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chapter 5 radiological hazard and safety environmental monitoring

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1. a 50 Yr Whole Body Effective Dose Expo sure Action Levels Projected doses apply only to people outdoors without respiratory protection from the time of the accident until the valid time of the plot and recommended actions are to reduce the projected dose to those people exposed l Greater than 150 rem Immediate respiratory protection and evacuation recommended 2 Greater than 25 rem Prompt action required respiratory protection required consider sheltering or evacuation 3 Greater than 5 rem Respiratory protec tion required recommend sheltering consider evacuation 4 Greater than 0 5 rem Consider sheltering b Cumulative Deposition Exposure Action Levels 1 Greater than 600 uCi m Immediate action may be required until the contamination is stabilized or removed issue sheltering instructions recommend controlled evacuation 2 Greater than 60 uCi m Supervised area issue sheltering instructions recommend controlled evacuation 2 14 days 3 Greater than 6 uCi m Restricted area access on need only basis possible controlled evacuation required c The wording of the preceding deposition action levels was contracted because of space limitations on the ARAC plots The full wording follows 9 9 5 V ARAC Computer Simulation Notes enerated 31MAR89 2332 2 lt IRemarks Initial Plot H E Det of all line cale 1 200 000 lt items Integrated Dose 3aMaR8SS 2200 2
2. to 31MAR89 0000 Z Material PU 239 5 2000 at 1 5 m xposure Action Levels lt lt and Covered E 25 Rem 23 8 sq km F T 01252224222 prom action required 22 2227 2 22 125 4 NI wee espiratory protection required EE onsider shelter or evacuation J 2 gt 1 5 Rem 50 4 sq km Respiratory protection required recommend sheltering onsider evacuation 0 5 Rem onsider 67 1 sq km sheltering Bs 84 nee cue ij tu 5 8 km n lt 27 V V 10000 0 ft S eal Source Location Lat 37 42 04 N 121 SS 497 H Lon Figure 5 C 1 ARAC PLOT Lung Dose 1 2 5 D n ARAC Computer Simulation Notes enerated 31MAR89 2332 2 emarks Initial Plot E Det of all line items Scale 1 200 000 otal Deposition 2290 Z to 31MAR89 0009 Z aterial PU 239 at 8 48 xposure Act ion Levels eee and Area Covered 0025 600 uCi m2 2 0 sqkm action required s controlled evacuation sheltering instructions uCivm2 10 9 sq km area recommend ontrolled evacuation 2 14 days issue sheltering instructions gt 6 uCi m2 46 5 sq km Hestricted area Recess on need basis Possible controlled evacuation required L 5 0 km Source Location
3. 8581 6 PUB 8921105 PUB shes 21 02 Suonnquiuo2 sepnioui uon 9 28 15408 994 94 punoibyoeq v wot jo 18 929 WOJ suojoud Aexs66 AIUD 1 put wo ue BOWE UOISJAGAUOO SOUL doc PUB Nder OF OND ANAND 101009 814 b euo 66925 2208 0198 892 069 0198 Sift 261 ALIALLOY 105 30 NOS 1V4931NI 1 NOISH3ANOO 15 5 C 10 DoD 5100 52 M APPENDIX 5 D AREA AND RESOURCES SURVEYS 5 D 1 SURVEYS a General Extensive radiation predictions and surveys will be required to identify and characterize the area for decontamination and to develop and evaluate restoration plans During the initial hours of the response available radiation survey instruments and monitoring personnel for survey operations will be limited Determining whether contamination was released by the accident must be done immediately If a release occurred priority must be given to those actions required to identify and minimize the hazards to people These actions include identification of the affected area perimeter survey to permit identification of potentially contaminated peop
4. PRM probes are effective in inclement weather and are much less subject to damage during field use than other alpha meter probes 5 A 2 ALPHA SURVEY INSTRUMENTS CONTINUED Instrument Capability Type Scale Indicator Ludlum Alpha Beta Gamma Scintillation O to 400K cpm Model 3 G M Tube 200mR h h Portable high and low range analyzer for detecting alpha beta and gamma emissions The Model 3 is an electronic package similar in operation and function to the PDR 60 analyzer Probe 43 5 detects alpha via scintillation the probe surface area is 50 cm Probe 44 6 Hot Dog uses G M tube to detect beta and gamma Probe 44 9 Pancake Probe detects low energy gamma to 200 mR jh Ludlum Alpha Scintillation O to 500K cpm Model 2220 4 ranges The Model 2220 is an alpha detector electronics package that has a liquid crystal display and integral digital readout The unit weighs 3 5 pounds and has an adjustable high voltage and adjustable lower level discrimination feature VIOLINIST II HIVOLT PREAMP FIDLER INSTRUMENT SET This instrument set includes the FIDLER high voltage power supply and preamplifier and the Violinist H The Violinist 11 consists of a battery operated 256 multi channel analyzer and a preprogrammed microprocessor This instrument set when calibrated appropriately measures and determines surface contamination levels of plutonium and americum 241 in uCi m RANGER The instrument set includes the FIDLER
5. V Lat 37 42 04 N 10000 0 ft Len 121 55 49 H Figure 5 C 2 ARACPLOT Deposition 1 Greater than 600 uCi m Immediate action required Urgent remedial action may be needed from within a few hours up to two days Full anti contamination clothing and respiratory protection required by all emergency staff in this area Residents should remain indoors with doors and windows closed Room air conditioners should be turned off Controlled evacuation of children and adults should be considered urgent All work on or the use of agricultural products and or meat and poultry must be controlled and further action regarding them assessed 2 Greater than 60 uCi m Supervised area Controlled evacuation should be considered and may have to occur between about two days and two weeks or more All activities should be considered carefully and supervised Full anti contamination clothing and respirators required for all personnel engaged in heavy work or dusty windy operations Residents should remain indoors with windows closed unless evacuation is in progress or there is no significant airborne hazard and none forecast to occur via resuspension 3 Greater than 6 m Restricted area Entry restricted to those who live work and or have a need to be there Decontamination personnel and public health and safety staff should wear limited anti contamination protective clothing Controlled evacua tion of residents especially chil
6. b Service Response Force SRF Actions Upon arrival on scene the SRF personnel review the initial response force actions Actions include the status of identification and care of potentially contaminated people casualties and fatalities the results of radiation surveys and air sampling radiological response assets on scene or expected logs and records and the location for the JH EC Representatives from the DoE Federal Emergency Management Agency FEMA and Envir onmental Protection Agency EPA will be on scene within a few hours after the response force They and civil officials are the primary off site health and safety interface with the public However the SRF should continue to provide assistance and radiation monitoring support as necessary During those periods early in the response when Explosive Ordnance Disposal EOD operations limit access to the accident site radiological survey teams should only support the weapon recovery 5 4 efforts Off site radiological surveys require coordination with civil authorities This arrangement can be understood by explaining the role of the JHEC and FRMAC and by inviting the civil government approved radiological response organization to participate in FRMAC operation DoD specialized teams and the Department of Energy Accident Response Group DoE ARG are integral parts of the SRF The OSC should integrate DoE ARG radiological assets into the JHEC organization 1 Joint Ha
