 of body weight for cattle and goats indicating a supplementation level of 30 100 although a 20 40 level is more common Increases in liveweight gains of approximately 25 have been reported for steers grazing gliricidia grass pastures compared with steers grazing grass alone Results from experiments with dairy cows and buffaloes reported similar or slightly increased milk yield and milk fat yield when concentrates were replaced by Gliricidia forage up to 25 of intake Seed production lt produces abundant seed in native land Seeds are shed from pods through explosive dehiscence with seed dispersal distances of up to 40 m Seed production varies with provenance ranging from 75 kg ha up to 180 kg ha based on 7 seeds pod and a seed weight of 8 000 seeds kg Further reading Chadhokar P A 1982 Gliricidia maculata A promising legume fodder plant World Animal Review p36 43 ftp ftp fao org docrep fao 01 0 p8550e p8550e00 pdf Heuz V Tran G 2013 Gliricidia Glirici
23. food Medicine Plant extracts used in natural medicines Ecology Soil requirements Found in well drained sands to clays with pH 6 0 8 0 Although originating from mostly near neutral to alkaline soils some types have performed well on soils with pH 5 0 5 5 Others have been collected in areas with sodic soils 81 Moisture Mostly collected in run on or moister areas optimal growth in regions with average annual rainfall 750 to 1 500 mm It sheds its leaves during dry periods and killed off by the prolonged dry periods Temperature It occurs at latitudes between 25 N and 29 S representing a range in average annual temperatures between 14 27 C sometimes with frost Altitude From sea level to 3 000 m a s l Light It grows well under citrus Citrus sinensis banana Musa spp and coconut Cocos nucifera Reproductive behaviour It appears to flower in response to shortening day length Flowering time varies markedly among provenances some flowering in about 70 days from a spring planting and others 200 days Defoliation Tolerance of defoliation varies according to growth habit low growing stoloniferous varieties normally being more tolerant than more upright types Agronomy Establishment Generally seed does not require scarification However levels of hard seed can be high and scarification may be necessary in some instances to achieve at least 50 germination Although T labialis appears somewhat promiscuous i
24. for Agricultural Development at the State of San Luis Potos M xico from 2003 to 2009 and has been IICA country representative in the Dominican Republic since 2010 He was the technical leader of the project Appropriate Intensive Small Ruminant Production Systems for the Caribbean based on local feed resources ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank IICA for FonTC project Appropriate Intensive Small Ruminant Production Systems for the Caribbean based on local feed resources which allowed them to travel to Barbados Dominican Republic Jamaica Surinam and Trinidad to provide technical cooperation and to exchange experiences with local farmers and technicians and supported the preparation and printing of this book Thanks to country representatives and IICA staff in those countries and in Saint Lucia Antigua and Bahamas for their support during the missions Special gratitude to small ruminant producers from the above countries and others in the region including Cuba Panama Costa Rica and M xico The authors would like to express their gratitude to Liana Babbar Amighetti for her criticial review and editorial comments and to Elizabeth Hern ndez Lay and Saira Morla for the laying out of the final version Most of the photographs were taken by the authors but some were kindly provided by collaborators including Alejandro Mart nez Dayami Fontes Carlos Mazorra Enrique Murgueitio and Max Shelton Other photograp
25. high quality forages 9 for small ruminant production in tropical areas and have opened a large opportunity for yield increases and business The rotational use of paddocks maximizes forage performance and the combination of better animal nutrition and health with minimum exposure to larvae virtually eliminates the internal parasite problem The Cuban version of the intensive silvopastoral systems for bovines containing climbing legumes in addition to the leucaena in the browsing component is also being successfully used for small ruminant production in that country Sheep in silvopastoral system in M xico Pedestals An interesting system for ruminants both large and small proposed and demonstrated at research level in Cuba is the so called pedestales CENPALAB 2001 Batista et al 2006 It consists of lines of galvanized wire frames sustained by concrete posts of triangular shape serving as support for climbing legumes see illustration Animals walk among the corridors and have access to the forage This artificial structure resembles the Cuban style silvopastoral system described before with the wire frames replacing the shrub legumes Animals can be rotated on a daily basis using electric fences to maximize forage quality and quantity Several climbing legumes like Teramnus labialis Clitoria ternatea Neonotonia wrightii and Macroptilium atrpopurpureum can be used for this arrangement The main difference between the p
26. higher than required for normal development Special designed rubber bands for this purpose can be placed with an elastrator or normal office rubber bands by tightly twisting them around Testicles dry up and fall within few days For older animals the best way to castrate them is by using the Burdizzo tool Each seminal cord should be crushed twice by pulling them sideways away from the blood supply It is however a very painful practice that should be avoided as much as possible Dehorning Removing the horns is recommended in goats to prevent injuries to other animals in the flock and to the operators It should be performed when the horns are about come out in the first weeks of life It is easier done with a hot circular iron either electrically or fire heated which is placed for two three seconds around the horn bud Dehorning can also be achieved with caustic soda paste but it has more risks for the operator Once the horns are grown they can t be removed altogether only cut Cutting them from the base causes a lot of bleeding and a hole that needs to be filled to prevent infection or myiasis It is preferable to cut only the tips particularly if they are sharp An iron saw can be used for this purpose Goat Deodorizing It is a procedure performed on the bucks by removing an area of skin from medially and posteriorly to the horns with the purpose of eliminated the strong buck smell in the premises and to reduce the risk of
27. in many the Caribbean islands Exotic to Brazil Africa Asia and Australia Uses applications Shade shelter Trees provide a microclimate for plants growing underneath It is one of the most important species for the stability of semi arid ecosystems Nitrogen fixing Forms symbiotic relationships with nitrogen fixing cowpea type Rhizobium lts deciduous habit is a major mechanism of pasture fertilization The root form mycorrhizal association with Glomus fungi increasing nitrogen fixation 61 Feed Animals avidly consume the nutritious fallen pods Pods can be fractioned to obtain several kinds of feeds and foods Pods need to be ground to prevent insect damages in storage Leaves are not normally consumed by animals due to high tannin content but goats eat them to certain extend Food A flour is made from the pods with the seeds removed for bread and sweets Apiculture It is a major source for nectar High quality honey very light nice color Fuel The wood is a preferred firewood for its high calorific value It makes excellent charcoal famous for grills and barbecues Timber Very hard and durable wood requiring special tools to work it Preferred wood for doors and furniture but rare due to scarcity of large pieces It is used a lot for fence posts crafts and tools Medicine Syrup made from pods used for various home remedies Ecology Soil requirements It grows in a variety of soils including sandy and unfertile It prefe
28. of grasses prevents enough consumption and makes rumination more difficult for these smaller animals The high fiber content Acid Detergent Fiber limits forage digestibility The combination of the two above mentioned factors restrict adequate nutrient intake for acceptable production levels without supplementary feeding Sheep and goats requiring a better diet than cattle under free roaming conditions they select the most nutritious parts if available vegetation following their inherent nutritional wisdom High quality forages better meet their feed requirements without the need of supplementary feeding Fodder biomass from high quality legume and some non legume species has much higher levels of protein and digestibility than grasses With these high quality forages as the basis of the diet energy supplementation enhances even further animal performance because most of them have nitrogen levels crude protein above the nutrient requirements of small ruminants and the excretion of the surplus nitrogen is energetically costly for the animal Thus reducing the net energy available for production functions growth pregnancy and lactation Among the high quality forages there are herbaceous shrub and tree legumes and other non legume species than can be used for grazing browsing and for cut and carry systems which do not only provide suitable nutrition but also contribute to better management of natural resources including larger bio
29. of rapid growth and production of good quality feed If left uncut for long intervals forage quality drops as plants produce more lignin and digestibility of leaves and young stems decrease 45 The recovery of forage plants depends on the availability of buds and leaves left after defoliation Subsequently how fast the forage comes back also depends on soil humidity dry or wet season and on soil fertility Although the ideal criteria for harvesting is plant height under drier conditions cutting frequency should be determined by site specific rainfall patterns with more frequent cuttings during the rainy season and less frequent in the dry season When grazing it is very important to use a rotational system since legumes both trees and climbing species are more palatable than grasses and if they are repeatedly consumed they tend to disappear from the paddock The grazing period occupation time should be short maximum 1 2 days to allow faster recovery Rotation time days until animals return to a particular paddock should be enough to allow complete fodder recovery Numbers of days to full recovery vary according to species and rainfall faster in rainy areas but usually vary between 35 to 45 days Cutting height Most forage can tolerate low cutting but some will produce higher yields and live longer if cut a little higher Table 8 There are no fixed rules and farmers need to develop their own cutting management as they gain e
30. realized that small ruminants benefit from better forages and are already mixing grasses with legumes and other high quality forages seeing the results in terms of general well being and productivity The purpose of this publication is to explain the most important management practices and forage resources which can contribute towards sustainable and profitable small ruminant production systems based on local feed resources mainly high quality forages In some islands due to labor and land constraints small ruminant production would not be longer viable at any significant levels but in other countries particularly those with extensive unused land resources there is a tremendous potential to produce small ruminants to develop very profitable enterprises and to supply the current and future market demands of the region and beyond SMALL RUMINANTS PRODUCTION AND FEEDING SYSTEMS FREE RANGING By far the most important production system for rearing small ruminants in the majority of the islands is still the free ranging both in state or private lands Animals are let loose in the mornings if they are kept at night in corrals at all because in many instances animals just sleep outside nearby rural settlements and spend the day roaming around looking for feed and water The small ruminants similar to wild animals naturally know what to look for as feed in order to fill their daily nutrient needs for maintenance growth and reproduction
31. tainting the milk The scent is contained in sebaceous cells in areas of wrinkled folded and hairless skin There is also a weaker lesser smell in the urine of the buck thus it is a good idea to keep the bucks far from the milking parlor 23 HEALTH CARE As it was mentioned at the beginning of this publication the Caribbean region is fortunate for being free of many diseases that affect small ruminants in other areas of the world This is why strict quarantine measures should always be kept to prevent bringing illnesses that can jeopardize national s flock health In this section only the most important diseases will be briefly described Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis CAE It is a viral disease which produces chronic inflammation of the joints in adult animals and on occasions encephalitis It is widespread in among goats in developed countries and it has not cure It is transmitted from the infected doe to the kids through the milk but lambs can also get infected Care should be taken when importing goats from the North America and Europe the animals should test negative to CAE and for this they need to be reared with heat treated colostrum and pasteurized milk Once the flock get infected it is very difficult to eradicate and culling is the most control practical option Caseous Lymphoadenitis It is worldwide chronic and very contagious and zoonotic disease caused by the bacteria Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis lt is prese
32. to inspect the animals in order to be able to detect weak or sick animals and for culling purposes Vegetation management Several practices are employed in order to improve forage availability seasonally or year around from natural vegetation Fencing is one of the most practiced methods to restrict the access to forage resources in a certain area both from own and external animals in private or leased lands or to divide grazing fields For fencing to be effective the approximate carrying capacities of the land during the various periods of the year need to be known so as to prevent overgrazing which can result in deterioration of vegetation and reduction in carrying capacity Thinning of vegetation particularly removing undesirable species gives the opportunity for the beneficial species to prosper providing there is a sufficient rest period for them to growth back after grazing A very interesting system developed in Brazil Araujo Filho amp Carvalho 1997 for the Caatinga vegetation in the northeast which involves the removal of certain trees and shrubs coppicing of others and the planting of leguminous species increases overall and seasonal forage availability and quality and consequently animal performance The general strategy and the techniques of this work could easily be used to improve the management of natural ecosystems for small ruminant production in several regions and islands Management of natural vegetatio
33. Fruits contain 35 40 seeds each and there are 4 000 000 seeds kg Wood is light with pith large and septate Distribution Native to streams and swampy areas and wet forests of Central America and tropical countries of South America Uses applications Forage For cut and carry systems in forage banks and life fences Shade In plantations and to protect water springs from stream bank erosion Medicine Farmers in Colombia use it as an indigenous medicinal plant to treat human medical conditions blood tonic nephritis lactogenic drink for nursing mothers and animals colic and hernia in horses and retained placenta in cows Ecology Soil requirements Well adapted to acid infertile soils of pH down to 4 5 Moisture Adapted to 1 500 3 000 mm annual rainfall with outer limits of 1 000 mm and over 5 000 mm Although common to stream banks it requires well drained soils It will drop its leaves during dry periods but regrow rapidly after rain Temperature A lowland species from the humid tropics performs best at mean temperatures of approximately 30 C It does not tolerate frost 105 Light It has considerable shade tolerance Yields over 30 under banana shade compared with sun grown plants Grows under Leucaena and other agroforestry species Stem cuttings will readily form roots in full sun or in light shade Reproductive development Obligate outcrossing species pollinated by bats birds ants and large bees Germination
34. Maryland http www sheepandgoat com Pedersen S and Ravn P 2008 Characteristic of slatted floors in pig pens friction shock absorption ammonia emission and heat conduction Agricultural Engineering International CIGR Ejournal Vol X July http www cigrjournal org index php Ejounral article viewFile 1202 1060 S nchez M D Rosales M y Murgueitio E 1999 Sistemas agroforestales para intensificar de manera sostenible la producci n animal en Am rica Latina tropical En Agroforester a para la producci n animal en Am rica Latina S nchez M D and Rosales M Eds FAO 143 p 1 10 ftp ftp fao org docrep fao 005 y4435s y4435s00 pdf Savon L Guti rrez O Ojeda F y Scull I 2005 Harinas de follajes tropicales una alternativa potencial para la alimentaci n de especies monog stricas Pastos y Forrajes vol 28 n m 1 enero marzo p69 79 Estaci n Experimental de Pastos y Forrajes Indio Hatuey Cuba Schoenian Susan 2004 An update of sheep A I Maryland Small Ruminant Page University of Maryland s Western Maryland Research 8 Education Center Keedysville Maryland http www sheepandgoat com 122 MAD Oficina del IICA en la Rep blica Dominicana Av George Washington 601 3era Planta Edif Banco Agr cola Santo Domingo R D Tel 809 533 7522 Fax 809 532 5312 Sitio web www iicard org
35. Small ruminant management and feeding with high quality forages in the Caribbean I Hern ndez and M D Sanchez MA O Interamerican Institute Of Cooperation In Agriculture IICA 2014 IICA encourages the fair use of this document Can be requested for accordingly citing when appropriate This publication is also available electronically PDF in the institutional Web site www iicard org Editorial coordination Manuel David S nchez Hermosillo Ismael Hern ndez Venereo Diagrammed Saira Morla IICA Cover design Manuel David S nchez Hermosillo IICA All images used are from IICA DR Interamerican Institute Of Cooperation In Agriculture Small ruminant management and feeding with high quality forages in the Caribbean TICA Santo Domingo R D IICA 2014 122 p 28 X 21 6 cm Santo Domingo Dominican Republic 2014 Small ruminant management and feeding with high quality forages in the Caribbean Ismael Hern ndez Venereo and Manuel David S nchez Hermosillo MA INTERAMERICAN INSTITUTE OF COOPERATION IN AGRICULTURE 2014 ABOUT THE AUTHORS Ismael Hern ndez Venereo Agronomist with major in forage production from Matanzas University Cuba 1982 M Sc in Sustainable Agricultural Systems at the Center for Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education CATIE Costa Rica 1996 Ph D in Agriculture at the Agrarian University of the Havana Cuba 2000 and Academic Doctorate in Agriculture
36. There is Moringa from sea level to altitudes of 1 000 m Uses Fodder Moringa is commonly cultivated in hedges and backyards because of its usefulness as a fodder tree and its remarkable capacity to stand maltreatment It is cultivated in many tropical countries for animal feed with good results in poultry swine sheep goats and apiculture Also used in meat eggs and milk production High in protein vitamins and minerals Branches are occasionally lopped for feeding ruminants Food All parts of the plant are edible the green pods leaves flowers seeds and roots The leaves a good source of protein vitamins A B and C and minerals such 101 as calcium and iron However they are mainly used for human food and not to any great extent for livestock They are an excellent source of the sulphur containing amino acids methionine and cystine which are often in short supply Seeds from mature pods can be cooked in different ways Seeds contain a pleasantly flavoured edible oil Flowers edible or used for tea Fiber Bark can be used to make small ropes and mats Gum When the tree is injured the stem exudes a gum that is used in calico printing as a condiment and for stomach and bladder ailments Lipids Oil extracted from mature pods is used as a lubricant in cosmetics and perfumes Medicine Different parts of the plant are effective against skin infections and fungus It is also used as a cold remedy diuretic astringent a
37. a remain the same but the browsing stratum can have additional species not suitable for grazing like Morus alba Gliricidia sepium Trichantera gigantea and Moringa oleifera The climbing legumes of the medium stratum and the grazing species of the low stratum might not all survive the cutting frequency and the heavy shading of the more dense planting schemes for cut and carry purposes The above species have been selected from field experiences and research taking into consideration agronomic versatility basically regrowth capacity after repeated browsing or harvesting wide range adaptation yield and nutritive value for small ruminants Apart from these features if there is an option it is better to select native species to take advantage of their adaptation to the local environment and species which can be easily established with simple and inexpensive techniques Benavides 1991 Many species are multipurpose plants which provide a variety of benefits complementary to those strictly related to animal production including nectar and or pollen producing plants for beekeeping feed resources for native birds and other wildlife species firewood for cooking or charcoal wood etc Farmers should choose the best options for their own specific conditions and needs There is a lot of information in the literature on these species and Table 1 compares only two indicators of their high nutritive value The foliage of most of these high qua
38. achieve successful weed control during establishment Fertilizer Not normally needed when sown on suitable soils but phosphorus sulfur and potassium may be required on infertile soils Compatibility with other species Rapid climbing growth suggests that Clitoria will combine better with tall grasses than with creeping ones It has been used as leguminous mulch within elephant grass Pennisetum purpureum to improve grass protein levels When grown together Clitoria increased total forage protein content and total DM without reducing grass yield It can be sown as a pure stand for short term 2 3 year rotation with crops Companion species It has been grown successfully with elephant grass P purpureum forage sorghums Sorghum bicolor and millets as well as Panicum maximum Also sown with pangola Digitaria eriantha Andropogon gayanus Dichanthium aristatum Cenchrus ciliarus and Chloris gayana Pests and diseases Fungal leaf diseases e g Cercospora Colletotrichum Odium and Rhizoctonia have been recorded in cool wet weather but rarely a serious problem Minor susceptibility to various leaf eating caterpillars and grasshoppers Most lines susceptible to root nematode Meloidgyne incognita Feeding value Nutritive value Excellent nutritive value with high protein and digestibility up to 80 with nitrogen concentrations of 3 0 for leaf and 1 5 for whole plant Leaf had consistently low acid detergent fiber ADF 20