7. 1 2 GENERAL d Scope This appendix provides detailed informa tion from LLNL Report M 161 and Steven G Hamann references and p on the instrumentation and associated techniques used to perform radiological monitoring at an incident accident involving the release of radioactive material This appendix is not intended to serve as a user s manual for the various instruments However it includes sufficient detail to provide an understanding of the limitations of field measurement techniques and thus provides for proper application and the use of techniques in case ef an emergency For completeness some elementary characteristics of different kinds of radiation are included Throughout this appendix the word radiation will refer only to nuclear radiations found at a nuclear incident accident b Detection versus Measurement 1 Nuclear radiation cannot be detected easily Thus radiation detection is always a multi step highly indirect process For example in a scintillation detector incident radiation excites a florescent material that de excites by emitting photons of light The light is focused onto the photocathode of a photomultiplier tube that triggers an electron avalanche The electron shower produces an electrical pulse which activates a meter read by the operator Not surprisingly the quantitative relationship between the amount of radiation actually emitted and the reading on the meter is a complex function of m
8. comparable to a light dew reduced readings by 40 50 percent A layer of dust that was just visible on the shiny source had minimal effect on the count rate however a dust level that was only thick enough to show finger tracks reduced readings by 25 percent These simple demonstrations reinforced the knowledge that detection of alpha particles in any but the most ideal situations is most problematical The leaching or settling of contaminants into a grassy area or the dust stirred up by vehicular traffic on paved areas will significantly decrease or eliminate alpha detection 5 A 1 5 BETA GAMMA DETECTION a Gamma rays and high energy gt I MeV beta particles are highly penetrating radiations As a result the major problems listed for alpha detection do not apply Furthermore at the energies of concern in nuclear weapon accidents incidents detection efficiency for most detectors is relatively high Thus beta gamma detection is relatively easy b From a detection standpoint unfortunately high energy beta and gamma radiation are not produced in the most likely radioactive contaminants for example Plutonium Uranium or Tritium Rather the major potential source of beta gamma emitters is from fission product radioelements which could be produced in the extremely unlikely event of a partial nuclear yield Beta gamma detection therefore has no quantitative use in determining the extent of plutonium or uranium contamination but
9. types and uses of potentially effected property During helicopter operations flights should remain above or clear of any smoke and at a sufficient altitude to prevent resuspension from the downdraft when flying over potentially contaminated areas The landing zone should be upwind or crosswind from the accident site b After arrival at the site a reconnaissance team should enter the accident site to inspect the area for hazards determine the type s of contamination present measure levels of contamination and assess weapon status The approach to the scene should be from an upwind direction if at all possible The accident situation indicates whether anti contamination or respiratory protection is required for the initial entry team Every consideration should be given to protecting the initial entry team and to preventing undue public alarm Until the hazards identified only essential personnel should enter the possible contamination or fragmenta tion area of the specific weapon s The generally accepted explosive safety distance for nuclear weapons is 610 meters 2000 feet however the contamination may extend beyond this distance Additional explosive safety distances may be found in classified EOD publications At this point a temporary contamination control line should be considered Later when the boundary of the contaminated area is defined and explosive hazards are known the control line may be moved for bett
10. Column 40 should be marked Y if all detected contamination was removed from the person N if not and remarks are mandatory If no contamination was detected leave blank Columns 41 46 and 47 mark with Y if bioassay samples collected N if not Columns 42 45 48 51 52 56 and 57 61 enter units used in column headers and measurements in appropriate columns Columns 62 65 enter time bioassay sample was collected Column 71 mark Y if additional bioassay samples or other data is required and specify in remarks section Any unusual incidents or other data deemed important should be described in the remarks section and sequentially numbered The number should be indicated in Columns 77 80 Remarks may also be used to indicate when recorders change in mid sheet Each day should be started with a new form and the total number of pages entered on each sheet of the previous days forms 375 FORM 4 RADIATION HEALTH HISTORY Please print or place X in boxes as appropriate 1 50 5 NO 2 NAME last first m i 3A BIRTH DA E 38 MA E 4 day mo yr TEMPORARY ADDRESS TELEPHONE PERMANENT ADDRESS TELEPHONE NAME amp AD DRESS OF EMPLOYER HAVE YOU EVER BEEN TREATED WITH X RAYS OR RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES YES NO 7A REASON FOR TREATMENT 7B DATE OF TREATMENT mo yr 7C PLACE OF TREATMENT HAVE YOU EVER HAD ANY CANCER OR OTHER MALIGNANCY ves INDICATE TY
11. TO THE P R lvacv ACT L 3 S INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE USE OF THE RADIOLOGICAL CONTROL AREA LOG Column 71 should be marked with an X if the person was wearing full anti contamination clothing and a respirator Column 72 should be marked with an X if the person was wearing anti contamination clothing without a respirator or street clothing without a respirator Column 73 should be marked with an X if the person was wearing street clothing Column 75 should be marked with a Y if contamination was found on body or personal clothing when exiting the control area If no contamination was detected state none Column 76 should be marked with Y if all detected contamination was removed from the person N if not and remarks are mandatory If no contamination was detected state none Any unusual incidents or additional data deemed important for radiological safety should be described in the remarks section and sequentially numbered The number should be inidcated in Columns 77 80 Remarks may also be used to indicate when recorders change in mid sheet f Personal clothing was confiscated during decontamination articles taken should be noted in remarks Each day should be started with a new form and the total number of pages entered on each sheet of the previous days forms 5 E 8 6 4 5 DATE TIME RECORDER L CIV CLOTHING NUR USO mapas e n s ao a n au FORM 3 BIO
12. Units COMMENTS GrossCPM Gross CPM CPM Per findicete Factors Such AgPesk LOCATION with without Type Quanthy 100 CW Reading Cloud Passage Grid Co ordinates Background Particulate Particulate Soil Milk and Unless Instrument and Weather TIME Crossroads tic Filler Filler Water Units Noled Conditions and Other Datel 1 9 5 Figure 5 E 5 Field Monitoring Data Log 5 E 16 21 3 5 INCIDENT PAGE OF LOCATION BE SPECIFIC GRID COORDINATES ETC TEAM ORGANIZATION Figure 5 E 6 Form 6 TLOMEASUREMENTS COLLECTION ANO ANALYSIS LABORATORY LAB MANAGER ROUTETO PLACED RETRIEVED ASSUINEED READING BACK EA UNITS TIME ONE TIME GROUND TLD Measurement Collection and Analysis Form READOUT OATE TI ME RANSIT STORAGE COMMENTS OOSE 5 E 18 WEAPONS ACCIDENT ENVIRONMENTAL RADIATION ALPHA PROBE DATA FORM NOTE REPORT ACTUAL BKG OR MDL Incident _ Date Data Alpha Beta Gamma Agency Org Team Monitor _ Detector Type Model No Instrument BKG _ Calibration Date Conversion Factor Instrument MDL Locations Grid Coordinates Time Crossroads etc Reading Sample Collection Comments Type Soil Indicates Factors Such As Peak Milk Waler Reading Cloud Passage Instrument Tag No Air Filter and Weather Conditions and Other Data ke Figure 5 E 7 Weapons Accident Environ mental Radiati
13. dealing with long and short term evaluations of radiation exposures 5 Request for additional information should be directed to OEHL personnel OEHL services may be requested through the Air Force Operations Center or the JNACC c U S Air Force Air Transportable RADIAC Package ATRAP The Air Transportable RADIAC Package is located at Kelly AFB Texas It is a collection of RADIAC equipment spare parts and trained instrument repair technicians maintained in an alert status by the Air Force Logistics Command for airlift to the scene of a nuclear accident or radiological incident The Air Transportable RADIAC Package is able to support forces responding to an accident or incident by providing spare RADIAC sets and an on scene repair shop for instruments used in radiological surveys The ATRAP team is prepared to repair calibrate and issue RADIAC instruments to radiation survey teams at the scene of the accident on a twenty four hours seven days a week basis 1 The OSC will coordinate support for the ATRAP and accompanying technicians 2 The ATRAP will maintain in a ready status for deployment to the scene of a nuclear accident radiological emergency within four hours after notifi cation by the Air Force Operations Center The ATRAP will move over the road to sites within 150 miles of Kelly AFB Texas Beyond three hours driving time the ATRAP will be airlifted by Military Airlift Command For accident sites on inaccessible te
14. developed for the Department of Energy s Accident Response Group DoE ARG to provide a quick initial assessment of accidents involving radioactive materials These codes are run on the Hewlett Packard HP 41 family of hand held computers to allow for easy field use Also the codes are available in an IBM PC compatible version At present 13 separate programs exist ranging from general programs for downwind assessment following the release of radioactive material to more specific programs dealing with the release of plutonium uranium or tritium to programs that estimate the dose commitment from the inhalation of various radionuclides 2 The HOT SPOT computer programs were created to provide Health Physics personnel with a fast field portable calculational aid for evaluating accidents involving radioactive materials These codes provide a first order approximation of the radiation effects associated with the atmospheric release of radionuclides within minutes of data input Although significant errors are possible the HOT SPOT programs will provide a reasonable level of accuracy for a timely initial assessment More importantly the HOT SPOT codes will produce a consistent output for the same input assumptions thus minimizing the potential errors associated with reading a graph incorrectly or scaling a universal nomogram during an emergency situation 3 The HOT SPOT Health Physics Codes oper ating instructions and informatio
15. h for a given detector The code provides also a default value of 0 5 m2 This value was chosen to give a relatively conservative reading indication of contamination per count rate ISteven G Homann HOT SPOT Health Physics Codes Lawrence Livermore Laboratory Report M 161 April 1985 Steven G Homann Hazard Control Department LawrenceLivermore National Laboratory private communication 5 1 5 5 A 1 8 LABORATORY TECHNIQUES As discussed above laboratory procedures are necessary to make quantitative measurements of radiation contamination For this reason mobile laboratories are available within DoD and DoE for deployment to an accident site Although specific instrumentation will vary the types of laboratory analyses fall into three categories gamma and x ray spectroscopy alpha beta counting and liquid scintillation a Gamma and X ray Spectroscopy The major tools involved in gamma and x ray spectroscopy are a reasonably high resolution gamma x ray detector such as a GeLi or selectively high resolution Nal and a multi channel analyzer With this equipment it is possible to accurately determine the energies of the gamma and x radiation emitted by a contaminated sample Generally spectroscopic techniques are not used for absolute measurements of amount of contamination for example microcuries in a sample However by adjusting for the energy dependence of detection efficiencies and using standard spectral unfoldi
16. monitoring closely the safety procedures of all par ticipating organizations Personnel entering the contaminated areas if not trained to work in a radiation environment should be given specific guidance 4 Radiological Surveys Radiological surveys and other radiological data are required by the OSC and civil authorities officials to identify actions to minimize hazards to the response force and the public Site charac terization and decontamination and restoration planning will also need this information Radiological survey and data requirements must be given to the FRMAC for implementation to meet this requirement in an expeditious manner Prior to extensive survey initiation the following must be completed select appropriate detection equipment calibrate instruments and determine the background readings Surveys include NDA perimeter area and resource facility surveys The survey results are complicated by sensitivity y fragilit y of equipment background readings and the age of the fissile materials The survey process can require days to weeks to complete Survey procedures are located in Appendix 5 D and forms are at Appendix 5 E 5 Radiological Advisory to the JIC All public release of information will be processed by Directive 5230 16 reference b and made through the JIC Public interest in the actual or perceived radiological hazard resulting from a nuclear weapon accident will produce intense