39. ados Black Belly has been the most popular breed in the Caribbean and should be the breed of choice for intensive production Pelibuey and Saint Croix are fine breeds for standard farms especially in extensive systems where a lot of walking is involved and feeding is suboptimal In terms of carcass meat yield and quality the Katahdin and the Dorper show much better characteristics The Katahdin is a breed developed in the USA from the Saint Croix with crosses and selection with other meat wool breeds The Dorper comes from South Africa from crosses and selection between the Dorset Horn and the Blackhead Persian In order to take advantage of the prolificacy of the Barbados Black Belly and the meat qualities of the Katahdin or the Dorper the terminal crossing strategy can be used This means that the females are Barbados Black Belly and the rams from either of the two meat breeds but all the resulting offspring both males and females are destined to the market never kept for breeding purposes otherwise the advantages of the system are lost Terminal crossing will become more relevant as production is intensified and linked to more demanding markets Breeding systems Continuous breeding In the most extensive systems in those with low management and in small flocks under confinement males are often left with the flock at all times year around This has the advantage that all females in heat get bred without intervention from the farmer
40. ales Revista Cubana Ciencias Agr colas 22 1 103 109 Pengelly B C and Benjamin A K 1992 Neonotonia wightii Wight amp Arnott Lackey Int Mannetje L and Jones R M Eds Plant Resources of South East Asia No 4 Forages pp 169 171 Pudoc Scientific Publishers Wageningen The Netherlands Photo from Dayami Fontes y C Mazorra 88 Species for cut and carry Morus alba Scientific name Morus alba L Family Family Moraceae Common names English Mulberry Spanish morera or mora French m rier Morphological description A handsome deciduous tree 10 25 m tall that forms a dense and wide spreading head of branches usually wider than the height of the tree springing from a short rough trunk The simple alternate stipulate petiolate light green leaves are cordate at their base but very variable in form even on the same tree Flowers are unisexual borne in the axils of leaves or on spurs on separate spikes Fruits are collective fleshy white deep red to black Distribution Native to Asia area China Japan and Himalayas foothills It has now spread all over the world from northwest and central Asia to Europe and to America and to Africa There are mulberry varieties for many environments from sea level to altitudes of 4 000 m and from the humid tropics to semi arid lands Uses applications Fodder Leaves have been the traditional feed for the silkworm Bombix mori since the onset of sericu
41. ally viable and sustainable from economic and ecological perspectives Sustainable technologies exist to be applied to a variety of farm sizes intensification and mechanization levels depending on local resources Integrated systems combining animals and highly quality forages can very productive per unit area provided that the necessary mineral nutrients are there from the beginning and are continuously replenished Perennial species have advantages from the energy point of view since once established they last for many years Detailed information has been generated on the potential of various high quality forage species in terms of their characteristics establishment and management needs and innovative options for their utilization Mulberry Moringa and Leucaena are the most promising multipurpose forages attracting considerable attention If one day pelleting and cubing of tropical forages particularly of high quality leaves becomes a practical commercial option because equipment and processes had been worked out it would be a great leap forward to animal production not only in 117 the tropical areas but worldwide Some of these forage like mulberry for example can easily substitute cereals within commercial feeds Some production technologies have been around for a while and are commonly used by farmers like composting earthworms and biodigesters However there are newer technologies like the use of biochar efficient
42. and the hairy caterpillar Eupterote mollifera causes defoliation Feeding value Nutritive value Foliage is noted for its very high nutritive value for ruminant and monogastric production Typical values for the edible fraction are 57 79 digestibility 17 23 crude protein calcium 2 64 and phosphorus 0 26 of dry matter Palatability It is well eaten by ruminants and monogastrics Production potential Dry matter Forage yields of 4 15 t ha year vary with soil fertility rainfall altitude density and cutting frequency Leaf yield is maximized by cutting at 6 8 week intervals during the growing season Animal production Fresh biomass improves feed intake and animal performance in cattle sheep and goats as supplement in basal diet grasses Recent major developments show great promise both for biomass production and for industrial processing of Moringa leaf meal Excellent results obtained from the utilization of dried foliage mill and pellets in monogastrics rabbits chicken ducks etc diets as substitute of commercial concentrates In rabbits it supplies high nutrient content and can substitute between 50 70 of commercial concentrate Seed production Seed viability can be maintained for several years in hermetic storage at 3 C with 5 8 humidity Seeds should be collected from well developed pods 103 Further reading Falasca Silvia y Bernab Mar a Ang lica 2008 Potenciales usos y delimitaci n del rea de
43. arobia juliflora Sw Mimosa juliflora Sw Prosopis bracteolata DC Prosopis cumanensis Humb et Bonpl ex Willd Kunth Prosopis chilensis Mol Stuntz Family tribe Family Fabaceae subfamily Mimosoideae tribe Mimoseae Common names English mesquite honey mesquite mesquite bean algarroba ironwood Spanish mezquite cambr n bayahonda algarrobo algarroba algarrobo cuj French bayahonda chambron bayarone bayahonde francais Morphological description An evergreen tree with a large crown and an open canopy growing to 5 10 m Brown or green brown sinuous and twisted with axial thorns situated on both sides of nodes and branches Bark somewhat rough The root system includes a deep taproot Leaves compound leaflets in 13 25 pairs oblong 3 x 1 7 mm and dark green bipinnate with 1 or sometimes 2 pairs of rachis almost pendulous Flowers lateral to the axis with a tubular light greenish yellow 1 5 mm wide calyx with hooded teeth corolla light greenish yellow composed of 5 petals with 3 mm wide pubescent along its edges Fruit a non dehiscent pod straight linear falcate to annular with a coraceous mesocarp in one or segments seeds compressed ovoid hard dark brown with mucilaginous endosperm surrounding the embryo cotyledons flat rounded Distribution Native to North America Mexico US Central America Guatemala to Panama and South America Colombia Ecuador Peru Bolivia and Argentina and naturalized
44. as been under extensive grazing with animals free to roam around most of the day and at night in the best cases confined in a corral equipped often with a simple shed During the day the animals browse and graze a variety of forages resources in the areas where the natural vegetation and the climate are suitable using their nutritional wisdom to balance their diet in order to fulfill their nutrient requirements In parts of the larger islands and in the whole area of many small islands goats and sheep are seen going around everywhere even within the city boundaries The appropriate conditions and the absence of major predators have allowed the small ruminant populations to remain despite the frequent attacks by dogs These extensive systems particularly with limited or no managements at all are productive to a certain extent depending on the management and the richness of the natural vegetation But considering that they require minimum investment they are therefore very profitable The most important activity from the animal owner if not the only is harvesting the animals young or adults when there is a need For centuries this extensive system thrived and it still does in many areas satisfying the local meat markets but with the increase in demand as a result of the growth of local populations and that of the tourist industry this it is no longer the case and in many islands the small ruminant population is decreasing In many
45. ave been behind all research extension and development But in general terms like in other recent current large agricultural movements organic agriculture conservation agriculture systems of rice and crops intensification etc the academic and research institutions remain sceptic and somehow indignant and outraged because the rapid changes are happening without the strict scientific protocols and validation In a certain sense the national and international research institutions are not only contributing little or none at all but in many cases blocking the expansion of what they consider empirical innovations Only very few humble research institutions and their smart investigators are supporting farmer groups in their reconversion initiatives Because no matter how successful these new systems have been the scientific support and the detailed knowledge to refine fine tune forage production overall flock management and individual nutrition would be most welcome 32 Mulberry in association with Erythrina in Leucaena cultivation in Mexico photo from E Costa Rica Murgueitio High quality forage species can be integrated in small ruminant farms in different planting arrangements Sanchez 1999 Table 2 describes some of these options Cut and carry plots They can provide easy access to cut feed and offer the possibility for nutrient recycling Grazing browsing pastures They seem to be a simple way of feeding animals in
46. caena glauca Benth Mimosa glauca sensu L Mimosa leucocephala Lam Family tribe Family Fabaceae alt Leguminosae subfamily Mimosoideae tribe Mimoseae Common names English leucaena wild tamarind lead tree jumby bean Spanish leucaena guaje ipil ipil lino criollo granolino Morphological description Shrub or tree up to 18 m tall forked when shrubby and branching strongly after coppicing Bipinnate leaves with 4 9 pairs of pinnae up to 35 cm in length Numerous flowers white to slightly yellowish Pods 14 26 cm x 1 5 2 cm pendant brown at maturity Brown seeds 18 22 per pod 6 10 mm long Distribution L leucocephala occurs naturally in southern Mexico and is widely distributed throughout the tropics including Africa Southeast Asia and Australia Uses applications Forage lt is the most important ruminant forage in agroforestry systems for animal production including for the intensive silvopastoral systems thanks to its unusual high capacity for regrowth after browsing cutting and a lifespan of several decades Shade It is also used as a shade tree for coffee and cocoa and for alley farming Food Unripe pods have been used as food and medicine since ancient times Fuel lt gives excellent results for energy production Ecology Soil requirements In its native range grows on shallow limestone soils coastal sands and seasonally dry Vertisols with pH 7 0 8 5 In exotic locations requires well drained soils w
47. ce are attracted to the nuts It is susceptible to the root lesion nematode Pratylenchus brachyurus Peanut mottle potyvirus can cause chlorotic ringspots in leaves It can be infested by spider mites Tetranychus sp without causing major damage Ability to spread It spreads by stolons up to 2 m year in the wet tropics and 1 m year in the subtropics Weed potential Once established it is very difficult to eradicate It generally spreads by cultivation and favored by regular grazing mowing It is tolerant of many common herbicides It can be controlled by ceasing defoliation in the presence of taller aggressive species Feeding value Nutritive value Crude protein 13 25 and dry matter digestibility 60 70 Relatively low levels of condensed tannins Palatability acceptability Well eaten by all classes of animals including chickens ducks and pigs Selected by cattle if animals exposed to the legume previously Production potential Dry matter It produces between 5 24 t of dry matter ha year depending on where it is grown and whether grown alone or in association with some grasses Animal production In Colombia annual liveweight gains up to 200 kg head and 920 kg ha depending on companion grass and dry season stress In Costa Rica liveweight gains of cattle in a mixed pasture with Brachiaria brizantha nearly 1 000 kg ha year Improvements in liveweight gain of 20 200 and milk production 17 20 over grass only Seed prod
48. ch requires little equipment and skills but also gives the less reliable results The Laparoscopic Artificial Insemination by passing ewe cervix and depositing the semen directly into the horns of the uterus gives the best results 75 80 pregnancy rates but it requires well trained operators and specialized expensive equipment The Trans cervical Artificial Insemination developed by the University of Guelph for example uses a fiber optic endoscope that goes through the cervix with the help of a speculum with a light source to see during the procedure Semen is deposited pass the cervix into the uterus Both ewes and does can be inseminated with this technique Schoenian 2004 Selection In any small ruminant farm it is of upmost importance to keep production records to allow selection of the best replacements for continuous improvement of flock performance The selection should be based not only on phenotypic characteristics but mainly on production data that is milk yield per year or amount of live weight kg of lamb kid weaned by ewe doe per year If selection is exclusively done on size and body appearance it might go against prolificacy because the single animals are born heavier and receive more milk than twins or triplets 21 REPRODUCTION The following table shows the basic reproductive parameter for ewe and does Table Basic Reproduction Parameters Parameter Doe Ewe Age for puberty 5 9 months weight dependent 5
49. cultivo de Moringa ole fera en Argentina Revista Virtual REDESMA marzo 2008 p16 http revistavirtual redesma org vol3 paf investigacion Moringa paf Jahn S Musnad H and Burgstaller H 1986 The tree that purifies water cultivating multipropose Moringaceae in the Sudan Unasylva 38 2 23 28 Ramachandran C Peter K V and Gopalakrishman P K 1980 Drumstick Moringa oleifera a multiporpose Indian vegetable Economic Botany 34 3 276 283 http npvital com npvital artikel moriveda studien drumstick pdf Reyes S nchez N 2004 Marango cultivo y utilizaci n en la alimentaci n animal Universidad Nacional Agraria de Managua Nicaragua 2004 23p http redmarango una edu ni documentos 1 El Marango paf Price M L 2007 The Moringa Tree ECHO Tecnical Note http chenetwork org files pdf Moringa pdf 104 Species for cut and carry Trichantera gigantea Scientific name Trichanthera gigantea Nees Synonyms Ruellia gigantea Bonpl Family tribe Family Acanthaceae subfamily Acanthoideae tribe Trichanthereae Common names Spanish Nacedero cajeto madre de agua cenicero tuno palo de agua Morphological description A shrub or small tree to 5 m occasionally up to 15 m with a rounded crown Leaves ovate to oblong narrowing at both ends and concave approaching the apex 26 x 14 cm hairless or pubescent along the venation petioles 1 5 cm long Inflorescence is a compact terminal panicle 5 15 cm long
50. dia sepium Feedipedia org A programme by INRA CIRAD AFZ and FAO http www feedipedia org node 552 CATIE 1991 Madreado Gliricidia sepium Jacquin Kunth ex Walpers especie de arbol de uso multiple en Am rica Central Serie T cnica Informe T cnico 180 CATIE Turrialba Costa Rica Gomez M E Molina C H Molina E J y Murgueitio E 1990 Producci n de biomasa en seis ecotipos de matarrat n Gliricidia sepium LRRD 2 2 http www Irrd org Irrd2 3 gomez htm Francisco Geraldine amp Hern ndez I 1998 Gliricidia sepium Jacq Kunth y Walp rbol multiprop sito para una ganader a sostenible Pastos y Forrajes 21 191 98 Hern ndez M 1988 Efectos de las podas al final de la poca lluviosa en cercos vivos de pi n cubano Gliricidia sepium sobre la producci n y calidad nutritiva de la biomasa en la poca seca Tesis Mg Sc CATIE Turrialba Costa Rica 106 p NFTA 1987 Gliricidia sepium jacq Walp Management and Improvement In Proceedings Workshop CATIE Turrialba Costa Rica Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association Special Publication 87 01 pp225 Simons A J and Stewart J L 1998 Gliricidia sepium a Multipurpose Forage Tree Legume In Forage Tree Legumes in Tropical Agriculture Eds R C Gutteridge and H M Shelton The Tropical Grassland Society of Australia Inc http www fao org ag AGP AGPC doc publicat gutt shel x5556e00 htm Contents Smith O B and Van Houtert M 1987 The fee
51. ding value of Gliricidia sepium World Animal Review FAO 62 57 68 99 100 Species for cut and carry Moringa oleifera Scientific name Moringa oleifera Lam Synonyms Guilandina moringa L Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn Family Family Moringaceae Common names English Moringa ben oil tree clarifier tree drumstick tree horse radish tree Spanish Moringa libertad French ben ail neverdie pois quenique Morphological description A small deciduous tree with sparse foliage often resembling a leguminous species at a distance especially when in flower but immediately recognized when in fruit The tree grows to 8 m high and 60 cm in diameter at breast high Wide and open crown typically umbrella shaped and usually a single stem The wood is soft Alternate leaves the old ones soon falling off Each leaf is large up to about 90 cm long with opposite pinnae Leaflets dark green above and pale underneath Flowers produced throughout the year are creamy white in color with yellow stamens in loose axillary panicles up to 15 cm long with very sweet odor Fruit large and distinctive up to 90 cm long and 12 mm broad slightly constricted at intervals light brown It splits along each angle to expose the rows of rounded blackish oily seeds Distribution Native to India Malaysia and Arabian Peninsula Exotic to tropical Americas and other countries around the world from humid tropics to semi arid lands Altitude
52. diversity soil erosion control improved soil fertility and weed reduction The three dimensional arrangement of species in various strata for livestock purposes are known as agroforestry systems for animal production and include silvopastoral systmems where animals procure their own feed and cut and carry systems where feed is harvested and brought to them The ideal agroforestry system for grazing the silvopastoral system for small ruminants should have various strata with appropriate species in each one 29 The very high stratum for biodiversity and landscape beauty The suitable species are various tall palms eg Roystonea hispaniolana and the Ceiba tree Ceiba pentandra The high stratum for shade micro environment creation nitrogen fixing nutrient recycling seasonal feed fruits wood and firewood Suitable species are Albizia saman Enterolobium cyclocarpum and Prosopis juliflora The medium stratum for high quality browsing feed Two kinds of species form this stratum the shrubs and the climbing plants Suitable shrub species are Leucaena leucocephala and Tithonia diversifolia Suitable climbing species are Clitoria ternatea Teramnus labialis and Neonotonia wrigthii The low stratum for grazing and soil cover The appropriate species are Stylosanthes guianensis and Arachis pintoi For cattle the various grass species are included in this stratum For cut and carry agroforestry systems the first two strat
53. dy to capture animals In this case animals are caught by the neck and then hold as described before Knocking down and holding If there is a need to knock down the animals for a particular intervention depending on animal size and operator strength and skills there are several options but in any case the ideal and more comfortable position for both the animal and the operator for holding an animal is simply by sitting it on its lower back see picture If properly kept animals can spent several minutes in this position without discomfort and risk of injury The knocking down methods are Small animal simply lifting it off the ground with an initial help of the operator s thigh 22 Medium size animal grabbing the leg close to the operator by going above the back and underneath the belly and then lifting the leg to unbalance the animal and knock down into its lower back Large size animal Twisting the neck and head sideways and upwards until the animal loses balance and falls into its lower back Castration It is a very stressful intervention that should be avoided if at all possible but if it needs to be done it should be practiced in very young animals in order to reduce suffering The easiest way to castrate young males is to place a rubber band around the scrotum either above or below the testicles The first option removes the testicles all together and the second inhibits sperm fertility due to normal body temperature
54. e Flowers axillary single or paired color ranges from white mauve light blue to dark blue pedicles 4 9 mm long twisted through 180 so that the standard is inverted Pods linear oblong flattened 4 13 cm long 0 8 1 2 cm wide sparsely pubescent when mature pale brown dehiscent when dry Seeds 8 11 pod oblong somewhat flattened 4 5 7 mm long 3 4 mm wide olive brown to almost black shiny often mottled Number of seeds kg 23 000 Distribution Native to Africa Now widespread throughout humid and sub humid lowlands of Asia the Caribbean Central and South America and more recently in semi arid tropical Australia Uses applications Fodder Good for short and medium term pastures and protein banks and in mixtures for silvopastoral systems Excellent for hay making Green manure Increases soil fertility to improve yields of subsequent crops when grown as green manure or ley pasture Cover crop A good species as cover crop in fruit orchards and tree plantations Food Used in infusions and to dye rice in Asia Ornamental Widely planted in gardens and fences for the beauty of its flowers 75 Ecology Soil requirements Adapted to a wide range of soil types from sands to heavy clays of moderate fertility but extremely well adapted to heavy clay alkaline soils and especially on clay soils which are too shallow for Leucaena Adapted to pH 4 5 8 7 but prefers medium to high pH It tolerates very unfertile soils Moistu