17. or controllable quantities whereas overburden and its effect on alpha and low energy x radiation are not Thus the safeguards community has standardized upon the detection of plutonium via its americium daughter d To facilitate the calculations and calibration needed to measure plutonium contamination by x ray detection in the field the Lawrence Livermore National Labor atory has produced a series of utility codes called the HOT SPOT Codes Available for IBM compatible computers as well as the HP 41 calculator systems the HOT SPOT Codes include an interactive user friendly utility routine called FIDLER which steps a user through the process of calibrating an x ray detector the Field Instrument for Detection of Low Energy Radiation the FIDLER code is applicable to any x ray detector if the full calibration technique involving a known americium calibration source is used e Particularly useful in the FIDLER code is the provision to aid in the measurement of the geometric factor for any specific detector Measurements made at the Ballistic Research Laboratory and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory have shown that the value of K h for h 30cm can vary from less than 0 4 m2 to over 1 0 m2 apparently depending upon external configuration and subtle internal details of a particular FIDLER probe For this reason the FIDLER code contains both a detailed laboratory procedure and a field expedient procedure for determining K
18. stations and other personnel processing points to ensure bioassays or other appropriate follow up actions are taken 5 Implement OSC S health and safety stand ards and monitor the safety procedures of all partic ipating in weapon recovery operations 6 Brief and train people not designated previously as radiation workers who will be working in the contaminated area on personal protective equipment hazards and safety measures 5 6 Senior Health JHEC Director and Deputy Director Safety Advisor Chief of Staff Site Hestoration Operational F ield Safety Technical Monitoring and Health Support RAD Survey Teams Contamination Mobile Laboratories Ranger Control Station Instrument Cali e Air Sampling Industrial Hygiene bration and Repair Environmental Industrial Safety Equipment DECON Sampling etc Bioassy Fixative Application e AMS Personnel Decon e Dosimetry Waste Control e RAD SAFE Support Radiography Medical Figure 5 1 Joint Harard Evaluation Center JHEC Functional Organization FRMAC Liaison OSC Liaison Weapon Recovery Liaison Security Logistics Administration Assessment and Evaluation Data Control QA Plotting Evaluation and Assessment Meteorology Dispersion Model ARAC Overview c Consolidate all radiological assessment information for on site recovery operations and provide it to the OSC d When the National Defense Area NDA is
19. 0 X Pu 239 X Ra 224 X Ra 226 X Ra 228 X X Sr 90 X Th 228 X Th 230 X Th 232 X U nat X X U 235 X U 226 X X Y 90 X 5 1 2 5 A 1 4 ALPHA DETECTION a Because of the extremely low penetration of alpha particles special techniques must be employed to allow the particles to enter the active region of a detector In the most common field instruments AN PDR 56 and 60 an extremely thin piece of aluminized mylar film is used on the face of the detector probe to cover a thin layer of fluorescent material Energy attenuation of the incident alpha radiation by the mylar is estimated to be less than ten 10 percent However use of this film makes the detector extremely fragile Thus contact with literally any hard object such as a blade of hard grass can puncture the film allowing ambient light to enter the detection region and overwhelm the photo multiplier and meter Even sudden temperature changes have been shown to introduce stresses that can destroy a film In addition contact with a contaminated item could transfer contamination onto the detector Thus monitoring techniques must be used which keep the detector from contacting any surface However recall that the range of the alpha radiation is less than four 4 centimeters in air This requirement to be within a few centimeters of monitored locations without ever touching one makes use of such detectors impractical except for special controlled situations for exampl
20. 11 IS 10 13 1 500 5 100 16 20 14 17 2 000 6 600 Above 20 Above 17 2 500 8 200 or changes in meteorological conditions will not result in airborne contamination Sampler No 3 is placed approximately 610 meters upwind of all contamination and outside the contamination control area to obtain simultaneous background air samples for use in interpretation of other readings Background samples should be collected concurrently with the sample of interest if possible as the amount of naturally occurring airborne radioactive particulate may vary as a function of time due to wind changes Air sampler No 4 is placed at the contamination control station and operated continuously during contamination control station operations since personnel leaving the contaminated area may carry and resuspend contaminants The amount of contamination resuspended in this manner is expected to be small During the initial phases of response consideration should be given to using all additional samplers if available in downwind locations to supplement sampler No 2 particularly when populated areas are in or near the contaminated area 5 B 4 AIR SAMPLE DATA RECORDING For air sampling data used in the overall radiological assessment and confirmation of field calculations and confirmed or validated later by laboratory analysis all pertinent data must be recorded An air sampling log containing all of the following data should be maintained When falters are chan
21. ARG 2 Perimeter Contamination Levels When alpha instruments are used to establish the perimeter readings of 500 CPM are recommended for instruments with 60 cm probe area and 105 CPM for instruments with 17 cm probes be used to mark the perimeter When low energy gamma x ray instruments are used to establish the perimeter a reading of twice background is recommended to mark the perimeter FIDLERs are recommended to perform perimeter surveys with alpha instruments the second choice If FIDLERs are unavailable and if weather or field conditions preclude the use of alpha instruments the AN PDR 56F with the x ray probe attached may be used If fission products were caused by the accident priority should be given to establishing a 10 mR hr perimeter 13 3 Fixing Survey Points a For radiation monitoring data to be useful the point where it is collected must be identifiable on a map or aerial photo of the area Engineering survey equipment may be unavailable to determine precise positions in the early phases of response or the immediate need for radiological data may outweigh the time required to determine precise positions l Data points should be marked in some manner so that the point can be later relocated for other actions or the position determined precisely for later correlation of the data with other information 2 A numbered or uniquely identified stake may be used to mark the location on soil and a simil