55. e light when growing among taller grasses Defoliation Relatively slow to establish it should not be grazed too early Under normal conditions mixed grass legume pastures can be grazed 7 8 weeks after sowing if there is sufficient grazing pressure to reduce initial grass competition Once the legume is fully established pastures are rotationally grazed It is advisable to exclude livestock towards the end of the growing season every few years to facilitate flowering and seeding to encourage legume persistence Agronomy Establishment Hard seed levels in manually harvested seed are frequently of the order of 80 90 Larger amounts can be mechanically scarified and small amounts treated with concentrated sulphuric acid for 25 minutes or hot water Commercial seed has usually been sufficiently scarified during the harvesting and threshing process It is fairly promiscuous in its rhizobial relationships and can be inoculated with different commercial inoculant Seed can be broadcast onto the surface of a well prepared seedbed or drilled to 1 2 cm at 1 5 kg ha seed and rolled with a heavy roller Germination is best at moderate temperatures and declines markedly above 37 C Young seedlings growth slow but vigor improves with effective nodulation With good conditions ground cover can be achieved at about 2 months after sowing Fertilizer lt requires fertile soil and deficiencies or toxicities must be corrected including liming Main nutri
56. e the drug the others less affected are left to coexist with the parasite Closed flock strategy Whenever possible the farm policy should be that of a closed flock which means that efforts should always be made to reduce the exposure of the flock to outside pathogens The biosafety measures include to prevent bringing outside animals or to take animals back to the farms after being in fairs and expositions and to avoid visits of people and vehicles which have been in other small ruminant farms on the same day All of this is to minimize the risk of bringing new diseases to the farm For this purpose artificial insemination and embryo transfer have a great potential in the future since they reduce the risk of bringing the diseases of live animals Efficient microorganisms Also called mountain or effective microorganisms EM are a mix of beneficial microbes developed by the agronomist Teruo Higa from the University of the Ryukyus in Okinawa Japan following his concept of friendly microorganisms Higa 25 and Parr 1994 The beneficial or positive microorganisms outcompete the pathogenic or negative ones resulting in healthier overall conditions EM are made from lactic acid bacteria photosynthetic bacteria yeasts and other natural microorganisms found in forests and are being used for many agricultural scenes including greenhouses livestock facilities water treatment installations etc In the context of small rumi
57. e to northern South America and naturalized throughout the tropics where it is a component of dry forest and grass savannahs Uses applications Shade shelter Trees provide a microclimate for plants growing underneath The common name rain tree comes from the observation that grass is often greener under the tree s canopy At night and on cloudy days branches hang down and the leaves fold down and inward allowing rain to fall directly on the ground and promoting ground cooling In the morning the leaves unfold giving full shade and helping to preserve moisture It is used as a shade for tea coffee cocoa nutmeg and vanilla and provides shade for pasture and grazing animals Nitrogen fixing Forms symbiotic relationships with many strains of nitrogen fixing Rhizobium Thus tree s deciduous habit is a major mechanism of pasture fertilization Feed Animals browse the growing trees consume forage from pruning and relish the nutritious fallen pods Food Edible pod pulp Fuel Wood produces 5 200 5 600 kcal kg when burnt and it regrows vigorously after lopping or pollarding making it a valuable source of high quality firewood and charcoal Timber Wood with attractive dark and light pattern highly prized for carvings furniture and paneling Medicine A decoction of the inner bark and fresh leaves is used as diarrhea treatment Ornamental Commonly planted at avenues and parks for its majesticness and beauty 54 Ecolo
58. ed conserved Apart for forages other feeds can be preserved by ensiling For instances reject bananas make excellent silage since they contain abundant carbohydrates and can be easily compacted Brewers grains are also candidates for ensiling since after few days of open air storage they grow mold readily Herbaceous legumes can be ensiled with grasses The optimum ratio is between 20 30 herbaceous legumes and 70 80 grasses The best way to obtain a uniform mix of the two components is to simultaneously introduce them into the chopper If the forage is to be wilted it is recommended to first cut the grass and then the legume because legume drying is generally more crucial as leaf loss may occur if the material becomes too dry Ensiling trees and shrubs has been successfully done for some species Silage can be done with green fodder but pre wilting 4 6 hours under full sun can reduce protein degradation during conservation Cutting thin particles 2 cm or less improves compaction of lignified stems and leaf and plasmolysis can be artificially accelerated Conservation also may reduce anti nutritive factors Weer ds se gt A 22 11 02 Figure 5 Conservation of Gliricidia sepium and Moringa oleifera by ensiling in Rivas Nicaragua Photos by Enrique Murgueitio 50 Forage drying The other option to preserve forages is drying In few cases the whole harvested material can be dried for instance with the herbaceous legu
59. edestal systems for large and small ruminants is the space between the frames which in the case of cattle allows presence of a grass component not needed for the sheep and goats Pedestals Photo from CENPALAB 2001 Structure of pedestals Photo from CENPALAB 2001 10 COMPLETE CONFINEMENT Keeping small ruminants in complete confinement fed either forages agricultural residues and or agro industrial by products has been practiced in South East Asia for a very long time Population density intense cultivation and the need for manure are factors which have influenced the development of this system Farmers in this region of the world are used to collect forage from public lands road sides railway sides common lands tree plantations etc to feed their animals and in return they have animals to sell for religious festivities at the beginning of school year or for emergencies weddings funerals etc and on a daily basis they have a very valuable fertilizer In fact in many instances manure is the main reason to rear small ruminants in complete confinement since it is greatly needed and appreciated to fertilize horticultural and fruit crops In the Caribbean and tropical Latin America keeping small ruminants in confinement is a more recent practice perhaps only for few decades and it started with dairy goats followed by sheep and meat goats The main advantages of keeping animals in complete confinement is that virtually
60. ements It occurs on wide range of soils from red sands to heavy black clays mostly well drained and with pH from 6 8 Under cultivation it grows best on fertile deep freely drained near neutral clays and clay loams usually of alluvial 85 origin or derived from basic igneous rocks basalt andesite Performance is less reliable on soils with pH lower than 6 unless heavily limed or those with a hard setting A horizon More demanding than most tropical legumes for molybdenum Very sensitive to manganese and aluminum toxicities both of which are alleviated by lime additions Moderately tolerant to salinity depending on variety Of the twining legumes it is best adapted to neutral fertile soils Moisture lt originates from areas with average annual rainfall from 550 1 650 mm Most cultivars are grown in areas with mean summer rainfall between 800 and 1 500 mm It is not successful in areas of much higher rainfall Some ecotypes are drought tolerant It grows best in well drained soils but tolerates a degree of waterlogging some accessions being collected in depressions and on swamp margins Temperature Mean annual temperatures vary from 15 to 25 C sometimes with a lowest average monthly minimum of 5 6 C and subject to frosts Optimum day night temperature for growth 30 25 C slow growth at 16 C and no growth at 13 C Light Moderately shade tolerant growing successfully under trees in open forest and woodland Twines towards th
61. ents to consider are calcium phosphorus sulfur and molybdenum On very fertile soils no fertilizer may be required but as a guide a suitable establishment dressing is 40 kg ha of phosphorus and molybdenum Follow up dressings of 20 kg ha of phosphorus every 1 or 2 years and molybdenum every 3 years may be necessary Need for copper should be monitored in deficiency areas antagonistic with molybdenum 86 Companion species Grasses Chloris gayana Digitaria eriantha pangola grass Panicum maximum Pennisetum clandestinum P purpureum Setaria sphacelata Brachiaria decumbens Legumes Leucaena leucocephala Vigna parkeri Pests and diseases Generally few problems with pests and diseases Under very wet conditions leaf blight Rhizoctonia solani can cause leaf damage It is an alternative host for halo blight caused by Pseudomonas a serious disease of beans Phaseolus vulgaris but not seriously affected itself During moist and mild temperature conditions webworms can severely defoliate plants Several Coleoptera attack the roots of young plants causing losses Ability to spread A prolific seeder with appropriate space and environment seedlings establish readily Some varieties can also spread vegetatively rooting down at the nodes Feeding value Nutritive value Crude protein values in leaf dry matter up to about 26 20 in the whole plant Dry matter digestibility varies between 55 62 depending on age of regrowth and
62. erate to high fertility but can survive in infertile soils Low requirement for copper molybdenum and calcium moderate requirement for phosphorus and zinc Tolerant of high levels of Manganese Low to moderate tolerance of salinity 113 Moisture It grows best when receiving annual rainfall between 1 500 2 000 mm but it will survive with 1 000 mm or less lt survives dry seasons of up to 4 months Tolerant of flooding but not to permanent inundated or waterlogged situations Temperature It grows best between 22 and 28 C Altitude From sea level to 1 100 m a s l Light Amongst the most shade tolerant warm region legumes may grow more in shade than in full sunlight Reproductive behaviour It flowers throughout the growing season although limited by moisture low temperatures or day length in the subtropics Flowering apparently stimulated by dry wet cycle Seed is produced on pegs gynophores in the soil s top 7 cm Pegs do not penetrate on hard dry ground Pegs vary in length from 1 27 cm long In the upland tropics it normally takes 6 weeks or less from flowering to mature pods Defoliation Extremely tolerant to low and regular defoliation Agronomy Establishment It can be established from cuttings or from seed although plants established from seed develop an effective root system faster The moderate levels of dormancy in fresh seed can be reduced by drying at 40 C for 10 14 days prior to planting Once dried seed sho
63. ertisols It must be allowed to set seed to guarantee persistence In protein banks cattle should be allowed to graze for only 2 3 hours each day Agronomy Establishment Best results are achieved by planting into moist soil 2 6 cm in narrow rows 15 50 cm apart at about 2 4 kg ha for long term pastures and 6 kg ha for short term pastures to achieve plant densities of 5 10 plants m Excellent results can be achieved when sown as a crop using conventional planters and presswheels to achieve good soil seed contact For optimum yield as a green manure crop the seeding rate is 12 kg ha As a component of grass legume pastures it can also be planted behind a blade plough or using a crocodile seeder Soil temperatures between 16 and 36 C are required for good establishment Weed competition will delay establishment but once established Clitoria can smother most weeds 76 Seed should be inoculated with Tropical Group M rhizobium Mechanically scarify seed with a high hard seed content gt 30 when soil conditions favor immediate germination or use unscarified seed with a high hard seed percentage when staggered germination is desired e g planting behind a blade plough or when using a crocodile planter Establishment is considered a much lower risk on heavy textured soils because of large seed size and greater weed tolerance than alternatives such as Leucaena The use of pre emergent herbicide 2 8 weeks prior to sowing is desirable to
64. for optimum utilization It should not be fed as only feed because excessive nitrogen excretion causes poor performance 72 Palatability acceptability Fresh forage can be initially rejected but quickly animals get used to it and even seem addicted Production potential Dry matter Good biomass production capacity and quick recovery after pruning which depends on planting density soils and vegetative status Forage potential production is between of 21 31 t of DM ha year Animal production lt can be used to feed a variety of animals monogastrics and ruminants Pigs gained more than 600 g day in a ration containing sorghum complemented with 30 pre dried and ground Tithonia Widely used in Colombia and other tropical countries for fattening animals and pastures Fresh foliage is mixed with concentrate and cut grasses Cattle goats sheep guinea pigs and rabbits consume it well when fresh It is a source of carotenoids to pigment egg yolks Popular in apiculture as a source of nectar 73 Further Reading CIPAV 2002 Tres especies vegetales promisorias nacedero bot n de oro y bore Ospina S y Murgueitio E Eds Fundaci n CIPAV Cali 302p Mahecha L Escobar P J Su rez J F y Restrepo L F 2007 Tithonia diversifolia Helmsl Gray bot n de oro como suplemento forrajero de vacas F1 Holstein por Cebu LRRD 19 2 1 6 http www cipav org co lrrd Irrd19 2 mahe19016 htm R os Clara In s y Salaza
65. formation on some important agronomical and management considerations is given here The data on each of the species comes from the following web sites plus many published articles PowerPoint presentations in technical and scientific meetings and a lot of details come experiences of the authors in research extension and practical work with farmers in many countries during the last three decades http www tropicalforages info and http Awww worldagroforestrycentre org Suitable climate When planning and selecting the suitable forage species for an area the consideration of climate soil topography and future management is of upmost importance There is not only one formula for all locations on the contrary each farm is unique Although some species are versatile and growth in many conditions some will thrive well on poor acid and infertile soils others need more fertile soils or frequent nutrient applications for optimum performance Some species withstand cool areas even mild frost while others do well under very hot and dry conditions Plants may survive in areas outside their own range but they will not grow or regrowth well and might not produce seed It is important to choose the species and their combinations that are adapted to local conditions but a degree of experimentation is desired because there are always surprises unexpected innovations Important climatic factors affecting forages include rainfall patterns leng
66. from the Costa Rica University 2010 Researcher and Director for Research at the Indio Hatuey Grass and Forage Experimental Station of Cuba 1982 to 2005 President of the journal Pastos y Forrajes of Cuba Founding director of Organix S A a consulting and technology firm on sustainable agriculture based in San Jos Costa Rica since 2005 He has been consultant in several projects for FAO IICA and other organizations in several Caribbean countries Mexico Costa Rica and Panama He was the main forage consultant for the project Appropriate Intensive Small Ruminant Production Systems for the Caribbean based on local feed resources which was implemented in Barbados Dominican Republic Jamaica Surinam and Trinidad and provided funding for the preparation and publication of this book Manuel David S nchez Hermosillo Agronomist with major in animal production from the Universidad Aut noma de San Luis Potos M xico 1977 with M Sc in animal nutrition from the University of Aberdeen Scotland 1979 and a Ph D in nutrition from the University of California at Davis USA 1984 He worked in research and development in small ruminant projects in Haiti and Indonesia and has worked in many countries around the world with feed resources and alternative feeding systems including from 1993 to 2003 as animal production officer in the Feed Resources Group Animal Production and Health Division of FAO Rome Italy He was Secretary
67. g animals of either species FLOORING Ground corrals Most holding pens have been built in the dirt although in some cases have cement floors and often have a shed to protect the animals from the rain and solar radiation But particularly under a roof the humid conditions caused by urine feces and rain water both in dirt or cement floors do not result in the best environment for small ruminants from the sanitary point of view These simple corrals seldom have enough slope to facilitate draining and cleaning and particularly during the rainy season are too humid for a healthy environment An option to resolve the humidity problem is the use of bedding One of the best bedding materials are wood shavings but others like rice hulls and a variety of cereal straws can also be used The bedding is eventually removed when it becomes saturated and is utilized as valuable fertilizer e t gt A A goat pen with a dirt floor 13 Elevated pens A good option for animal wellbeing the permanent solution for the humidity and health problems in animal housing and the best option to recover the valuable nutrients contained in feces and urine each fraction containing approximately half of the nitrogen excreted by the animal are definitely the elevated pens with slatted floors The type of materials used for elevated pens depends on availability building traditions and costs In many places the slats are made from wood and the sma
68. g owners to keep them in confinement fenced or tied up would seem a reasonably measure Wild or feral dogs would need to be controlled in some other ways In fact there are dog acts and regulations in some countries that deal with all kinds of issues related to dogs including identification prohibitions and sanctions The Western Australia Dog Act with its regulations is a good example of a comprehensive legislation GWA 1976 All countries interested in developing the small animal industry should have regulations regarding dogs one of the largest threats 27 28 HIGH QUALITY FORAGE SPECIES FOR SMALL RUMINANTS Small ruminants have less capacity to consume to ruminate and to digest low quality and coarse forages including tropical grasses grown in full sun compared to large ruminants cattle and buffalos Sheep and goats require higher feed quality in order to fulfill their nutrient requirements to be able to express their genetic production potential As a general rule of thumb small ruminants will consume between 3 to 5 percent of their body weight on a dry matter DM basis as feed The exact percentage varies according to species and animal size smaller animals needing a higher percentage and better quality feed In the Caribbean and in the Latin American tropics the tradition has been to treat small ruminants like large ruminants feeding the same forage resources The high cell wall content Neutral Detergent Fiber
69. gy Soil requirements Normally found on neutral to moderately acid soils pH as low as 4 6 lt grows on light or heavy soils and tolerates infertile or waterlogged conditions Moisture Mean annual rainfall 600 3000 mm Temperature Mean annual temperature 20 35 C Altitude 0 1300 meters above sea level masl Agronomy Establishment If animals consume the ripe pods some of the seeds are not ruminated and pass intact through the gut while being scarified The easily germinate once deposited on the soil with the feces Most of the small plants get tramped or eaten by animals but some survive and grow to become trees In practice the only enemy for natural regeneration of Saman trees is the machete For nurseries seeds need to be scarified in hot water for 3 minutes and then soaked in water for 24 hours before placing in pots The ideal density in pastures is 15 trees ha thus depending on the planting system is the number and distance of transplanting Pests and diseases In most places is free from pests and diseases However some defoliators including the Leucaena psyllid Heteropsylla cubana may attack the tree but usually without serious damage Feeding value Nutritive value Fallen ripe pods have a crude protein content of 12 18 of dry matter and 41 digestibility They are avidly eaten by all domestic animals Although leaves are nutritious they are not considered an important fodder Seed Seed viability is ma
70. has a greater fertilizer value than the mixture of feces and urine from which it comes from This is because there are great loses of nitrogen when fresh feces or slurry are spread in the fields as a results of the action of ureases naturally present in the soil On the contrary effluent nutrients are contained 41 with bacteria cells and thus much more stable Bacteria releases nitrogen and other nutrients slowly without major loses by evaporation or leaching Manure and other organic materials apart from providing valuable nutrients also improve soil structure and soil capacity to retain and exchange nutrients The recycling of manure is easier if forage plots at least the most valuable ones the highest quality species are nearby the stables Soils in tropical areas vary in their fertility and thus in their capacity to growth forages In any case forages will perform depending on nutrient availability in most circumstances linearly with the contents of the limiting nutrient which it is normally nitrogen but sometimes phosphorus potassium or another micro mineral sulfur or molybdenum for example Table 7 Nutrient content in biodigester effluents manure and compost N P K Biodigester effluent liquid 1 45 1 10 1 10 Biodigester effluent solid 1 60 1 40 1 20 Manure 1 22 0 62 0 80 Compost 1 30 1 00 1 00 Plant competition at establishment The most critical time for forage establishment is the first fe