22. ASSAY SCREENING LOG CONTAMINATION DE TECTEO LUNG COUNT COUNT SECONTARINATED BTAINED _ 21121212 E SO THISFORM SUBJECT To THE PRIvACYACT Figure S E 3 Bioassy Screen Log H TRACT TIME ZONTROL NUMBER FOLLOW U REMARKS pa rae reine 22120 200 01 3 5 DATE START STOP RECORDER BIOASSAY SCREENING LOG cONTINUATION SHEET SSN THIS FORM SUBJECT TO THE PRIVACY ACT 3 S INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE USE OF THE BIOASSAYSCREENING LOG Columns O 23 If more than 14 characters in last name truncate as necessary Y Column 2 indicate with M or C Column 25 should be marked with Y if person is normally classified as a radiation worker by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission leave blank for all others Column 26 should be marked Y if person is not associated with a DOD Federal or state accident response organization leave blank for all others Column 27 Insure all persons marked Y in Column 26 have completed a RadiationHealth History form and check leave blank for all others Columns 28 39 should be marked Y where appropriate if contamination was found and column number and associated reading recorded in the remarks section All personal articles and clothing retained for decontamination or disposal should be recorded in the remarks section If no contamination was detected leave blank
23. CRP 30 Library RESUS General resuspension model using ICRP 30 Library DosE Inhalation dose commitment using ICRP 30 Library Resuspension Source Term Owing to the large uncertainties associated with the source terms and diffusion coefficients additional fine tuning of the model with plume rise algorithms and similar modifications was deemed unwarranted b Atmospheric Release Advisory Capability ARAC ARAC is a DoE and DoD resource directed by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory that provides support to emergency response teams during accidents involving radioactive materials 1 ARAC provides the user with computer model estimates of the contamination distribution resulting from a nuclear weapon accident ARAC products include computer generated estimates of the location and contamination levels of deposited radiological material and radiation dose to exposed population in the surrounding areas Until time and equipment permit completion of extensive radiation surveys and bioassays ARAC projections will assist in assessing the potential impact of an accident and in identifying areas for initial investigation by response force radiological teams 2 In the event of a nuclear weapon accident at or near an ARAC serviced facility the ARAC Center will be alerted by the facilit y s personnel using the ARAC site system computer located at the installation immediately after the initial report to the NMCC is completed If the a
24. DoD 51 52 CHAPTER 5 RADIOLOGICAL HAZARD AND SAFETY ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 5 1 GENERAL A nuclear weapon accident is different from other acci dents due to the possibility of radioactive contamination at the immediate accident site and extending beyond the accident vicinity The complexities of a nuclear weapon accident are compounded further by general lack of public understanding regarding radiological hazards The On Scene Commander OSC must therefore quickly establish a vigorous and comprehensive health physics program to manage the health safety aspects of a nuclear weapons accident A good health physics program provides for civil authority official involve ment in the cooperative development of response efforts and a site restoration plan 5 2 PURPOSE AND SCOPE This chapter provides information on health physics and guidance concerning the radiological safety and other hazards associated with a nuclear weapon accident Also included is information on the radiological control resources available the hazards and characteristics of radioactive materials present and suggested methods for detecting these hazards and protecting personnel from them This information assists the OSC in the operations under his control The Joint Hazard Evaluation Center JH EC is the OSC s organizational means to task on site hazard and radiological data collection and analyze data collected for the most accurate and complete haza
25. HEC field laboratory operations creates considerable quantities of contaminated waste Provisions are required therefore to store this waste temporarily in the contaminated area until it can be moved to a disposal site Procedures for the disposal of contaminated waste are addressed as part of site restoration in Chapter 19 9 Logistics Support for Recovery Radiological Operations Radiological response assets arrive with sufficient supplies to last a few days High use items which soon require resupply include hundreds of sets of anti contamination clothing each day two inch masking or duct tape varied sizes of polyethylene bags marking tape for contaminated materials and respirator filters Anti contamination clothing may be laundered in special laundry facilities discussed in Appendix 17 A and reused The turnaround time when established determines the approximate amount of anti contamination clothing required Close liaison will be required between the JHEC and the SRF supply officer c Radiological Hazards The primary radiological hazard associated with a nuclear weapon accident is from the fissile material particularly the alpha emitters Sufficient quantities of beta gamma emitters to pose a significant health problem will not normally be present at a nuclear weapon accident 1 Radiological Hazard Assessment From the outset concern exists about the potential health hazard to the general public particularly by t
26. M DETECTION INSTRUMENTS Instrument Capability Scale Indicator T 446 Tritium o 1010 pCi m Portable tritium detector automatic scale switching and trickle charger for nickel cadmium F cells With adapter kit has urinalysis capability for tritium with 5 minute response Weighs 22 pounds Has particulate filter with filters down to 0 3 microns eliminates sensitivity to smoke and paint fumes T 290A Tritium 0 to 1 000 1 m3 3 ranges Concentration of gas in chamber Portable air sampler and detects presence of radioactive gas Weighs 17 pounds Must be rezeroed after 15 minutes of operation and once an hour thereafter Sensitive to smoke and paint fumes External battery pack is available for cold weather operations 5 1 ee TRITIUM DETECTION INSTRUMENTS CONTINUED Instrument Capability Scale Indicator IC T2 PAB M Tritium 0 100 000 m3 3 ranges Portable air monitor designed to detect gaseous radioactivity in ambient air Alarm sounds at preset meter readings AN PDR 74 Tritium to 3 ranges The portable RADIAC set contains an 1M 246 light weight tritium air monitor to detect airborne radioactive gases Also the instrument is calibrated directly in terms of tritium activity but may also be used to detect other radiogases or to monitor gamma radiation if appropriate calibration factors are applied to the meter reading The instrument is battery operated D cells and has an audible alarm whe
27. PE 2 LEUKEMIA BREAST THYROID LUNG STOMACH INTESTINESO Specify type 8B DATE OF DIAGNOSIS THIS FORM SUBJECT TO THE PRIVACY ACT Figure 5 E 4 Radiation Health History S E 13 lo 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 HAVE ANY BLOOD RELATE D MEMBERS OF YOUR FAMILY G RANDPARENTS PARENTS BROTHERS OR SISTERS EVER HAD CANCER OR LEUKEMIA YES ARE YOU NOW TAKING MEDICATION YES 1 10A WHAT MEDICATION DO YOU HAVE ANY ALLERGIES YES 11A WHAT ALLERGIES NAME amp ADDRESS OF FAMILY PHYSICIAN TIME OF POSSIBLE OR ACTUAL EXPOSURE TORADIATIUNTUR l AMINATT ON AM L time DURATION OF EXPOSURE HOURS MINUTES ACTIVITIES DURING PERIOD OF EXPOSURE Meals type work bathing sleeping etc LOCATION DURINGPERIOD OF EXPOSURE DO YOU OWN A PET YES NO LOCATION WHO WAS WITH YOU WHEN YOU MAY HAVE BEEN CONTAMINATEO NAME ADDRESS TELEPHONE 5 E 14 Form 5 y Page ___ 01 1 Ret Incident Dap NANME9 Time Dispatched Or Serial 48 d Time Returned 2 FIELD MONITORING DATA 10G NOTE REPORT ACTUAL BACKGROUND LEVEL OR MOL SCINTILLATOR GM ION CHAMBER AIR MONITORING SAMPLE COLLECTION SMEAR Model Mods CFM _ Min Sample Serial __________ Serlal No Units
28. Violinist 11 and a position determining system The microwave ranging system uses a base station fixed repeaters and mobile units The mobile units transmit FIDLER radiation data to the repeaters and base station The microprocessor develops in near real time radiation readings contamination density and isopleths The microwave ranging system is limited to near line of sight Dense vegetation building and hilly terrain may effect the ranging signal BETA GAMMA SURVEY INSTRUMENTS Instrument Capability Type Scale Indicator AN PDR 27 Measures gamma on Geiger Muller o 10500 mR h all scales Detects beta 4 ranges two lower scales Low range weighs eight pounds beta window on probe to detect beta and suitable for personnel monitoring May saturate and read zero in high radiation fields over 1 000 r hr AN PDR 43 Measures gamma Geiger Muller o 0500 R h Detects beta on 3 ranges all scales High range weighs 4 5 pounds and will not saturate in high radiation area Readings in gamma fields other than CO 60 may have inaccuracies greater than 20 percent IM 174 PD Gamma Integrating 0 1 to 10 R h ion chamber 0500 High range weighs 3 pounds logarithmic scale and temperature sensitive Ludlum Gamma Scintillation to 5 uR h Model 19 5 A 3 DoD 51 00 52 APPENDIX 5 A 1 RADIATION DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT The Inference of Plutonium Contamination using the FIDLER 5 1 1 OVERVIEW a Quantitative meas
29. ailable within the DoD and DoE with substantial radiological monitoring hazard assessment and instrument repair capabilities Moreover they can provide field laboratories and analytical facilities Specialized teams when integrated into the Service Response Force SRF provide adequate technical resources to make a complete assessment of the radio logical hazards Additionally specialized DoE teams which have off site responsibilities should be integrated into the SRF Integration of specialized team operations is accomplished best through establishment of a JHEC as discussed in paragraph 5 5 When not required on site DoD specialized teams should assist in the off site radiological response efforts Specialized teams are 1 The U S Army Radiological Advisory Medical Team RAMT is discussed in Chapter 14 2 The following specialized teams or resources are discussed in detail in Chapter 20 a U S Army Radiological Control RADCON Team b U S Navy Radiological Control RADCON Team c U S Air Force Radiation Assessment Team AFRAT d U S Air Force Air Transportable RADIAC Package ATRAP e Department of Energy Aerial Measurement System AMS f Department of Energy Atmospheric Release Advisory Capability AR AO 5 2 g Department of Energy Mobile Accident Response Group Unit HOT SPOT h Department of Energy RANGER Environ mental Monitoring Capability i Department of Energy Radiologi
30. ain scenarios the aerial search capabilities available from AMS capabilities may need to be employed These consist of gamma and neutron detector modules designed for the DoE owned BO 105 helicopters or portable modules that can be used in helicopters such as the UH 60 and U H 1 This capability may be useful only for certain sources of known detectability and normally requires low altitudes 100 feet or less and slow speeds approximately 60 knots Aerial search personnel will be able to determine the appropriate flight parameters when notified of the particular scenario 4 Aerial Photography Two major photographic systems are used to acquire detailed serial photos over a site One system consists of a large format aerial mapping camera operated in fixed wing aircraft which produces detailed aerial photographs The second system operates out of helicopters utilizing the Hasselblad 70mm cameras to produce color photographs Film from the Hasselblad system can be produced and printed under field conditions Large prints up to 20 x 24 produced to map scales can be printed on site generally within hours of the completion of the flight aqdurex3 1014 SIN V 2 S 911414 O09 6 13340052 0002 0051 000 006 0 02 0 000614 3 5 59313 000 008 009 00 002 009 9 6 N em Qe i 2009096 009 276 N a 69001091 81489101 8 780
31. al organ dose values unweighed are produced along with the committed dose equivalent weighted equivalent whole body dose commitment Programs involving the atmospheric transport of radionuclides employ a Gaussian plume dispersal model Initial radionuclide distribution is modeled using virtual source terms as needed for example modeling the initial distribution associated with an explosive release or area TABLE 5 C 1 Programs Contained in the HOT SPOT Physics Codes Program Name Description PUEXP Downwind dose commitment and ground deposition estimates resulting from an explosive release of plutonium PUFIRE Downwind dose commitment estimates resulting from a fire involving plutonium PURES Downwind dose commitment estimates resulting from the resuspension of plutonium FIDLER FIDLER calibration and data reduction Also contains a subroutine for the determination of radionuclide weight fractions as a function of mix age TRIT Downwind dose commitment estimates resulting from a tritium release UFIRE Downwind dose commitment estimates resulting from a fire involving natural uranium of any enrichment of 235U LUNG Lung screening for plutonium using a FIDLER detector BOMB Effects of a surface burst fission weapon RADWORK Determination of recommended workplaces for the handling of radioactive materials PLUME General Gaussian plume dispersion model using ICRP 30 Library EXPLUM E General explosive release dispersion model using I