71. he domestic dogs Dogs are human best friends but the worst enemies of the sheep and goats In fact dogs in rural communities have a dual personality During the day they seem harmless they spend most of the time laying down sleeping They do seem even hungry But at night their ancestor instincts come out they form packs and go hunting Many dogs show that behavior no only feral dogs which are real dangerous even to people Small ruminant farmers are well aware of the potential dangers of dog attacks which often seem to affect the most valuable animals They take various protecting measures including reinforced and electric fences and much more drastic ones like shooting dogs at first sight or poisoning them with tainted food The latter one being extremely harmful to biodiversity since the poison kills not only the dogs but also many scavengers including opportunistic carrion eaters like squirrels and crows These kind of actions are not acceptable to most people particularly to defenders of animal rights but they are justified by farmers who need to protect their assets The ideal situation in this regard would be that there were not significant populations of free dogs particularly at night when most of the attacks happen Since this is unlikely to occur because population of dogs and people seem to parallel some sort 26 of regulation would seem appropriate to restrict movements by dogs Simply banning free dogs by forcin
72. hs have their sources indicated This publication summarizes the experiences and knowledge acquired by the authors on small ruminant and forage production research and development over three decades thanks to various institutions and projects CONTENTS Introduction Small ruminants production and feeding systems Free ranging Intensive grazing Complete confinement Housing of small ruminants Flooring Roofing Fences and walls Feeders Water Handling corrals Management Breeding Reproduction Animal handling Heath care Predator control High quality forages for small ruminants in the tropics Agronomy of high quality forages Forage management and conservation Harvesting Conservation Forage fact sheets High stratum species Albizia sanam Enterolobium cyclocarpum Prosopis Juliflora Medium stratum species Shrubs Leucaena leucocephala Tithonia diversifolia Vines Clitoria ternatea Teramnus labialis Neonotonia wightii Species for cut and carry Morus alba Gliricidia sepium Moringa ole fera Trichantera gigantea Low stratum species Stylosanthes guianensis Arachis pintoi Conclusions References 65 71 75 81 85 89 101 105 109 113 117 119 vi INTRODUCTION Small ruminants have been part of the history of the Caribbean since the colonization with arrival of goats from Spain and hair sheep from West Africa Over the course of the past five centuries people in the various countries have reared small rumina
73. ial supplementation specifically directed to them In confinement systems creep feeders should be considered in the original designs to avoid improvisations and space constraints WATER Since potable water should be available at all times water troughs or dispensers should be easily accessed to animals of all ages Again the most important thing is that water does not get contaminated from feed feces or urine and for that reason it should be located at a prudent distance from feeders Nipples and water troughs with float valves reduce waste and assure availability 24h a day y Automatic water through and salt mineral feeder Feeder designed to reduce feed wastage 17 HANDLING CORRALS In large flocks particularly in extensive systems it is preferable to construct handling corrals specifically designed for adequate animal management without unnecessary stress Several pens might be needed depending on flock size but in order to separate the animals by class sex size etc a circular crowding pen and a sorting alley are convenient These are constructed 3 feet height with solid or non see through fences and gates The crowding pen has two center pivot swing gates to move and directs the animal to wherever desired pen Newton 1983 The construction material could be lumber exterior plywood steel or zinc sheets In order to quickly move animals in alleys they need to see light at the end otherwise it becomes very difficult
74. ic practice but often livestock farmers have never done it However if they are already used to growing crops they may just need little additional advice on the specific requirements of the different forage species High quality forage can be established directly from seed or from vegetative material such as stem cuttings stakes and micro stakes stolon or nursery plants Suggestions for easier planting for the various species are provided in Table 5 Seed can be sown directly in the soil or in nurseries first particularly if seed is scarce and or the conditions in the field are not optimum for direct seeding due uneven surface competition weather etc The preferred method for forage establishment is by sexual seed for most conditions and it is often the most economical and easiest way of planting Planting by seed assures deeper roots with greater capacity to find water and nutrients which eventually results in higher biomass production and greater longevity Seed might also be the most appropriate way of transporting quarantine and store selected materials Establishing forages by vegetative material is often the most convenient choice for farmers since it is easy and reliable lt does not require much land preparation and above all the planting material is usually locally available Vegetative planting material can be prepared just using a machete or with pruning scissors It should be planted as soon as possible after collectio
75. ics An Overview Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 2 6 374 379 Jones R M Bishop H G Clem R L Conway M J Cook B G Moore K and Pengelly B C 2000 Measurements of nutritive value of a range of tropical legumes and their use in legume evaluation Tropical Grasslands 34 78 90 http www tropicalgrasslands info index php tgft pages view tropicalGrasslands Pengelly B C and Conway M J 2000 Pastures on Cropping Soils Which Tropical Pasture Legume to Use Tropical Grasslands 34 162 168 http www tropicalgrasslands info index php tgft pages view tropicalGrasslands Reid R and Sinclair D F 1980 An Evaluation of a Collection of Clitoria ternatea for Forage and Grain Production Genetic Resources Communication 1 1 8 78 Staples l P 1992 Clitoria ternatea L In t Mannetje L and Jones R M eds Plant Resources of South East Asia No 4 Forages pp 94 96 Pudoc Scientific Publishers Wageningen The Netherlands Schlink A C 1998 Nutrition value of Clitoria Ternatea of sheep in the dry tropics Animal Production in Australia 22 p 361 http www asap asn au livestocklibrary 1998 Schlink98a PDF Villanueva A J F Bonilla C J A Rubio C J V y Bustamante G J J 2004 Agrotecnia utilizaci n de Clitoria ternateaen sistemas de producci n de carne y leche T cnica Pecuaria M xico 42 1 79 96 79 80 Medium Stratum Species Vines Teramnus labialis Scientific name Teramnus labia
76. ientific and Industrial Research Organisation Sustainable Ecosystems Department of Primary Industries amp Fisheries Queensland Australia With Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical CIAT and the International Livestock Research Institute ILRI http www tropicalforages info Devendra C and Burns Marca 1983 Goat production in the tropics Technical Communication Bureaux of Animal Breeding and Genetics CAB UK FAO 1986 Better utilization of crop residues and by products in animal feeding research guidelines 2 A practical manual for research workers by T R Preston Animal Production and Health Paper No 50 2 FAO Rome pp _ 153 http www fao org docrep 003 x6554e x6554e00 htm FAO 2000 Mulberry for Animal Production M D S nchez ed Animal Production and Health Paper 147 Rome http www fao org docrep 005 x9895e x9895e00 htm FAO 2002 Animal Production Based on Crop Residues Chinese Experiences Tingshuang G Sanchez M D and Peiyu G Eds Animal Production and Health Paper 149 Rome http www fao org docrep 005 y1936e y1936e00 HTM FAO 2007 Feed supplementation blocks Urea molasses multinutrient blocks simple and effective feed supplement technology for animal agriculture Makkar H and Sanchez M Eds FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 164 Rome 248p http www fao org docrep 010 a0242e a0242e00 HTM FAO 2013 Guidelines resistance management and integrated parasite
77. ing in many islands have persisted Other popular breeds for meat are the Nubian which also produces milk and thus can be considered a dual purpose breed and more recently the Boer Among the dairy breeds the Alpine and the Saanen highest milk yielders are commonly found in most countries Less abundant are the Toggenburg and the La Mancha All goat breeds can do well in the tropics provided they are fed and housed properly since they adapt well to environmental conditions The choice of breed depends on local availability of breeding stock and on preference Nevertheless dairy breeds need better care than meat breeds and should be kept preferably in confinement protected from solar radiation and physical dangers if high yields are expected Sheep breeds The only sheep breeds suitable for the American tropics are the hair type breeds Past attempts to bring wool type meat breeds from temperate countries have failed The presence of wool is a deterrent for heat dissipation which affect ram fertility Most of the original hair sheep breeds came from West Africa like the Pelibuey Cuban Red the Barbados Black Belly and the Saint Croix Both the Pelibuey and 19 the Saint Croix are much less prolific than the Barbados Black Belly which can give above two lambs per lambing and depending on the management and nutrition levels nearly twice per year Thanks to this prolificacy and the better overall resistance to parasites the Barb
78. intained for more than 3 years in hermetic storage at room temperature with 11 15 humidity The number of seeds kg is 4 000 6 000 55 Further reading Hong T D Linington S and Ellis R H 1996 Seed storage behaviour a compendium Handbooks for Genebanks No 4 International Plant Genetic Resources Institute http www bioversityinternational org uploads tx _news Seed storage behavior a compendium_1576 paf Katende A B Birnie Ann and Tengn s B 1995 Useful trees and shrubs for Uganda Identification Propagation and Management for Agricultural and Pastoral Communities Regional Soil Conservation Unit Technical Handbook 10 Swedish International Development Authority Nairobi http www worldagroforestry org downloads publications PDFs B09383 PDF Keay R W 1989 Trees of Nigeria Claredon Press Oxford UK MacDicken G K 1994 Selection and management of nitrogen fixing trees FAO and Winrock International for International Development Morrilton Arkansas Mbuya L P Msanga H P Ruffo C K Birnie Ann and Tengnas B 1994 Useful trees and shrubs for Tanzania Identification Propagation and Management for Agricultural and Pastoral Communities Regional Soil Conservation Unit Technical Handbook 6 Swedish International Development Authority Nairobi http www worldagroforestry org downloads publications PDFs B08555 PDF NFTA 1987 Samanea saman the multipurpose rain tree Nitrogen Fixing Trees Associat
79. iological potential of 2 parturitions a year but it is deemed adequate for large flocks taking into consideration the advantages of a well defined birth period and the risks and uncertainties of the continuous mating An even more sophisticated system is hand mating in which males are permitted to identify by sniffing the females on heat and allowed to breed them just once either in the evening or in the morning and then once again 12h later if the females are still receptive This way individual reproduction records can be kept which helps in predicting approximate parturition dates and to prepare with facilities feed and staff to receive and to take proper care of the new born Strategic supplementation Most natural ecosystems suitable for small ruminant rearing provide all nutrients in enough quantities to meet their requirements There are however some exceptions Sodium in the form of salt Sodium chloride is normally provided as supplement since naturally most forages and feeds do not contain enough of it Animals search for sodium when the diet is deficient which occurs very often The best way to provide sodium is the form of salt blocks with or without other minerals because goats tend to consume salt in excess of their requirements if offered in loose form Salt blocks can be purchased or easily manufactured on the farm The blocks can also contain specific minerals missing in the local soils or in low concentrations and thus i
80. ion 87 06 Waimanalo Hawaii Perry Lily May and Metzger Judith 1980 Medicinal plants of East and South East Asia attributed properties and uses MIT Press Cambridge London Skolmen R G Albizia saman Enciclopedia of Life http eol org pages 28134 details brief_ summary 56 High Stratum Species Enterolobium cyclocarpum Scientific name Enterolobium cyclocarpum Jacq Griseb Synonyms Albizia longipes Britton amp Killip Inga cyclocarpa Jacq Willd Mimosa cyclocarpa Jacq Family Family Fabaceae subfamily Mimosoideae tribe Ingeae Common names English ear pod tree elephant ear enterolobium Mexican walnut pitchwood Spanish guanacaste algarrobo de orejos dormilon framboyan extranjero orejon French bois tanniste rouge Creole Patois Bwa tanis wouj Morphological description One of the largest trees in dry forests reaching up to 40 m in height and 3 m in diameter with a huge crown Older trees develop small buttresses and produce large roots that run along the surface of the ground for 2 3 m Sidewalks roads or foundations may be cracked or raised by trees growing close by The bipinnate compound leaves have 5 opposite leaflets The small white flowers occur in compact round heads Pods are distinctive ear shaped thickened and indehiscent Seeds are 20 x 15 mm ovate reddish brown An adult trees produce around 2 000 pods each with 10 16 seeds 900 1200 seed kg Distribution Native to tr
81. ion should be east to west to maximize sunlight interception Fertilizer As green manure 15 t ha year of leaf biomass can provide the equivalent of 40 kg of nitrogen ha year to companion crops and pastures Tolerant to low soil fertility but it will respond to lime on soils with high aluminum saturation Compatibility Compatible with shade tolerant grasses such as Stenotaphrum secundatum and Paspalum notatum Companion species It has been planted in association with mulberry providing the required nitrogen Pests and diseases It has remained relatively free of serious diseases probably due to its tendency to be leafless seasonally Several incidences of insect problems have been noted in exotic environments For example aphids mealy bugs and scale insects occasionally attack trees in Indonesia and the Caribbean Feeding value Nutritive value Crude protein content 18 30 and in vitro digestibility of 60 65 Yields and nutritive value depend on provenances Palatability acceptability Some palatability problems occur with ruminants depending on prior experience and sometimes provenance Sometimes naive animals refuse leaves on the basis of 97 smell often rejecting them without tasting Wilting leaves for 12 24 hours before feeding increases intake Production potential Dry matter Annual leaf dry matter production varies from 2 20 t ha year depending on many factors In fodder plots annual yields of 5 16 t ha of leaf
82. is normally present in the rumen of most animals in tropical America toxicity in ruminants is mostly a myth coming from its negative effects on monogastric animals to which it should never be fed Production potential Dry matter Forage yields up to 15 t ha year depend on soil fertility rainfall altitude density and cutting frequency Leaf yield is maximized by cutting at 6 12 week intervals during the growing season Yields in extensive hedgerow plantings in the dry tropics and subtropics generally range from 2 6 t ha year Firewood yields compare favorably with the best tropical trees with height increments of 3 5 m year and wood increments of 20 60 m ha year Animal production Excellent cattle growth rates have been reported from Autralia where thousands of hectares have been established Large areas have been planted in Cuba and M xico as a Strategy to increase animal production throughout the year increasing cattle daily weight gains from 0 4 to 0 8 kg head day and milk production from 7 to 11 kg animal day In Colombian farms milk production has reached 17 026 kg ha y A great feature of Leucaena is that it maintains its foliage during the dry season when the grasses seasonally dry out so it virtually eliminates the dry season for forage production It provides enough nutrients to sheep and goats resulting in good weight gains and good reproductive performance Seed production Seed production is strongly moisture dependent a
83. ith pH above 5 5 or above 5 0 where aluminum saturation is very low Intolerant of soils with low pH low phosphorus low calcium high salinity and waterlogging Tolerant of moderate salinity and alkalinity 65 Moisture It prefers sub humid and humid climates of 650 1 500 mm and up to 3 000 mm annual rainfall and tolerates up to 7 months dry season It does not tolerate waterlogged soils or extended periods of flooding gt 3 weeks Temperature It requires 25 30 C for optimum growth Growth ceases at 15 16 C Frosts will kill leaf or stems depending on severity and growth stage Light Grows readily with up to 50 shade Productive under mature coconuts Reproductive behaviour All subspecies will flower and set seed throughout the year under adequate soil moisture and temperature Agronomy Establishment Relatively slow to establish particularly in competition with weeds For best results plant on deep well drained soils with pH gt 5 5 and maintain a weed free area of at least 0 5 m either side of the establishing plants Fresh seed has good germination but after some time seed must be scarified to break the impermeable testa Scarification can be done by soaking seeds for 3 minutes in water just before boiling at 80 C Mechanical scarification using coarse sandpaper for small seed lots or abrasive lined rotating drum scarifiers is possible Specific rhizobium is required but it is normally present where Leucaena has grown
84. l eaten by sheep and cattle Production potential Dry matter While more productive types can produce 10 16 t of dry matter ha many produce much lower annual yields Animal production It combines well under citrus plantations with good results in sheep growth Seed production Pod set often occurs beneath the foliar canopy and close to ground level making mechanical harvesting difficult The general recommendation is to harvest 3 4 weeks after commencement of ripening when 90 95 of pods are ripe While seed yields of gt 1 t ha have been recorded 0 2 0 5 t ha are more common Further reading Funes F and Perez C 1976 Agronomical studies on perennial soybean I Comparison between Glycine wightii and Teramnus labialis under cutting and grazing conditions Cuban Journal of Agricultural Science 10 199 209 Menendez J 1982 Teramnus Swartz Pastos y Forrajes Cuba 5 251 263 Pengelly B C and Eagles D A 1996 Diversity in the tropical legume genus Teramnus Tropical Grasslands 30 298 307 83 84 Medium Stratum Species Vines Neonotonia wightii Scientific name Neonotonia wightii Wight amp Arn J A Lackey var longicauda Schweinf Verdc Synonyms Glycine javanica auct Family tribe Family Fabaceae Leguminosae subfamily Faboideae tribe Phaseoleae Common names English Glycine perennial soybean Spanish soya perenne soya forrajera French soja p renne Morphological descripti
85. l forages used for cattle which have largely been grasses Sheep and goats are simply unable to consume to ruminate and to digest grasses in general at the rate they require for acceptable levels of production When the animals are free to move around they choose the most nutritive plants or parts of them in order to fulfill their nutrient needs In these circumstances they might consume some grasses but always in low proportion compared to other forages with much better quality The situation gets much worse when small ruminants are under confinement either in paddocks or in corrals and they are forced to eat the low quality grass forage If they have no choice they will consume it but adequate performance can only be obtained if the grass diet is supplemented with other feeds either agro industrial by products crop residues or commercial feeds Unless these supplements are of very low price which is often not the case this supplementation practice seldom pays back When both limiting factors are combined grass pastures with heavy internal parasite load the results are disastrous very slow growth rate of young animals and high mortality These are the main reasons why the attractive market of small ruminant products has not been satisfied by local production the causes of the overall failure of goat and sheep production systems in the Caribbean However there many examples where farmers more than technicians and researchers have
86. lis L f Spreng and subspecies arabicus Verdc labialis var abyssinicus Hochst ex A Rich Verdc labialis var labialis Synonyms Glycine labialis L f Family tribe Family Fabaceae Leguminosae or Papilonaceae tribe Phaseoleae Common names English blue wiss rabbit vine horse vine Spanish Teramnus Morphological description Extremely variable perennial twining or prostrate trailing some forms stolons sometimes woody at the base Stems 0 3 3 m long slender often covered with white to ferruginous hairs Rounded leaflets elliptic ovate obovate narrowly oblong or lanceolate Inflorescence a slender raceme with few to many flowers along the 0 3 10 cm long rachis Linear pods 2 5 6 cm long 2 4 mm wide glabrescent to densely covered with spreading hairs 7 12 seeds pod Seeds yellow brown to dark purplish brown oblong or almost cylindrical smooth or covered with a granular encrustation 110 000 370 000 seeds kg It has a distinctly curved tip on the pod Distribution Native to or naturalized in Africa Western Indian Ocean Asia Pacific Mesoamerica Tropical South America and most Caribbean islands Found in grasslands with scattered trees thickets bushland forest clearings and along road edges Uses applications Fodder Component of permanent pastures with potential for agroforestry applications due to moderate shade tolerance It can be grazed fairly intensively or cut and carry Food Seeds used as
87. lity forage species has a crude protein content 2 3 times higher than typical tropical grasses and in some cases even superior than commercial concentrates traditionally used for supplementary feed Crude protein values vary between 12 42 while in concentrates range between 14 18 In addition in vitro digestibility of dry matter is very high and comparable or superior to that of concentrates 30 It is important to consider that yields and quality depend on many factors including species variety soil type and fertility climatic conditions temperature solar radiation and rainfall plant density fertilizer application and harvesting technique and the values provided are just indicative Table 1 Crude protein CP and in vitro digestibility of dry matter digestibility IVDDM of edible foliage or pods of selected forage species SPECIES CP IVDDM Non legume forage trees and shrubs Moringa oleifera 23 71 Morus alba 23 79 Tithonia diversifolia 22 69 Trichantera gigantea 12 52 Legume forage trees shrubs and herbaceous Albizia saman pods 16 70 Arachis pintoi 18 65 Clitoria ternatea 16 80 Enterolobium cyclocarpum pods 13 71 Leucaena leucocepahla 25 52 Gliricidia sepium 24 59 Neonotonia wightii 15 60 Prosopis juliflora pods 12 75 Stylosanthes guianensis 17 66 Teramnus labialis 17 62 For the last three decades there has been a very successful movement towards improving the production and feeding systems of r