32. and CKHV 810 calibrator for the 8 x 10 filters Normally 1000 CFM of air must be sampled for accurate results ET Table 5 B 1 Air Sample Calibration Operation Filter Type Cal Kit Flow Rate Time 4 TFA 4 CKHV 18 CFM 55 min 4 TFA 21 33 CKHV 36 CFM 28 min 4 TFA S CKHV 70 CFM 15 min 8 X 10 TFA 810 CKHV 810 50 CFM 20 min 5 B 2 AIR SAMPLING TIME The period of time over which an air sample is collected determines the volume of air sampled Variables which affect the accuracy of air sampling results include the type of sampling equipment used the accuracy with which contaminants on the filter can be measured and the size of the sample The sum of the errors can be offset in part by increasing the total volume of the sample collected Increasing sample time presents no real difficulty when the interest is in long term average concentrations precision of results or in detection of very low levels of contamination as will be the case during decontamination and restoration operations During the initial response when the interest is in rapid evaluation of air contamination to identify areas where high concentrations of airborne contamination could pose a hazard to unprotected persons in relatively short periods of time short sampling times are appropriate When taking samples for rapid evaluation samplers should be operated long enough to sample a minimum of 1000 cubic feet of air Once that data required for pro
33. any factors Since control of those factors can only be accomplished well within a laboratory only in a laboratory setting can true measurements be made 2 On the other hand detection is the qualitative determination that radioactivity is or is not present Although the evaluation of minimum levels of detec tability is considerable quantitative challenge for instrumentation engineers the task of determining whether a meter records anything is considered much easier than the quantitative interpretation of that reading 3 The above discussion suggests that the same equipment can be used for either detection or measure ment In fact generally detectors have meters from which numbers can be extracted However to the extent that the user is unable to control factors which influence the readings those readings must be recognized as indications of the presents of activity detection only and not measurements 5 A 1 1 4 In the discussions that follow personnel must be aware of the limitations imposed by field conditions and their implications on the meaning of readings taken Therefore instructions are careful to indicate the extent to which various instruments may be used as measure ment devices or can be used only as detectors 5 A 1 3 TYPES OF RADIATION d General Four major forms of radiation are commonly found emanating from radioactive matter alpha beta gamma and x radiation The marked differences in the characte
34. ar unique identification painted or otherwise marked on pavement or other hard surfaces for later reference When engineering survey equipment is not being used the monitoring log or data collection record should show the identification marking used at each point and an estimated position to use immediately following data collection 3 Estimated positions may be street addresses in urban areas the estimated distance down a street or road from an identifiable intersection compass bearings taken on two or more identified reference points or any other reference which can be located on the maps being used If a vehicle is used during the initial perimeter survey the odometer mileage from an intersection or other known point may be adequate for identifying positions in sparsely populated areas 4 Recording Survey Data a If an engineering survey is being performed concurrently with the radiological survey recording procedures must ensure that positional data being recorded at the transit position and radiological data being recorded by the monitors can be correlated Monitoring and survey teams records should include the following information 1 Team member names 2 Type instrument and serial number 3 Date and start stop time of survey 4 Data location mark stake number or other marking when used 5 Estimated or surveyed position 6 Instrument reading indicating if the reading is Gross meaning background radiatio
35. borne contamina tion caused by resuspension the recommended priorities and procedures will permit as much information as possible to be collected on the initial release if air samplers are positioned soon enough Priority should therefore be given to initiation of an air sampling program as soon as possible after arrival on scene Whether or not data is obtained on the initial release air sampling data will be needed immediately to assess the hazard to people still in the area to identify areas and operations which require respiratory protection and to identify actions required to fix the contaminant to reduce the airborne hazard and spread of contamination When using filtration to collect particulate samples the selection of filter medium is extremely important The filter used must have a high collection efficiency for particle sizes that will deposit readily in the lung 5 microns or less b Response plans should include provisions for establishing an air sampling program This plan would include sufficient air monitors battery powered or a sufficient number of portable electric generators air monitor stands filter paper personnel to deploy 5 1 samplers and collect filters analysis capability method to mark and secure the area monitors against tampering Also important is a means to ensure that air samplers are properly calibrated see Table 5 B l Staplex air samplers use the CKHV calibrator for 4 filter
36. cal Air Sampling Counting and Analysis Lab RASCAL j Department of Energy Mobile Decontamina tion Station k Defense Nuclear Agency Advisory Team 1 DoD EOD Teams 5 5 CONCEPT OF OPERATIONS This concept of operations assumes that an accident has resulted in release of contamination to areas beyond the immediate vicinity of the accident site The distinc tion between on site and off site is significant for security and legal purposes however for effective collection and meaningful correlation of radiological data the entire region of contamination must be treated as an entity The on site and off site distinction should be considered only when assigning areas to monitoring teams Possible response force actions are addressed first in this concept of operations Only limited equipment and expertise may be available to the initial response force a Initial Response Force IRF Actions Within the constraints of available resources IRF action should determine the absence or presence of any radiological problem and its nature minimize possible radiation hazards to the public and response force personnel identify all persons who may have been contaminated and decontaminate them as necessary provide approp riate news releases and notify officials personnel of potential hazards If responding by air radiation detection instrumentation should be carried to ensure that personnel and aircraft are not contaminated Efforts shou