88. ller the width the cheaper it gets because less wood is needed For instance using 2 inch slats requires 17 less board feet of wood than 4 inch slats Two inches would be the minimum width for adequate animal support and comfort in wooden slats Other options are concrete cast iron or plastic slat flooring similar to swine pens In any case research is needed for the ideal type of material for small ruminant pens from the points of view of animal comfort hygiene and hoof wearing as it has been done for swine Pedersen and Ravn 2008 In current slat floors frequent hoof trimming is necessary to prevent leg problems since animals do not walk much and the surface is not abrasive enough for normal wearing of hooves re ES ES Elevated pens in Saint Lucia Elevated barn in Suriname 14 Hee re Goats in partial slatted floor Slatted floor in Trinidad ROOFING The type of roof for small ruminant elevated pens and corral sheds varies a lot depending on size design available materials and economic resources Factors to be considered are durability functionality for water collection storm hurricane or strong wind resistance and heat transmission The ideal roof is the one that allows rainwater collection separated from feces and urine that lasts long time and is reasonable cool in order words it does not irradiate much heat infra red waves to the animals on sunny days Tin roofs are a compromise betwee
89. lture some 5 000 years ago In China mulberry residues from silkworm rearing have traditionally fed to small ruminants and it has also been part of the dyke pond system For the last three decades mulberry has been used to feed other domestic animals ruminants in particular in various parts of the world taking advantage of its high quality and production Food It is appreciated for its fruit which is consumed fresh in juice wine or in preserves Young leaves and stems are delicious vegetables Medicine Mulberry leaf tea is used as remedy for a variety of diseases Dry leaves are used for diabetes since the compound 1 deoxynojirimycin reduces the rate of sugar absorption Ornamental Common in parks and gardens Wood The wood is used for making sporting equipment and for furniture Ecology Soil requirements It grows better in a well drained neutral soil preferably a deep loam The white mulberry is quite tolerant of drought pollution and poor soil growth depends on solar radiation nutrients and water 89 Temperature Grows well in temperate areas but loses its leaves in the winter In the tropics it grows all year around Light Requires full sun for good production Maximum yields have been obtained in areas with plenty of sunlight Defoliation Responds well to coppicing In the tropics the most appropriate cutting interval is 45 90 days varying with the season Agronomy Establishment The most common planting method
90. m 1 90 2 87 and magnesium 0 47 0 63 in leaves The most notable characteristic of mulberry foliage is its very high digestibility values much superior to common forages and equivalent to commercial feed Leaf digestibility in vivo for goats 78 81 and in vitro 89 have been reported Palatability An important feature of mulberry forage is its high palatability Small ruminants avidly consume the fresh leaves and the young stems first even if they have never been exposed to it before They even consume the bark Cattle consume the whole biomass if finely chopped Animals prefer mulberry to other forages when offered simultaneously and even dig through a pile of various forages to look for mulberry Production potential Dry matter Total biomass production 25 47 t ha year and edible 15 35 t ha year Animal production Evaluations carried out with ruminants show high intake levels and high animal responses in weight gain and milk yield In Central American and Caribbean farms it is used to replace grain based concentrates in lactating cows and goats in confinement and semi confinement with excellent results In cows production of 12 14 kg of milk per day have been reported without using concentrates Goats can produce between 11 000 12 000 liters of milk ha in mulberry based feeding systems Fresh and dried edible biomass have been used in sheep with excellent results 91 Fresh fodder has been used in feeding pigs rabbits and guinea pigs
91. mes but in others only the leaves as in the case of shrub forages The drying of tender stems and branches can be speeded up if the material is first pressed by passing through hay conditioning equipment which crimps and crushes the stems facilitating water loss It is more convenient to dry forages especially leaves in flat surfaces away from the field simply to avoid losses Some of the leaves for instance those of Leucaena are too small and get detached from the branches very easily shortly after harvesting They make however an excellent leaf meal Gliricidia and mulberry leaves can also be dried in paved surfaces canvas or plastic sheets or in solar driers Drying in the shade has the advantage of preserving forage color and nutrients much better than under the direct sun An important consideration to always keep in mind is that what dries the forage in the wind the air no the sun For this reason solar driers often have two components a heat accumulating device that gets heated by the solar radiation and the drying device itself where the material gets dehydrated by the contact with air Hotter air dries more because it holds more water per unit of volume Once the leaves are dry they can be compacted to reduce volume and facilitate transportation and storage Pelleting cubing or baling are options for compacting hay or dry leaves The method of choice depends on available equipment volume and storage handling needs
92. microorganisms mycorrizhal fungi and anaerobic fermentations showing a lot of potential for agricultural production It is clear that the future of sustainable livestock relies on a deeper comprehension of interactions between animals plants soil and microbes However further education research and extension are needed to ensure continuous improvement of production systems urgently required to meet the growing market demands and ever changing biological and business environments Public and private investment to encourage innovation is pivotal for the future of agriculture including small ruminant production 118 REFERENCES Araujo Filho J A e Carvalho F C 1997 Desenvolvimento Sustentado da Caatinga EMBRAPA Sobral Cear 19p Bath G F Malan F S 8 Van Wyk J A 1996 The FAMACHA ovine anaemia guide to assist with the control of haemonchosis Proceedings of the 7th Annual Congress of the Livestock Health and Production Group of the South African Veterinary Association Port Elizabeth South Africa 5 7 June 1996 p 5 Bath G F and Van Wyk J A 2001 Using the FAMACHAO system on commercial sheep farms in South Africa Proceeding of the 5 Veterinary Congress 22 25 January 2001 Cape Town South Africa http www nda agric za docs AAPS FAMACHA using 20famacha paf Batista Dariadna Fern ndez D H Morales E Leal Ailyn Pacheco Juliani y Castillo R Sistema intensivo de producci n de pasto
93. moisture regime Palatability acceptability Well grazed throughout the whole year Production potential Dry matter Yields vary according to soil and environmental conditions variety and defoliation management They generally range from about 3 8 t of dry matter ha Seed production Day night temperature of 27 22 to 16 C is most suitable for seed production Seed formation is reduced at high temperatures Seed may be hand or machine harvested The crops is ready when pods become dark and hard and start shattering Yields of up to 1 t ha seed have been recorded but commercial producers consider 300 kg ha satisfactory Further reading Bogdan A V 1977 Tropical Pasture and Fodder Plants Grasses and Legumes pp 357 364 Longman London and New York Eyde L A 1967 Yield comparisons of thirty eight introductions of Glycine javanica in swards in three environments Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 7 342 350 Ferguson J E 1969 Characterisation of introductions of Glycine javanica L Queensland Journal of Agricultural and Animal Sciences 26 517 528 87 Milera Milagros Iglesias J M Remy V A Reyes F y Mart nez J 1989 Efecto del pastoreo de Glycine en bancos de prote na y forraje de ca a sobre la producci n de leche Pastos y Forrajes 12 3 255 262 Monzote M y Garcia M 1988 Evaluaci n de Glycine Neonotonia wightii asociada con 5 gram neas bajo dos cargas de anim
94. mortality due to starvation malnutrition myiasis from screwworm Cochliomyia hominivorax and parasitism and unfortunately also from predator attacks mainly dogs and theft Most if not all these production constraints can be reduced or minimized with adequate installations and proper flock management Historical environmental damage After five centuries of the existence of the free ranging systems with virtually no management or care of the natural vegetation from the part of livestock owners there has been the gradual reduction in what it is called the carrying capacity of rangelands This was due to the disappearance of the most palatable species from repeating consumption and the encroachment of undesirable or less desirable plant species In many cases there has been a serious loss of biodiversity and only unpalatable and or very spiny species have remained Some of these remaining plants are members of the Cactaceae family particularly well adapted to arid ecosystems thanks to their Crassulacean metabolism which allows for the gaseous exchange to take place at night when there is less loss of water and to the presence of spines and thorns which protects them from excessive and repeated consumption by domestic animals Improved management opportunities In free ranging systems there are however some technological interventions which can make them much more productive Breeding strategies The natural year round mating which
95. n kept moist and cool until planted preferably on wet soil Collection of planting material from many plants maximizes genetic variation and reduces susceptibility to disease and insect damage Stem cutting for example from Tithonia and Mulberry should be 20 to 30 cm long and with at least 3 buds for most common conditions Stakes are frequently planted in a vertical position into the soil However long Gliricidia pieces around 1 5m can also be placed horizontally and sprouting occurs along the buds 38 Table 5 Ways of planting forage by species Stems Stolons Transplanted Direct Cutting Seedlings seeding Albizia saman Peregrina _ Arachis pintoi wv _Clitoria ternatea _Enterolobium cyclocarpum Leucaena leucocepahla _ Gliricidia sepium LAOS Ly Moringa oleifera Y Morus alba Y Neonotonia wightii OCN ae Prosopis juliflora o Stylosanthes guianensis Y _Teramnus labialis _ Tithonia diversifolia NN DADAN SS lt Trichantera gigantea Planting in nurseries Both seeds and vegetative material can be planted first in nurseries before transplanting to the field In a greenhouse or in a nursery plants can be sown in plastic bags of different size depending on the species In addition they can be sown in trays like the ones used for vegetables Figure 3 or other con
96. n functionality durability and cost and if properly insulated in the inner side they maintain an adequate environment as far as temperature is concerned Small elevated pens are often covered with palm leaves which are very suitable for animal comfort but durability depends on material quality thickness and slope The greater the gradient or pitch the more durable In small pens the roof should be high enough to prevent the animals to chew on the leaves This is particularly important for large males which standing in their hind legs can reach beyond 7 8 feet depending of their size FENCES AND WALLS In outdoor pens fences need to be strong and tall enough to provide adequate protection from predators dogs in particular Chain link cyclone fence is often the best option but expensive For increased security fences should be buried at least one foot and barb or electric wire place on top in order to halt dog attacks Dogs are known to be very smart particularly in finding ways to get into the small ruminant pens thus there should be no hesitation in reinforce security measures to prevent their attacks which could be disastrous event for the flock and the producer 15 In raised pens the main thing to look for is to avoid goats to climb and get out This is why wall should be preferably made with stick or boards placed vertically with horizontal boards positioned at heights that can t be used as support to climb FEEDERS
97. n good results with a mill sieve diameter of 2 5 mm a moisture content of 12 to 20 and a density of 90 115 kg m These parameters may vary according to the plant species Moringa pellets produced in Cuba 52 Particle size and humidity of the material in addition to press parameters roller speed die diameter and cutting blade speed determine the characteristics of the final product pellet diameter length and density FORAGE FACT SHEETS High Stratum Species Albizia saman Scientific name Albizia saman F Muell Synonyms Enterolobium saman Prain ex King Inga salutaris Kunth Inga saman Willd Mimosa saman Jacq Pithecellobium saman Benth Samanea saman Merr Family tribe Family Fabaceae subfamily Mimosoideae tribe Ingeae Common names English saman acacia cow bean tree cow tamarind monkey pod rain tree Spanish sam n algarrobo del pa s carreto negro delmonte rbol de lluvia French sam n gouannegoul Morphological description A conspicuous semi deciduous tree with common height below 30 m with 4 5 m of diameter at breast height dense crown spreading up to 30 m across bipinnate compound leaves 15 40 cm long velvety White flowers below pink above solitary or in small clusters in the leaf axils or clustered at the ends of shoots Pods more or less straight with distinct thickened edges black with brownish pulp 12 20 cm long containing various seeds 53 Distribution Nativ
98. n in NE Brazil Sheep fed tree leaves in the Bahamas In the Bahamas farmers practice pruning of tree branches to supplement their animals in times of forage shortages For certain trees with very palatable foliage they prune the branches to keep it out of animal s reach in order to prevent frequent consumption and consequently tree damage Rotation of pastures during the year allows for vegetation to regrowth and the gradual modification of the composition the increase of the density of a particular species and also the introduction of new species INTENSIVE GRAZING There have been many attempts to develop intensive grazing systems for sheep and goats in the region but unfortunately most have failed or have not reached the production expectations The main reason has been mentioned the fact that these efforts have had grass species as the main source of forage Goats grazing legume pastures in Andros Pelibuey sheep in grass pastures inthe island Bahamas Dominican Republic The low quality of grasses and the resulting poor animal performance can be partially compensated by providing supplements usually agro industrial by products or commercial concentrates However the profitability of supplementation is often in doubt unless supplements are acquired at subsidized price or for free There have been however various successful intensive grazing systems targeting small ruminants mostly based on legumes Three examples are given
99. n relation to rhizobial requirements inoculation may be beneficial Seed can be broadcast or sown at 2 3 kg ha in rows 50 75 cm apart and no more than 3 cm deep Stands take 6 8 months to become established Fertilizer lt requires moderately fertile soil Application of 20 kg ha of phosphorus and 40 kg ha of potassium is recommended on deficient soils Compatibility It grows well in mixed pastures persisting and producing considerable bulk without smothering the grasses It is probably not sufficiently aggressive to combine with more competitive grasses such as Paspalum notatum nor does it twine to a sufficient height to combine with unmanaged tall grasses such as Panicum maximum Companion species Grasses Axonopus fissifolius Bothriochloa pertusa Stenotaphrum secundatum Legumes Macroptilium atropurpureum Neonotonia wightii Vigna parkeri Pests and diseases It is not affected by pests and diseases to any great extent although leaf damage caused by Fusarium and Alternaria has been recorded particularly in the wet season Some leaf damage has also been caused by the banded cucumber beetle 82 Ability to spread It has become naturalized outside its native range Feeding value Nutritive value It maintains a high leaf to stem ratio with crude protein levels of 21 in leaves and 10 at stems Calcium levels were 1 2 in leaves and 1 at stems and phosphorus 0 3 and 0 2 respectively Palatability acceptability It is wel
100. n the forages which could cause deficiency symptoms in the animals If the natural vegetation is seasonally of poor quality usually meaning with low protein content then it is advisable to provide extra nitrogen for optimum rumen functioning FAO 1986 That is for adequate digestion of the basal feed rumen microbes need to have enough nitrogen The most common way to provide nitrogen to the animals is in the form of the so called molasses or multi nutrient blocks FAO 2007 In order to increase flock prolificacy in other words the number of offspring born per female per partum flushing can be practiced Flushing means to provide a feed supplement to raise female nutritional level beginning one month prior to the breeding season in order to increase ovulation rates and consequently the number of offspring per parturition If the overall feed availability is inadequate if animals have to walk long distances to procure their feed then it surely better to have only one strong young offspring than two weak ones Many small ruminant farmers in fact prefer singles over twins or triplets when animals are kept in free ranging conditions In these cases flushing is not advisable Sometimes feed supplementation salt blocks and or water are provided with the main purpose of getting the flock used to come back to the corrals or to a certain place on a daily or regular basis giving the owner the opportunity to count the flock 7 and
101. nants EM are being utilized to reduce or to eliminate mastitis in dairy goat farms and should be considered as a routine practice in all confinement livestock operations PREDATOR CONTROL In continental countries sheep and goats have many natural enemies including wolves coyotes cougars bears eagles etc and farmers need to take all kinds of precautions to reduce the losses due to predation In fact small ruminants can seldom be left alone in pastures without suffering major casualties and even with all measures taken predators always manage to take some as pray Equines horses and donkeys and American Camelids Llamas and Alpacas are known to chase coyotes and other predators when they come close to what they consider as their own family group They can be used as part of the sheep commercial flock along with shepherd dogs Many breeds of livestock guardian dogs a type of shepherd dogs or sheepdogs have been developed in the various countries to protect sheep flocks for over thousands of years They all have particular natural skills to defend sheep Green amp Woodruff 1998 The Great Pyrenees Mountain Dog is working extremely well in Canada protecting both sheep and shepherds from bear and wolf attacks Loxton in the forests They can even left by alone with the flock and learn how to hunt small mammals to feed themselves In the insular states of the Caribbean the only major predators are the descendants of the wolf t
102. national Center for Research in Agroforestry ICRAF http www worldagroforestrycentre org Iniguez L and Mueller J Eds 2008 Characterization of Small Ruminant Breeds in Central Asia and the Caucasus ICARDA Aleppo Syria 416p I iguez L Ed 2005 Characterization of Small Ruminant Breeds in West Asia and North Africa Two volumes ICARDA Aleppo Syria Loxton D Bear dogs a silvocultural tool http www great pyrenees club of southern ontario com livestock quardian dogs html Mohammed A 2013 Report market study for value added meat and dairy products for small ruminants Report prepared by the consultant for the Inter American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture IICA Trinidad and Tobago Office 88 p Molina C H Molina C H Molina E J Molina J P amp Navas A 2001 Advances in the implementation of high tree density sylvopastoral systems In International Symposium of Sylvopastoral Systems and Second Congress on Agroforestry and Livestock Production in Latin America CATIE San Jos Costa Rica p 299 121 Newton D 1983 Sheep pens for ewe and me Winrock International Livestock Research and Training Center Morrilton Arkansas USA 116p Ojeda F 2000 Harvesting and ensiling techniques In Silage Making in the Tropics with Particular Emphasis on Smallholders Ed L t Mannetje FAO 161 Paper 8 0 Schoenian S 2003 An introduction to feeding small ruminants University of
103. nd for cardiac and circulatory and kidney and bladder problems Other uses include control of cholesterol diabetes high blood pressure and even prevent and treat certain cancers Moringa extract contains seven times more vitamin C than oranges so it can boost the immune system and decrease susceptibility to colds cough and the flu Ornamental Widely planted as an ornamental Water treatment Ground seed can clarify water of any degree of visible turbidity if a small cloth bag filled with the powdered seeds is swirled round in the turbid water Ecology It readily colonizes stream banks and savannah areas where soils are well drained and the water table remains fairly high all year round Quite drought tolerant but yields much less foliage where it is continuously under water stress It can be killed back to ground level by a freeze but it quickly sends out new growth from the trunk when cut Soil requirements Adapted to a wide range of soil types but it does well in well drained clay or clay loam without prolonged waterlogging It prefers a neutral to slightly acidic soil reaction but can tolerate pH as high as 8 5 Moisture It prefers sub humid and humid climates of 500 1 500 mm Temperature Mean annual temperature from 12 to 40 C Altitude It grows from sea level to 1 000 m a s l Reproductive behaviour The bisexual flowers are highly cross pollinated by bees and some birds Defoliation It coppices and pollards well An ex
104. nd producers report minimal seed set in dry years Seed yields of 250 kg ha are common from mechanically harvested dryland crops but wide spaced manually harvested trees under irrigation can produce up to 2 t ha 68 69 Further reading The Leucaena Network http www leucaena net index html Hernandez l Sim n L y Duquesne P 2001 Evaluaci n de las arb reas Albizia lebbeck Bauhinia purpurea y Leucaena leucocephala en asociaci n con pasto bajo condiciones de pastoreo Pastos y Forrajes Cuba 24 241 258 Hughes C E 1998 Leucaena A genetic resources handbook Oxford University Press UK Jones R J 1979 The value of Leucaena leucocephala as a feed for rumiants in the tropics World Animal Review 31 13 23 Jones R J Brewbaker J L and Sorensson C T 1992 Leucaena leucocephala Lamk de Wit In t Mannetje L and Jones R M eds Plant Resources of South East Asia No 4 Forages pp 150 154 Pudoc Scientific Publishers Wageningen The Netherlands National Academy of Science 1977 Leucaena Promising forage and tree crop for the tropics National Academy Press Washington D C USA NAS 115 p Ruiz T y Febles G 1987 Leucaena una opci n para la alimentaci n en el tr pico y subtr pico EDICA La Habana Cuba 200 p Shelton H M Jones R J 1994 Opportunities and limitations in Leucaena In ACIAR Proceedings No 57 Australia P 16 23 Shelton H M Gutteridge R C Mullen B F and B
105. nt in most islands in the Caribbean The external symptoms are the inflammation of the lymph nodes and the eventual rupture if not intervened before but abscesses also form internally in thorax and abdomen The pus like substance is the main means of contamination of skin lesions The bacteria remains in the premises for a long time and it is difficult to disinfect The disease is a major cause of carcass condemnation and meat trimming of damaged tissues but there are also economic losses due to affected growth and performance It is an important disease that deserves the attention of the regional health authorities There are vaccines for this disease but their effectiveness in national programs is unknown Animals with Caseous Lymphoadenitis 24 Coccidiosis Coccidia are species specific protozoa that parasite the intestinal track causing diarrhea and weakness especially in young lambs and kids Most infected animals show no symptoms but weak and immunocompromised individuals can get severely affected and die The coccidia multiply inside the epithelial cells of the intestine and the eggs oocytes get excreted into the environment via feces Warmth and humid conditions favor the hatching of the eggs It is very difficult to prevent infection when offspring are raised on the ground but much easier in elevated pens Internal parasitism Internal parasites are the most important health problem for small ruminants in the tropics There are
106. nt is taken out of the bag or container This phenomena is called self pruning of roots When roots reach the edge of the growing substrate adapt or self prune and when 42 transplanted into the soil they keep growing as they were doing it virtually without stress Transplanting is often a good option for establishing trees the species of the tall stratum particularly if natural reforestation is not possible due to scarcity of seeds or distance from forests where that particular species is present The main challenge is to prevent animals to damage them by consumption or trampling Protection by fencing is often used to restrict animal access But as it was mentioned before trees would naturally reforest pastures if they are not eliminated by farmers as it has been the normal practice unfortunately 43 44 FORAGE MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION Some simple forage management principles will help farmers to improve quality yield persistence and animal performance HARVESTING The harvesting of forage biomass can be broadly divided into cutting and grazing browsing Frequency and intensity are important aspects of forage harvesting Frequency refers to how often the trees are cut or grazed while intensity relates to the amount of leaf and stem remaining in the plant In general terms the best way to feed the animals is to offer freshly cut forage or to allow them to direct harvest the forage that is to let them graze or brow
107. ntoi Y Y Y Clitoria ternatea 4 Y Enterolobium Y Y Y cyclocarpum Leucaena Y Y leucocepahla Gliricidia sepium Y Y Y Moringa oleifera Y Y Morus alba Y Y Y Neonotonia wightii Y V Prosopis juliflora Y Y Stylosanthes Y Y Y guianensis Teramnus labialis e Y Tithonia diversifolia V Y Y Trichantera gigantea Y Y Y 36 Soil preparation The objective of land preparation is to provide a proper germination and initial development environment to maximize early growth and reduce competition from weeds or companion forage species For effective germination it is best to have moist soil pressed closely against the seed which is best achieved with a fine and firm seedbed The traditional way of soil preparation of the Green Revolution Agriculture including subsoiling with a subsoiler or a mole plow plowing with a moldboard or a disk plow and harrowing one pass and crossing are still performed but there are not the best practices nowadays considering costs and above all impacts on soli structure and fertility basically organic matter content No till direct seeding and minimum tillage are alternative ways to plant with less or minimum disturbance to soil structure These alternative methods might require agricultural implements and machinery not necessary readily available in the tropical countries with less advanced agriculture Two ways of land preparation for forage establishment the traditional system with organic matter applica
108. nts have acquired the taste of their meat and have developed traditional dishes and cooking methods The most popular meat is from goats and although currently much of the meat comes from sheep as well but it is often sold as goat s A butcher in the Dominican Republic said that his costumers were reluctant to buy sheep meat because it had a sweet flavor and they were cautious when they saw the sheep skin still on the carcass But as soon as the skin was removed they could no longer differentiate between the two species and they did not hesitate to buy if they were told it was goat s In fact once the meat is cooked in the traditional way very few people can tell the difference between the two species In most restaurants in the region the menus include dishes of goat meat seldom of sheep One notable exemption is Barbados where they are proud to have one of the most important breed of hair sheep in the Americas the Barbados Black Belly sheep In this case mutton and lamb are sold by butchers and supermarkets and local restaurants offer sheep meat dishes In the other countries where lamb or mutton are advertised in the menu the meat is mostly imported and comes from wool or meat type animals from temperate climates This is a completely different kind of product with a distinct flavor given by the intramuscular fat which hair type sheep do not have In most Caribbean countries the traditional way to rear small ruminants h
109. nts may flower but produce little if any seed Defoliation It tolerates repeated cutting For forage first cut 8 12 months after sowing at 0 5 1 0 m above soil level and thereafter every 2 4 months depending on rainfall and temperature 96 It is largely deciduous in the dry season To prevent leaf loss at this time it is cut at the end of the rains and again at 8 weeks into the dry season A final cut at 16 weeks into the dry season may be possible Normally used as a cut and carry forage and is rarely directly grazed Under grazing goats accustomed to Gliricidia will eat the bark as well as leaves and small stems and may kill young trees Agronomy Establishment Sowing depth is 2 cm for seeding in field or nursery beds Scarification is unnecessary and germination rates of gt 90 are typical Seedlings establish rapidly generally reaching a height of 3 m before flowering at 6 8 months of age Trees can also be established rapidly from cuttings using stakes of 5 6 months old 1 5 m long and with a diameter of 3 5 4 0 cm If moisture is adequate foliage will appear in four weeks For living fences stakes 1 5 2 5 m long with diameters of 5 10 cm are planted 1 5 5 0 m apart to 20 cm depth For densely planted protein banks seed is preferred Various planting patterns can be used e g double rows or triangular Plant populations range from 4 000 10 000 trees ha Very high densities are used in small protein banks Planting direct
110. on Trailing climbing or twining perennial vine with strong taproot and woody base of 25 mm in diameter in large plants climbing to 10 m on appropriate support Herbaceous slender stems mostly 2 3 mm diameter glabrous to densely pubescent hairs whitish to reddish brown well branched redeveloping from underground crown if main stem severed ability for prostrate stems to develop nodal roots varies with ecotype Pinnately trifoliolate leaves deciduous petiole 2 5 13 cm long Axillary inflorescence dense or lax racemes 2 35 cm long on peduncles 3 12 5 cm long comprising 20 150 flowers standard white to mauve blue sometimes with obscure small violet streaks on lower part yellow to orange on senescence Brown pods linear oblong straight or slightly curved at the apex 1 5 4 0 cm long and 2 5 5 0 mm wide containing 3 8 seeds shattering at maturity Oblong seeds with rounded corners laterally compressed light olive green to dark and reddish brown occasionally mottled 50 000 170 000 seeds kg Distribution Native to Africa and it may also be native to South and Southeast Asia It is found in grasslands shaded conditions in bushlands and woodlands Naturalized in in Subtropical Australia and in many other parts of the tropics Uses applications Fodder For grazing in pastures and for cut and carry It makes good hay and silage Suitable for agroforestry although twining habit can be a problem in the latter Ecology Soil requir
111. ons have the specific nitrogen fixing bacteria for a particular forage species For practical purposes if legumes growth well and do not show evident signs of deficiency it is probably because the nodules are there and functioning Scarification Seed of some forage species particularly legumes will not readily germinate because they have a protecting hard coat which prevents water from entering the seed a phenomenon called dormancy Under these conditions germination is poor unless the seeds are scarified the seed coat softened or broken Some of the legumes easily germinate such as Arachis pintoi and Gliricidia sepium without any treatment Others like Leucaena leucocephala Albizia saman and Enterolobium cyclocarpum need scarification The seeds can be scarified by either physical or chemical methods Abrasion with sand or sandpaper makes the seed coat thinner and allows water penetration Treatment with hot water or with concentrated acid dissolves or softens the coat achieving similar results For large quantities of seed mechanical scarification can be done by rotating drums with abrasive surfaces or mixing the seed with sand An easier method for smaller amounts of seed is the hot water treatment Few minutes 2 3 in hot water 60 80 C and the soaking for 24 h works for most legumes Moringa seed only requires soaking in room temperature water for 24 hours Seeding depth The depth of seeding is critical for forage es
112. opical America from Mexico to northern South America Exotic to the Caribbean islands where it is quite common Colonizing a wide range of habitats with 1 6 month dry seasons It is a climax species in subtropical dry forest and restricted 57 to disturbed areas in wetter forests lt is the dominant species in all the tree associations in which it is found Uses applications Shade shelter The wide spreading canopy and nitrogen fixing ability make it ideal shade for livestock in pasturelands Food Immature pods are cooked as vegetables seeds are toasted and ground Fiber Excellent for quality paper production Timber the heartwood is reddish brown coarse textured and moderately durable The wood is resistant to attack by dry wood termites and Lyctus and can be used in house construction interiors and boats Medicine Bark extracts are used against colds and bronchitis Ecology Soil requirements Soil type tolerates alkaline calcareous and even acidic soils Medium textured soils are probably best but eroded Ultisols deep moist clays shallow sandy clays and porous limestone all allow good development Moisture Mean annual rainfall 750 2500 mm Temperature Mean annual temperature 23 28 C Altitude 0 1 200 m a s Reproductive behaviour The small white flowers are borne in clusters or heads at the leaves base Flowering takes place in March and April during new leaf regrowth after the leafless dry season There i
113. ore recently on sheep and meat goats The main advantage of the diets based on highly digestible forage resources is that animals perform very well without additional feed However performance can be further improved when giving an energy rich complement since in diets based on high quality forages there is usually an excess of nitrogen above the rumen microbes needs that can be taken advantage of with some extra digestible energy One of the most popular forage for confinement systems has been mulberry FAO 2000 justified by its very high nutritional value and exceptional yields when properly fertilized Other legumes and high quality forages have also been used successfully simplifying the task of properly feeding small ruminants The description of the most important high quality forage species is a major component of this publication 12 HOUSING OF SMALL RUMINANTS In tropical areas where the animals spend the night in grazing systems or live all the time in confinement systems becomes a very important factor for their wellbeing particularly of the young and thus for the overall flock performance and productivity In most extensive systems animals are provided with a corral a pen to spend the night with a simple shelter to protect them from the rain This is particularly important for goats which do not like to get wet but it is beneficial for both species because humid conditions are not good for the health of youn
114. others the extensive systems do not longer satisfy the current meat demands With the objective of increasing small ruminant meat offer there have been numerous attempts to intensify production in various countries in the region Except in a very few recent cases most of these initiatives have failed Various initiatives to raise meat production or to start milk production from dairy goats have been short lived unprofitable or maintained only as a hobby at very high cost Two are the main reasons for this overall failure in intensive small ruminant production internal parasites and nutrition In this part of the world mainly due to the physical isolation caused by the insular nature of the countries and the relative small flock size there are few diseases affecting small ruminants and by far the most important health concern is internal parasites Haemoncus contortus in particular Fortunately once the life cycle of this potentially very harmful worm has been understood it can be easily controlled by breaking it The typical approach using anthelmintic drugs does not work in the long run and the damage to other creatures in the soil is severe The most important limitation for successful small ruminant production has clearly been inadequate nutrition And the main explanation for this has been the failure to recognize that small ruminants have higher nutrient requirements than large ruminants and that they should not be fed the typica
115. percentage is very low at 0 2 Propagation is generally by stem cuttings Defoliation Tolerant of regular defoliation by cutting No information on direct grazing was cited Plants should not be cut at heights below 1 0 m This height ensures plant regrowth if buds are not damaged it also reduces weed competition Agronomy Establishment Generally established from stem cuttings that strike roots easily Cuttings 20 cm long and with at least 3 leaf buds and 2 3 mm in diameter were most effective in striking roots 92 of cuttings Larger and longer cuttings were less successful Cuttings should be selected from the basal part of young stems Strike rate has been improved by storing cuttings in a shaded place for one day prior to planting into a nursery bed Cuttings produce shoots in about one month and can be planted into the field after about 50 days Spacing varies from 0 5 to 1 0 m apart and can be planted in a block or as a twin hedgerow along fence lines Fertilizer It responds well to fertilizer application despite being adapted to acid infertile soils In Vietnam DM yield increased from 5 to 9 t ha when manure application was increased from 15 to 30 t ha In low fertility soils produces an almost linear response to N fertilizer of up to 240 kg ha with an optimum return on costs at 160 kg ha N Regrowth well under heavy cutting regimes when fertilization and ideal conditions occur Companion species It can be grown in associa
116. posed by T Preston FAO 1986 can easily be used and gives excellent practical results Following this approach the strategy for feeding small ruminants has five main points e Selection of a carbohydrate rich resource the most abundant and or inexpensive feedstuff locally available and suitable for small ruminants 11 e Provision of enough fermentable nitrogen via urea or ammonia to reach 2 5 3 0 of nitrogen in the diet e Addition of other minerals as required Sulfur is usually the next limiting mineral after nitrogen for proper rumen functioning e Provision of a highly digestible green forage at 10 20 of diet dry matter to further encourage rumen digestion e Supplementation with a source of by pass protein oilseed meal fish meal meat meal cereal brand or dry tannin rich legume leaves and by pass energy rice polishing or cracked maize at 5 10 each of diet dry matter depending on specific animal responses The authors M D Sanchez has used this methodology to design research and practical diets for small ruminants obtaining in most cases excellent animal performance High quality forage based diets For the last two decades starting from the studies at the Centro Agron mico Tropical de Investigaci n y Ense anza CATIE 1994 8 1995 there have been many institutional and private initiatives to rear small ruminants with cut and carry legumes and high quality forages The emphasis have been on dairy goats but m
117. previously Traditional complete land preparation has been used in the past but it is preferable to do direct seeding after temporary control of competitors In Australia they plant rows 4 9 m apart at seeding rates of 1 5 3 0 kg ha In Cuba for direct grazing systems the recommended density is 1 m within rows x 3 m between rows but in Colombia is planted at high densities 1 m x 1 m In fodder banks density could be 0 4 m within rows and 1 0 m between rows Post plant herbicides can be used to control emerging weeds between the rows Rolling cultivators can be used to control very young weeds and to break soils crusts to allow the emergence of Leucaena seedlings Small areas can be planted using seedlings normally raised in poly bags for plug planting at 3 4 months old Seedlings can also be raised in beds and removed for planting as bare rooted seedlings For cut and carry systems all the L leucocephala varieties are fine but for browsing grazing systems the varieties Cunningham or Peru are preferred due to the flexibility of their branches which do not break while browsed by cattle and to their resistant root system to animal trampling Fertilizer Normally no fertilized under most conditions with normal Rhizobium association Starter nitrogen and phosphorus may be used when establishing into depleted soils On acid infertile soils it is essential to add lime phosphorus and potassium at planting and then after each cu
118. r Amparo 1995 Tithonia diversifolia Hemsl Gray una fuente proteica alternativa para el tr pico LRRD 6 3 75 87 http www rrd org Irrd6 3 9 htm P rez A Montejo l Iglesias J M L pez O Mart n G J Garc a D E Milian Idolkis y Hern ndez A 2009 Tithonia diversifolia Hemsl A Gray Pastos y Forrajes v 32 n 1 Matanzas Cuba http scielo sld cu scielo php pid S0864 039420090001000014script sci_arttext Rios Kato Clara 1999 Tithonia diversifolia nemsl Gray una planta con potencial para la producci n sostenible en el tr pico En Agroforester a para la producci n animal en Am rica Latina Eds M D Sanchez y M Rosales FAO 143 http www fao orq livestock agap frg agrofor1 Rios14 htm 74 Medium Stratum Species Vines Clitoria ternatea Scientific name Clitoria ternatea L Synonyms Clitoria albiflora Mattei C bracteata Poir C mearnsii De Wild Family tribe Family Fabaceae Leguminosae subfamily Faboideae tribe Phaseoleae Common names English Butterfly pea blue pea Spanish azulejo papito zapatico de la reina zapotillo conchita azul campanilla choroque lupita bejuco de conchitas French cordofan pea honte Morphological description A vigorous strongly persistent herbaceous perennial legume Stems fine twining sparsely pubescent suberect at base 0 5 3 m long Leaves pinnate with 5 or 7 leaflets leaflets elliptic ovate or nearly orbicular 1 5 5 cm long 0 3 3 cm wid
119. r the Tropical Zones of Latin America Review http www fao org WAICENT FAOINFO AGRICULT AGP AGPC doc pasture pizza ro html 116 CONCLUSIONS The production of small ruminants in the tropical areas of Latin America and the Caribbean can be sustainable and sufficient to supply the current and future market demands of the region and beyond and considering the attractive prices it can also be a very good business All the main factors are potentially in place animal breeds suitable forage species appropriate technologies and market demands Nevertheless in order to take advantage of this opportunity it is essential that sector leaders technicians and above all small ruminant farmers understand the key factors to be able to maintain a sustainable profitable and competitive production Although small ruminant production started very soon after the arrival of the European colonizers it has been only during the last few decades that the extensive production prevalent for five centuries has not been able to satisfy the growing market demand particularly for meat There are few farms in various countries in the region which are showing that intensive small ruminant production is not only possible but also profitable Evidence from diverse institutions and commercial enterprises suggests that alternative feeding systems using high quality forage species for small ruminants in tropical Latin America and the Caribbean are technic
120. ratum Species Stylosanthes guianensis Scientific name Stylosanthes guianensis Aublet Sw var guianensis Synonyms Stylosanthes gracilis H B K Kunth Family tribe Family Fabaceae Leguminosae Papilonaceae tribe Aeschynomeneae Common names English Brazilian stylo brazilian lucerne common stylo Spanish Alfalfa de Brasil lengua de rana tarbardillo French luzerne br silienne luzerne tropicale Morphological description A robust erect to semi erect short lived perennial herb or sub shrub growing to 1 2 m Leaves and young stems glabrous to densely pilose or with scattered bristles Trifoliolate leaves with lanceolate leaflets 0 5 4 5 cm long and 0 2 2 cm wide Flowers yellow to orange with standard 4 8 mm x 3 5 mm borne in clusters on a capitate spike Seeds mostly pale brown varying from yellow to almost black in single seeded pods 260 000 400 000 seed in hull kg Distribution Native to Mesoamerica and tropical South America Naturalized in many parts of the tropics and subtropics Uses Fodder For pasture for cut and carry hay leaf meal and pellets Cover crop In orchards Ecology Soil requirements It prefers well drained open textured soils from sands to light clays e g tropical latosols gleys loams and sandy podzolic soils Found on soils with pH from 4 0 8 3 Moderately tolerant of high aluminum and manganese but not of high salinity It can extract phosphorus very efficiently but responds
121. ray R A 1998 Eds Leucaena adaptation quality and farming systems ACIAR Canberra Australia Shelton H M 2000 Tropical forage tree legumes in agroforestry systems UNASILVA 200 Vol 51 70 Medium Stratum Species Shrubs Tithonia diversifolia Scientific name Tithonia diversifolia Hemsl A Gray Synonyms Mirasolia diversifolia Hemsley Family tribe Family Asteraceae Compositae tribe Heliantheae Common names English Tree marigold tithonia Mexican sunflower Spanish Jalacate guasmara arbol maravilla girasol mexicano Morphological description It is a woody herb or succulent shrub 1 3 m tall Opposite leaves 3 5 attenuate base acute apex and crenate margin Its height varies between 1 5 and 4 0 m with erect and branched stem Leaves are alternate petiolate up to 20 cm long and wide The inflorescence appears in flower heads and it is formed by small sessile flowers The flowers are brilliant yellow or orange The fruit is dry and indehiscent The seeds known as achene are oblong up to 6 mm long Distribution Present in all tropical and subtropical areas with almost 15 000 species distributed all over the world Tithonia genus has 10 species in Central America and it is commonly accepted that its center of origin Uses applications Feed For the last three decades has been used as forage in agroforestry systems for animal production including silvopastoral systems with great success thanks
122. re Requires summer rainfall of 500 mm over 3 months but grows best between 700 1 500 mm Drought tolerant even under heavy grazing will survive in years which have only 400 mm rainfall and a dry season of 5 6 months or longer Some tolerance of short term flooding but not prolonged inundation or waterlogging Temperature Warm wet season growth up to 2 000 m a s in equatorial Africa and up to 24 S latitude Tolerates average daily temperatures down to 15 C but not frosts Production is limited more by low average daily temperatures or a short growing season than by light or even heavy frosts Light Normally grown in full sunlight but moderately shade tolerant Reproductive behaviour Flowers can develop in 4 6 weeks after sowing and continue to flower while temperature and moisture are adequate Flowering can occur throughout the year given sufficient soil moisture and frost free conditions Predominantly self fertile but with some out crossing Defoliation Tolerant of heavy rotational grazing but not constant heavy defoliation Frequent trampling by cattle will damage the stems Growing tips and axils of stems must be left to develop new leaves Because of its high palatability it is better managed as short term pasture under rotational grazing Optimum cutting interval of 56 days at heights of 5 or 10 cm for best DM and protein yield There is one report of persistence for 14 years under heavy dry season grazing in infertile V
123. re is no experience of ensiling a particular forage it is always a good advice to add some easily fermentative material like molasses or a starch source to ensure that the pH drops quickly Normally young plants will produce better silage than older ones The first thing is to chop the forage as fine as possible to allow good compaction to expel the maximum amount of air to avoid aerobic decomposition or fungal growth Depending on the size of the container compaction can be done by hand by feet standing or jumping on top or with machinery tractor Once the material is well compacted the container is sealed trying to leave the minimum amount of air on top again to prevent aerobic processes The ensiling process lasts few weeks to achieve the desired acidity and once that happens the material is stable and lasts in good condition for many months even years provided that not air or water gets in that the cover does not get perforated 49 Once the farmer proceeds to use the silo the area exposed to air should be as small as possible to prevent oxidation Preferably a particular silage batch should be used as quickly as possible in few days to avoid deterioration of the feed Ojeda 2000 and for this reason several smaller containers are preferable than a large one However if the silo can be properly sealed again after every use a larger container has the advantage in many circumstances of less labor required for unit of fe
124. results in births throughout the year including some of them during the most difficult months when there are shortages of feed and water can be greatly improved by seasonal mating The ideal situation is to have most if not all the offspring born in the best time of the year that is well into the rainy season with abundant feed resources For this to happen males should only be allowed to breed females around 5 months previous to the best season Two full estrus cycles are normally required to have all the open females successfully bred That means approximately 34 for days for sheep and 42 days for goats considering that the estrus cycles last 17 and 21 days on average respectively Males can be left all day with the females during this time or they can be kept separate and allowed to breed only when the flock comes back to the overnight corrals If there are no restrictions in feed availability throughout the year a seasonal mating in large flocks can be implemented by keeping the males with the flock for two full heat cycles around one month and then three months separated This means that 6 all cycling females will get bred in one mating period and the rest in the next mating season four months later In practice the female flock naturally divides in two similar size groups which will get bred in alternative breeding periods and results in parturition intervals of 8 months or 1 5 parturitions per year This is below the phys
125. rs deep soils of neutral to slightly alkaline pH 6 5 8 3 but it grows in some places sodic soils Moisture It grows best in semi arid and arid lands 250 1 000 mm but thrives even at higher rainfall 1 500 mm Temperature lt tolerates a wide range of temperatures including below cero and frosts since it drops its leaves during the winter Altitude From sea level to 2 000 m a s Agronomy Establishment When animal consume the ripe pods seeds pass through the gut while being scarified The readily germinate once deposited on the soil with feces Management The tree normally grows to a height of about 10 m but under favorable conditions it may reach 20 m Spacing depends on the use intended for the trees In South America when grown for firewood a spacing of 2 x 2 m or wider is used In rangeland in association with grasses and other crops the spacing may be up to 10 x 10 15 m When the emphasis is on pod production the spacing used is usually 5 x 5 10 m Young plants benefit from weeding around the stem and need protection from grazing animals Weed In Africa it has become a weed in dense communities where it is not used Pests and diseases In South America the wood sawyer insect Oncideres saga causes considerable damage Other pests reported there are the lycainid butterfly Hemiargus ramon which damages the flowers and the lonchaeid fly Silba pendula and Bruchus beetles which attack the pods Feeding value
126. s con pedestales http www monografias com trabajos55 produccion de pastos produccion de pastos2 shtml Benavides J 1991 Integraci n de rboles y arbustos en los sistemas de alimentaci n para cabras en Am rica Central un enfoque agroforestal El Chasqui C R No 25 6 35 Borroto Angela Mazorra C A P rez R Fontes Dayami Borroto Mar a Cubillas Nieves y Guti rrez l 2007 La potencialidad alimentaria y los sistemas de producci n ovina para una finca citr cola en Cuba Revista Cubana de Ciencia Agr cola 41 1 3 12 Burritt E A and Provenza F D 1990 Food aversion learning in sheep persistence of conditioned taste aversions to palatable shrubs Cercocarpus montanus and Amelanchier alnifolia J Animal Science 68 4 1003 7 CATIE 1994 Arboles y arbustos forrajeros en Am rica Central J Benavides ed Informe t cnico No 236 CATIE 721p CATIE 1995 M dulos agroforestales con cabras para la producci n de leche J Benavides J Esquivel y Esmeralda Lozano Manual T cnico No 18 CATIE 56p 119 CENPALAB 2001 Bovino Ovinocultura Intensiva Sostenible Centro Nacional para la Producci n de Animales de Laboratorio Cuba 27p CIPAV 2014 Red Latinoamericana de Agroforester a Pecuaria FAO Centro Agron mico de Investigaci n y Ense anza CATIE y Fundaci n CIPAV http www cipav org co red de agro red html CSIRO 2005 Tropical Forages An Interactive Selection Commonwealth Sc
127. s no knowledge about first flowering age Seed dissemination is mainly by cattle horses and wild ungulates attracted by the fruits syrupy pulp Agronomy Establishment Propagated through seeds which are collected from fallen pods Seeds require scarification A suitable treatment is soaking in very hot water for 30 seconds followed by 24 hours in water at room temperature Natural regeneration is infrequent in grazed pastures since only few seeds are spread by grazing animals and after germination they are browsed off lt regrowth vigorously after coppicing or lopping but no information is available on its response to repeated cutting Pests and diseases Has no widespread or serious disease or pest problem Parrots often prey on the green pods and the gall forming moth Asphondylia enterolobii may disrupt fruiting Occasional attack by a fusarium fungus may cause the affected limbs to fall from mature trees Feeding value Nutritive value and palatability It produces large quantities of highly palatable and nutritious pods which are consumed readily by livestock Pods nutritive value is high with 13 of CP and 71 of IVDDM The foliage is less palatable 58 Seed production Seeds tolerate desiccation to 10 7 humidity Seeds remain viable for several years under cool dry conditions Further reading CONAFOR Enterolobium cyclocarpum Comisi n Nacional Forestal de M xico Sistema de Informaci n para la Reforestaci n http
128. s the advantage of facilitating weeding by hand chemical or mechanical means and eventually grazing browsing and harvesting When planting forages in slopes the rows should be perpendicular to the slope ideally at leveled contour lines In flat surfaces tree forages should be planted east west to obtain maximum solar radiation Fertilizer application In most situations forage can be successfully established without manure or fertilizer although obviously they will grow better from the beginning if nutrients are available In any case the recycling of nutrients is essential for long term sustainability of forage production Some of the forages can be very productive and thus continuously extract large of amounts of nutrients from the soil Legumes might be fixing its own nitrogen but the rest of the mineral nutrients come mostly from the soil In grazing browsing systems nutrients are naturally recycled to the soil via feces and urine but in cut and carry systems efforts should be made to return nutrients either by directly spreading the fresh slurry or mixing it with irrigation water or by passing feces urine through a biodigester The fermentation occurring within the biodigester releases methane which is normally burnt to generate heat for cooking or other purposes but most important it incorporates the mineral nutrients into bacteria which can then release them for plant absorption The issue here is that biodigester effluent
129. se In this manner forage has normally its best nutritive value Timing for first harvest Before forage is harvested grazed for the first time it is essential to allow sufficient time for the plants to get well established Many failures in forage duration upon establishment occur by overlooking this simple principle The right time for the initial utilization is determined by species soil climate and agronomy When dealing with herbaceous legumes it is important to take into account the botanical composition of the stand area covered by the legume the height and the number of anchor points of the plant It is a common to leave forage shrubs until they reach a height of at least 0 90 1 5 m However age at the first harvest is also important since it is positively correlated to yield at subsequent harvests Obviously there are differences between species The establishment period can be greater than one year in some cases Grazing Cutting frequency The decision on how often to graze cut forage is not based simply on yield and feed quality It also depends on the needs of the farmer at a given time which may override any other considerations Harvesting should be done as regularly as it is feasible to obtain the highest feed quality and dry matter production For the first few days after cutting forage regrows slowly as it has few leaves to photosynthesize and it greatly depends on root reserves This period is followed by a few weeks
130. several potential internal parasites but the most important by far is Haemoncus contortus or barber s pole worm The adults live in abomasum where they suck blood from the epithelium Adult females produce thousands of eggs a day which are excreted in the feces contaminating the pastures After a couple of growth stages larvae are ready to infect new hosts through grass consumption Experience has shown that the only way to eliminate these worms is by interruption of the life cycle that is preventing the intake of the larvae since in the medium and long term repeated anthelmintic medication develops resistance Rotational grazing reduces the risk of contamination but in certain conditions of high humidity and shade it is difficult to attain Browsing systems and cut and carry are the most practical ways of eliminating the internal parasite problem Although the overall strategy to control internal parasites should to break the life cycle sometimes it becomes necessary to treat animals with anthelmintic drugs In this case only the individuals being severely affected should be medicated in order to reduce the chances of development resistance and to save on medicines The FAMACHA system Bath Malam amp van Dyk 1996 Bath and van Wyk 2001 FAO 2013 recommends the identification of anemic animals the ones most affected by the internal parasites by looking into the bottom eyelid mucous membrane Only the animals with very pale color receiv
131. t 66 Compatibility It is compatible with a range of grass species but it can be difficult to establish into existing grass pastures without complete opening rows or previously removing the grass In the dry tropics can be difficult to establish grass into mature Leucaena plantations due predominantly to moisture competition lt is recommended to seed Leucaena first and shortly afterwards introduce the grass Companion species Grasses In sub humid and humid conditions it can be grown in association with a variety of grasses Cenchrus ciliaris Panicum maximum P coloratum Chloris gayana Digitaria eriantha Brachiaria humidicola and B decumbens Pests and diseases Main insect pest is the psyllid Heteropsylla cubana an aphid like sucking insect that reduces production of all cultivars and accessions Psyllid population outbreaks are generally episodic depending on climatic conditions In the humid tropics outbreaks are most severe at start and end of wet season Populations can be almost permanently high where moderate rainfall and temperatures occur throughout the year Soil insects such as earwigs scarab beetles termites and cut worms can cause serious damage to emerging seedlings and should be controlled Weed potential It has considerable weed potential in ungrazed disturbed lands such as roadsides and stream banks particularly where soils are limestone based No weed potential under continuous grazing as trees rarel
132. tablishment Too deep would not allow plants to emerge and to shallow would exposed the seeds to birds and insects or to get dry from solar exposure Seed size and soil texture are important in determining sowing depth the smaller the seed and the heavier the soil the more superficial is the required placement of the seed Small forage seeds e g 40 Teramnus Stylosanthes and Clitoria need to be sown within the first centimeter of the soil Larger seeds e g Gliricidia A saman E cyclocarpum can got to soil depths of 2 5 cm The other critical factor is the contact of seeds with surrounding soil Proper germination is obtained if fine soil closely encloses the seed and transmits the humidity required Seeding methods The amount of seed required for direct seeding depends of seed size viability and whether the species will be in monoculture or in association with other species The planting scheme basically depends on the harvesting method either grazing browsing or cut and carry mechanically or by hand In general terms smaller seeds are sown at lower rates and larger seeds at higher rates just because of size The fact sheets provide information on the amount of kg of seed that need to be planted per unit area Direct seeding is done either in rows manually or with drill seeders or by broadcasting In any case seeds needs to be placed at the right depth or covered with soil for a successful germination Sowing in rows ha
133. tainers like recycled containers including bottles and tetrapacks x ORI Nursery trays and young plants The planting substrate could be peat moss or whatever substrate commonly used for vegetables like rich soil humus river sand or organic substrates usually in mixes It is important to maintain the appropriate humidity with irrigation but always preventing direct exposure to rainfall especially with small seeds which can be uncovered easily 39 Inoculation of legume seeds The majority of the forage species being recommended in this publication belong to the family Leguminosae Fabaceae and are commonly called legumes The species of this family are notorious for being able to fix atmospheric nitrogen through an association with bacteria of the genus Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium which form root nodules Legumes are easily recognized by their fruit shape or pods and their compound stipulated leaves Table 1 lists legume and non legume forage species Some legumes do not form effective nodules unless particular strain of nodule forming bacteria are present in the soil while others are less specific and form nodule with a variety of bacteria Symptoms of nitrogen deficiency are yellowing of leaves weak seedlings and poor survival It is possible to overcome nodulation problems by applying to the seeds the correct Rhizobium bacteria However the offer of commercial inoculum is limited and many times only research instituti
134. th of dry season temperature and humidity mainly related to diseases and pests The most important climate conditions as well as the suitability of the recommended high quality forage for different agro ecological regions are presented in Table 3 Soil Important soil factors affecting forage adaptation include overall fertility pH and drainage The suitability of the selected species to three general soil types is shown in Table 4 It is very important to conduct chemical analysis of representative soil samples which together with the farmers experience and the specific characteristics of the forage species will determine options for soil amendments and fertilization 35 Table 3 High quality forage species for three climates situations Wet tropics Humid or dry Cooler tropics without or short tropics with long of high dry season dry seasons elevations Albizia saman Y Y Arachis pintoi Y Y Clitoria ternatea Y Y Enterolobium cyclocarpum Y Y Leucaena leucocepahla Y WA Gliricidia sepium Y Y Moringa oleifera Y Y Morus alba Y Y ye Neonotonia wightii Y Y Prosopis juliflora Y Y Stylosanthes guianensis Y Y Teramnus labialis Y Tithonia diversifolia Y Y Y Trichantera gigantea Y Y Table 4 Suitable forage species for fertile moderately fertile and infertile soils Fertile Moderately fertile Infertile neutral to moderately neutral to moderately extremely acid soils acid soils acid soils Albizia saman Y Y Y Arachis pi
135. thout affecting reproductive performance Edible biomass is accepted for pigs and creole chickens Seed production Seed is very small 4 000 000 kg and is produced in small fruits weighing about 0 9 g each and containing 35 40 seeds Seed germination is very poor at 0 2 Propagation is almost exclusively by stem cuttings Further reading Gomez M E Rodriguez Lylian Murgueitio E Rios Clara In s Rosales Mendez M Molina C H Molina C H Molina Molina E y Molina J P 2002 Arboles y arbustos forrajeros utilizados en alimentaci n animal como fuente proteica CIPAV Colombia 142 p http 190 60 31 203 8080 spui bitstream 123456789 664 1 20061024152517 Arb oles 20y 20arbustos 20 20forrajeros 20alimentacion 20animal paf 107 Mej as C E y Vargas J E 1993 An lisis de la selectividad de ovejas africanas con cuatro tipos de forraje LRRD 5 3 37 http www Irrd org Irrd5 3 mejia htm Rosales M 1997 Trichanthera gigantea Humboldt amp Bonpland Nees A Review LRRD 9 4 http www Irrd org Irrd9 4 mauro942 htm Solarte A 1989 Development of feeding systems for rabbits and guinea pigs based on sugar cane juice and tree foliages LRRD 1 1 66 http www rrd org Irrd1 1 solarte htm Vargas J E 1993 Efecto de tres forrajes arb reos sobre el consumo voluntario y algunos par metros de funcionamiento ruminal en ovejas africanas LRRD 5 3 42 http www rrd org Irrd5 3 vargas2 htm 108 Low St
136. tion left and minimum tillage in rows within established pastures Soil amendments can improve early forage establishment Lime application in the case of acid soils corrects pH and improves fertility Organic matter is always recommended as one of the best ways to amend the soils especially in exhausted soils after years of annual cropping and repeated plowing But it is always preferable to protect and to avoid destruction of the organic matter already present in the soil It takes many years even decades to build up the organic matter in the soil and only minutes to destroy it with the wrong but unfortunately still traditional agricultural practices of plowing and harrowing It is preferable to use herbicides on a single occasion to temporary suppress grasses and other plants weeds in lines for easier and faster establishment of legume species in a pasture using direct seeding equipment than to plow and to harrow the complete field destroying the organic matter present particularly if there is no much of it to start with 37 Planting time In non irrigated areas species need to be sown planted or transplanted depending on the species usually at the onset of the wet season when the soil has received sufficient moisture to support germination and establishment The planting period is more important in the dry tropics than in areas with well distributed rainfall Planting material Establishing forage is a simple agronom
137. tion with a range of over story agroforestry species due to its shade tolerance Has been grown underneath bananas Leucaena and Gliricidia 106 Feeding value Nutritive value Moderate to high nutritive quality depending on provenance Contains high concentrations of water soluble carbohydrates and starch and low NDF CP content ranges from 12 22 IVDMD ranges from 45 60 and 24 hr in sacco DMD ranges from 50 70 Contains comparatively high ash and calcium concentrations at 16 20 and 2 4 3 8 of DM respectively Suitable as a feed for non ruminants Palatability acceptability Well accepted by a range of domestic animals including pigs and other monogastrics after a period of familiarization Palatability may change with provenance Toxicity None reported Contains no saponins or condensed tannins but contains varying concentrations of steroids and other phenolic compounds possibly including hydrolysable tannins Concentrations depend on provenance Production potential Dry matter It produces 3 6 t of DM ha n acid infertile soils at spacing of 10 000 40 000 plants ha Yields of up to 12 t of DM ha year have been reported in environments more conducive to growth As living fence in twin hedgerow at 1 x 1 m spacing it has produced approximately 0 7 t of DM linear km month Animal production Some report good response in rabbits replacing 30 of concentrate For feeding pregnant pigs it can replace up to 30 soybean meal wi
138. to its high nutritive value abundant production and wide range of growing conditions Green manure In Costa Rica has been used at experimental level for increasing bean production in improved fallow lands in other countries also used as green manure in rice and corn crops Pest control Used as insecticide but specific compounds unknown Also used against leaf cutter and other ants Medicinal Infusion used for constipation stomach pains indigestion sore throat liver pains and malaria Leaf infusions which contain bitter oil are sometimes used for treating the eczema in the skin of domestic animals Ornamental Widely cultivated and appreciated as ornamental in the tropics 71 Ecology Soil requirements lt grows in deep soils with good drainage tolerates low acidic pH values 5 0 and low levels of phosphorus Moisture Annual rainfall of 100 2000 mm Temperature Mean annual temperature of 15 31 C Altitude It grows from sea level to 1950 m a s l Reproductive behavior Flowers and produces seed throughout the year and at different times but mainly during rainy seasons It is a prolific seeder which retains its seeds until the plant dries in the dry season when the seeds are spread by wind water and the movement of people livestock and vehicles Agronomy Establishment Can be propagated from seeds and cuttings Seeds germinate readily when sown fresh all year round Seeds are sprinkled directly on soil or barel
139. to phosphorus applications as well as potassium calcium sulfur and copper Moisture It occurs in areas with rainfall from 700 5 000 mm year mostly 1 000 2 900 mm year Although cultivars survive in lower rainfall areas and long dry periods they are generally best adapted to regions with gt 1 500 mm Tolerance to flooding and short term waterlogging vary with ecotype Temperature It occurs from about 20 N in Mexico to 32 S in Argentina This means to a range in average annual temperatures from about 19 27 C Primarily adapted 109 to the hot humid tropics although some ecotypes grow satisfactorily in the humid subtropics Altitude From sea level to 2 200 m a s l Light It does not have shade tolerance or at best fair shade tolerance Reproductive development Mostly a short day flowering response with critical photoperiod between 11 5 14 h depending on ecotype Ecotypes vary in their ability to seed under different day lengths In tropical America and Asia the most common ecotype is CIAT 184 Defoliation Cutting grazing when plants are tall and woody can kill them since there are few growing points close to the ground on mature plants It is best to stimulate lower branching early by grazing or cutting to 10 20 cm in the first few months Rotational grazing 1 week on and 4 8 weeks off or cutting at 2 3 month intervals favor it Agronomy Establishment It can be planted from seed or vegetatively Freshly harvested seed
140. to make them walk 18 MANAGEMENT This publication is not meant to be a complete treatise on small ruminant production Only the most relevant aspects and issues regarding management are included those which can make a difference under practical field conditions in tropical areas BREEDING There are two main aspects regarding breeding of small ruminants the animal breeds themselves and the breeding system Breeds Being very popular domestic animals everywhere and having been domesticated for thousands of years gt 12 000 there are hundreds of breeds of sheep and goats in the world particularly in Europe and Asia I iguez 2005 I iguez amp Mueller 2008 However in tropical areas of the Caribbean and Latin America there are only few breeds of each species Devendra amp Burns 1983 Fitzhugh 8 Bradford 1983 The early arrivals of small ruminants to the Caribbean came from Spain goats and from Africa sheep The importation during the last decades have mainly been from North America USA and Canada Goat breeds The main goat breed in the Caribbean is the Criollo descendant from the first animals brought by the Spaniards in the XVI Century It is considered a meat breed since its milk production is low lt 1 liter day In the various islands it has been crossed with other modern breeds but in general its traditional characteristics of rusticity and hardiness especially under the hot and humid conditions prevail
141. to reduce mortality In any case birth seasons in large groups can be very chaotic especially when a large group of females comes backs from the pastures to the corrals looking for their young Farmers need to be well organized to avoid unnecessary stress and injuries among the young Artificial Insemination This technique as well as embryo transfer are helping a lot in the genetic improvement of small ruminants in developed countries and are gradually gaining ground in developing countries The potential to reduce breeding costs in particular in regard to the cost of acquiring imported superior males but also by reducing the expenses of maintaining the males in small flocks are attractive incentives to justify the training of technicians and the purchase of the necessary rather sophisticated laboratory equipment In order to benefit from these improved reproductive technologies animals need to be well managed and properly fed so they can respond to the better genetics Animal performance is the result of the genetic x environment interaction Bringing specialized breeds but keeping the same feeding and management would not give the expected results Both genetic and management need to be improved in parallel Artificial Insemination is more difficult in ewes than in does due to several factors including their longer and more complex cervix and the lack of clear estrus signs The simplest technology is the Vaginal Artificial Insemination whi
142. tracted by the high production need to be replenished for sustainable production The association with legumes with effective nitrogen fixing rhizobium can reduce N inputs Nevertheless in extremely poor soils in very rainy areas or under irrigation conditions additional chemical fertilizer may still be needed 90 Compatibility Mulberry has been tried for direct browsing in combination with grasses and clovers in some temperate countries with acceptable results In the tropics it combines well with Gliricidia sepium under cut and carry systems and grows well under Erythrina spp and Leucaena Pests and diseases Literature describes many pests and diseases of mulberry in silk producing temperate areas but generally mulberry is a very healthy crop in the tropics Ability to spread Mulberry trees are very easy to propagate and transplant Fruit seed bearing plants can be spread through birds Feeding value Nutritive value Crude protein values in leaves vary from 15 28 depending on variety and growing conditions Crude protein in edible biomass leaf and young stem averages 12 15 with essential amino acids representing 45 of total aminoacids Fiber fractions are low in mulberry leaves compared to other foliage Acid detergent lignin contents are 8 for leaves and 7 bark A striking feature of mulberry leaves is the mineral content with ash values up to 25 Typical contents are calcium 1 8 2 4 phosphorus 0 14 0 24 potassiu
143. tremely fast growing tree within 1 3 months reaches 2 5 m Constant pruning of up to 1 5 m year is suggested to obtain a thick limbed and multibranched shrub Trees are commonly grown for their leaves and topping out is useful to keep an abundant supply of leaves pods and flowers within easy reach Cutting tender shoots for food and forage will increase production of branches flowers and fruits Tree pruning should be performed when the plant has achieved a reasonable height between 1 2 1 5 m depending on the characteristics of each location 102 Agronomy Establishment Easily established by cuttings or by seed Seeds can be sown either directly or in bags Usually no seed pretreatment is required and they sprout in 1 2 weeks However in some cases introducing seed in room temperature water during 24 hours can increase germination It should be planted in soil with good drainage and full sun light Planting distance varies depending on the purpose of the stand For seed production trees can be sown between 1 and 3 m apart Fertilizer It responds well to mulch water and fertilizer Growth is stunted in areas with a high water table Nutrient requirements per hectare for high biomass production are approximately of 280 kg nitrogen 380 kg phosphorus and micro nutrients Pests and diseases Recent studies indicate attacks by some fungi and bacteria like root rot and papaya powdery mildew Ants and crickets attack new shoots
144. ts on leaves and stems and may kill the plant Botrytis head blight becomes a problem in seed crops during damp weather 110 Ability to spread Spreads by seed by virtue of surface water movement or following ingestion by livestock Feeding value Nutritive value 12 20 crude protein 52 60 in vitro digestibility 0 2 0 6 phosphorus 0 6 1 6 calcium Palatability acceptability Not readily eaten by cattle early in the growing season but becomes relatively more palatable than associated grasses later into the dry or cool season It is also of great value for small ruminants With rotational grazing animals graze the leaves first successively taking more stem ultimately damaging the woody main stem Production potential Dry matter Commonly 5 10 t ha but as high as 20 t of dry matter ha depending on cultivar growing conditions and management Animal production Grazing cattle gains of 250 600 g ha day and 300 500 kg ha yr Seed production Maximum measured seed production ranges from 700 to 1 350 kg ha although machine harvest recovery is only 50 60 of this amount since pods shed on maturity Flowering varies through the tropics depending on seasonality Under certain conditions seed remaining in seed heads is dislodged by beating the crop with sticks then swept up and cleaned yielding over 1 t ha on occasions Further reading Amezquita Maria Cristina Toledo J M and Keller Grein G 1991 Agronomic performance of
145. uction Seed is produced below ground and separates from peg soon after maturity It may need to mow regularly during the growing season to encourage seed set and to reduce rodent attacks Seed is produced throughout much of the growing season under adequate moisture so harvest is at end of rainy season Seed in pod yields of over 1 to 4 t ha although some provenances are less productive Seed should be dried and stored under low humidity to avoid rapid mortality 115 Further reading Bowman A M Wilson G P M and Gogel B J 1998 Evaluation of perennial peanuts Arachis spp as forage on the New South Wales north coast Tropical Grasslands 32 252 258 http www tropicalgrasslands info index php taft pages view tropicalGrasslands Cook B G 1992 Arachis pintoi Krap amp Greg nom nud In t Mannetje L and Jones R M Eds Plant Resources of South East Asia No 4 Forages p48 50 Pudoc Scientific Publishers Wageningen the Netherlands Ferguson J E and Loch D S 1999 Arachis pintoi in Australia and Latin America In Loch D S and Ferguson J E Eds Forage seed production Volume 2 Tropical and subtropical species p427 434 CABI Publishing Wallingford UK Kerridge P C and Hardy B Eds 1994 Biology and Agronomy of Forage Arachis Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical Colombia http www perennialpeanuthay org documents Biology and agronomy of forage Arachis paf Pizarro E A 2002 Forages fo
146. uld be stored in a cool dry environment since large reductions in viability of inadequately dried and inappropriately stored seed have been experienced within 10 months of harvest Seed should be inoculated with Bradyrhizobium strains Seed should be sown at 10 30 kg ha depending on quality and price It should be sown at 2 5 cm deep surface sowings result in poor germination and high seed losses to birds and rodents Fertilizer lt does not require high levels of fertilizer in most situations In very infertile soils an establishment application of 20 kg ha of phosphorus 100 of calcium 20 of potassium 14 of magnesium and 22 of sulfur plus maintenance dressings every two years of half this amount have given good results Applications of molybdenum may be necessary in 2 3 year old stands on very acid soils Compatibility It grows well with both sward forming and tussock grasses Regular defoliation might be necessary when grown with aggressive grasses to maintain high proportion of legume It grows well under trees Companion species Grasses Creeping species such as Brachiaria decumbens B humidicola Paspalum maritimum P notatum Axonopus fissifolius Digitaria eriantha Cynodon dactylon and C nlemfuensis lt also forms stable mixtures with bunch grasses such 114 as Panicum maximum and Paspalum atratum where it colonizes the inter bunch spaces Pests and diseases Diseases do not cause long term or serious damage but rats and mi
147. uminants in the tropical areas of Latin America and to some extent of the Caribbean CIPAV 2014 The main objective has been the reconversion of livestock production systems from grass based pastures to agroforestry systems including the silvopastoral systems Most of the efforts have been in cattle trying to reverse the huge damage caused by the deforestation of large amounts of forests and jungles to establish the so called artificial pastures Agroforestry systems are in simple terms a win win situation for everyone since apart of intensifying and making much more efficient and profitable the production systems there are also very significant environmental benefits and therefor great possibilities for agro tourism from biodiversity attractions renewable energy production and value added products for niche markets Hern ndez and Sanchez 2004 A parallel undertaking has been the improvement of small ruminant production by means of replacing partly or totally the grasses in the traditional diets of small ruminants in the tropics Although still very far from the development that reconversion occurring in cattle the more gradual shift towards high quality forage based systems for small ruminants is steady with some very successful examples 31 In cut and carry systems the leader has been Costa Rica as the result of the application of the research by CATIE in the 80s and 90s followed by Panama and more recently other Caribbean
148. w weeks when most species have difficulty in competing with grasses or other species present in soils In order to reduce competition and to achieve rapid growth several agronomic practices are used Direct seeding is often accompanied by clearing vegetation in rows with mechanical means or with herbicides The objective is to temporarily suppress the growth of competing species to give sufficient time for the forage plants to get established Once the forages have surpassed in height the competitors they normally do fine Although much more expensive transplanting has the advantage over direct seeding that plants are normally stronger and larger for overcoming the difficult initial phase However care should be taken not to lose the main root advantage provided by seeds The plants grown in nurseries should never allowed to get taller than the container that holds them This is to prevent that the main root gets twisted and loses its ability to grow vertically and to penetrate deep into the soil It is preferably to transplant smaller seedling with straight main roots than larger plants apparently stronger in which the main root has been bent by insufficient vertical space within the holding bag or container Containers with a lot of holes or specially designed to allow air to penetrate to the substrate limits reduce or eliminate stress at transplanting This occurs since surface roots are already in contact with air and do not die when the pla
149. worldwide has been by stem cuttings but in certain places seed is preferred Stakes should be 20 to 30 cm long and each stake ideally should have at least 3 buds Usually stakes are planted vertically into the soil For cut and carry it can be planted at 0 4 m within rows x 1 m between rows Micro stakes with only one bud take well in humid and warm conditions Mulberries can also be grown from seed Seed should be sown as soon as extracted from the fruit although white mulberry seeds germinate better after storage for one to three months Seeds should be planted near the soil surface with a thin layer of soil and ashes spread over them in moist soil They can also be planted first in a nursery with common substrates soil peat moss humus etc Seed germinate in 9 14 days depending on the season When seedlings are about 7 5 cm tall they are thinned and weeded As is the case with other tropical perennial forages for cut and carry systems planting by seed assures deeper roots with greater capacity to find water and nutrients which eventually results in higher biomass production and greater longevity Seeds are easier to transport to quarantine and to store Fertilizer For both higher yields and better quality leaves the application of balanced fertilizer is imperative Responses of mulberry to nitrogen fertilizers 250 350 kg of nitrogen ha have been clearly demonstrated with better responses from organic sources The nutrients ex
150. xperience with a new species or variety Low cutting i e severe defoliation with little or no leaf remaining produces a longer lag phase before regrowth starts A lighter defoliation leaving some leaf area will result in a faster recovery Table 8 Suggested cutting height for different forages types High nutritive value plants Cutting height Examples cutting cm Stoloniforous legumes 5 10 Arachis pintoi Bushy Legumes 20 30 Stylosanthes guianensis Shrubs and trees 30 100 Morus alba Gliricidia sepium Grazing browsing is often less severe for the plants than cutting as animals remove mainly the leaves while cutting removes whole branches Reserves within the stems and branches and the fact that they are still there that there is no need to rebuild them again favors a faster regrowth 46 Harvesting methods For ruminant feeding the preferred method to harvest forage has been hand cutting although mechanical harvesting could be employed for large areas either to be offered fresh or for conservation mixing drying or ensiling Manual harvest In small and medium size farms harvesting is done with machetes scissors or small mowing machines The cuts should be performed as clean as possible with an upward movement preferably which reduces cortex tearing on the stumps favors healing and reduces the chances of infection Other cutting implements e g sickles are used in some countries for herbaceous forages RT ES ES
151. y covered with soil at densities up to 40 000 plants ha Stem cuttings of 20 to 40 cm length establish readily Cuttings buried horizontally in the soil will sprout but they are less effective than cuttings inserted either upright or at an angle Cuttings should be planted into moist soil immediately after collection Harvest It can be cut or grazed as soon as 7 weeks but regrowth depends on fertilization responding very well to biodigester effluent and poultry manure Fertilizer It has a great root volume recovers scarce soil nutrients effectively and has a wide adaptation range Grows rapidly and demands low inputs It has the unique ability to absorb soil phosphorus quite efficiently making it a very valuable source of phosphorus fertilizer Weed potential Due to its rapid vegetative reproduction and significant yields of lightweight seeds it can quickly invade disturbed habitats It forms dense stands that prevent the growth of young native plants It is considered invasive in some parts of Africa and Australia and in many Pacific islands Feeding value Nutritive value Accumulates as much nitrogen in the leaves as legumes in addition to presenting high phosphorus content Nutritional quality varies with vegetative status Leaves contain 24 3 protein in dry matter and low fiber values and in general shows fast degradability and fermentation at rumen level The rapid nitrogen digestion requires a readily available energy source
152. y set seed and seedlings are removed by grazing or grass competition Without a rotational grazing Leucaena can t survive within pastures due to continuous intake by livestock Leucaena will never invade intact forests since it does not tolerate shade when young Feeding value Nutritive value Foliage is noted for its very high nutritive value for ruminant production Typical values for the edible fraction are 55 70 digestibility 3 4 5 nitrogen 0 8 1 9 calcium and 0 23 0 27 phosphorus Leaves also contain 2 6 condensed tannins phenolic compounds which bind and protect dietary protein from degradation in the rumen Palatability acceptability Highly palatable to most grazing animals especially compared to other forage tree legumes Toxicity It contains mimosine a non protein aminoacid that has antimitotic and depilatory effects on animals Mimosine concentrations in young leaves can be as high as 12 and the edible fraction commonly contains 4 6 Mimosine is acutely toxic to animals but is normally converted to 3 hydroxy 4 1H pyridone DHP upon ingestion DHP is goitrogenic and if not degraded can result in low serum thyroxine 67 levels ulceration of the oesophagus and reticulo rumen excessive salivation poor appetite and low liveweight gains DHP is metabolized by the microbe Synergistes jonesii which is present in the rumen of animals in the Americas from where it has been taken to other continents Since S jonessii

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