37. ccident occurred in a CONUS area remote from an ARAC serviced DoD installation notification of ARAC will come through the NMCC S JNAIR Team However ARAC should be contacted directly by the installation initiating the OPREP 3 report to NMCC by calling ARAC S EMERGENCY number commercial 41 5 422 9100 FTS 532 9100 or through AUTOVON by asking the Albuquerque operator for the Livermore tie line extension 2 9100 At this time ARAC can t support OCONUS facilities in the same manner as CONUS facilities 3 During normal working hours currently 0730 to 1615 Pacific Time initial estimates of the extent of contamination can be ready for transmission from ARAC approximately 30 minutes after ARAC has received notification of the a Accident location b Time of accident c Type and quantity of weapons involved in the accident weapon information should be transmitted using the line number s contained in TP 20 11 General Firefighting Guidance C 4 Responses outside the hours listed above are subject to an additional 60 90 minutes delay 5 Every effort should be made to provide updated or supplementary information to the ARAC Center as soon as it is available Desired information includes a Observed wind speed and wind direction at the time of the accident and subsequent weather changes b Description of accident particulars including line numbers for the specific weapon s releasing contamination type and amou
38. cedures for either building owners and or tenants or an appropriate civil authority such as a policeman to accompany monitors when surveying building interiors If interiors are surveyed before the surrounding area has been decontaminated methods which minimize tracking of contamination into buildings should be used for example cover shoes with plastic bag immediately before entering buildings and ensure gloves are uncontaminated Interior contamination levels will vary because of the time of year the t ype of heating or cooling system used and whether or not people were in the building at the time of or following the accident Interior contamination levels will be only a fraction of the exterior levels at the same location The primary source of interior contamination are expected to be airborne contaminants entering the building through heating or cooling systems and doors windows or other openings during the initial cloud passage or contamination tracked or carried into the building by people or animals The sealing of doors windows chimneys and ventilators on evacuated buildings in highly decontaminated areas may minimize further contamination of the interior during contamination of the surrounding area When monitoring the interior of a building initial monitoring should be on the floor in the main traffic pattern doorways halls and stairs and on top of horizontal surfaces near heating or cooling duct outlets windows a
39. d 3 In both types of alpha beta counter the most difficult sensitive part of the experiment is the sample preparation To achieve absolute measurements of activity absorption of the radiation must be minimized by the overburden caused by the sample itself Techniques used include dissolution of the sample onto a sample holder evaporation of the solvent leaves a very thin negligibly absorbing sample Clearly quantitative alpha beta counting is a difficult time consuming process c Liquid Scintillation 1 In a few cases notably in the detection of beta radiation from tritium the energy of the radiation is so low and the resultant absorption is so high that solid samples cannot be used for quantitative analysis In these cases dissolving the contaminant in a scintillating liquid may be possible Glass vials of such liquid can then be placed in a dark chamber and the resulting scintillation light pulses counted using photomultipliers 2 Again the outstanding difficulty with this process is in the sample preparation Scintillation liquids are extremely sensitive to most impurities which tend to quench the output of light pulses As a result the most common technique for liquid scintillation sample gathering is to wipe a fixed area typically 100 square centimeters of a hard surface in the contaminated area with a small piece of cloth The cloth can then be immersed totally in scintillation liquid in such a way that subs
40. decay to background The radon chain may be considered completely decayed after almost four hours and the thoron chain after almost three days Re measurement after these times permits identification of the amount of sample activity caused by these elements During rapid field calculations early in the response the check for radon is appropriate if or when levels of airborne contamination detected are at or slightly above the established levels The three day decay time precludes checking for thoron during the initial response a The following equation may be used for initial field evaluation of air sampling data to obtain rough estimates of airborne contamination utilizing the AN PDR 60 or AN PDR 56 with the large probe attached and 8 x 10 inch or 4 inch round Whatman 41 filters dpm m3 Background AFR x T rein Reading where cpm alpha meter reading on air filter in counts per minute AFR Average Flow Rate of the air sampler in cubic feet per minute T Time in minutes the air sampler was running CF Conversion factor 1000 for AN PDR 60 4000 for AN PDR 56 includes unit conversions area cor rection factors and other constants assuming use of 8 x 10 inch Whatman 41 filter paper For 4 inch round filter paper the conversion factors are 200 and 800 for the AN PDR 60 and AN PDR 56 respectively b If other alpha instruments or filters are being used the following equation should be used for fie
41. dissolved JHEC personnel and resources may be integrated into FRMAC operations 2 Materials Sampling a Environmental Sampling l Air sampling is conducted to determine if airborne contamination is present Also it provides a basis for estimating the radiation dose exposure which people without respiratory protection may have received The reaction time to an accident combined with the time required to initiate air sampling will result in little or no data being obtained during the initial release of contamination It is at this period that the highest levels of contamination are expected Later placement of a sampler downwind the accident per Appendix 5 B will result in a sample of airborne contamination Air sampling will verify the resuspension hazard during response and recovery operations To achieve this samplers should be placed downwind of the accident dependent on wind velocity approximately 500 meters upwind and at the contamination control station 2 Soil water vegetation and swipe sampling of surfaces are required Sampling should be initiated in the contaminated area soon after the accident Samples must be taken also at locations remote from the contaminated area to verify background readings After this samples are required periodically during the recovery process to determine radioactive material migration and dispersion and to substantiate decontam ination recovery completion The JHEC will determine on site
42. dren is possible during decontamination if there is a possibility of airborne contamination via resuspension c Aerial Measurement System AMS 1 General The EG amp G AMS has three capabilities available to support a weapon accident aerial radio logical mapping aerial search for weapons and or weapon components and aerial photography 2 Aerial Radiological Mapping Aerial radiolog ical surveys provide rapid assessment and thorough coverage of large areas and yield average ground concentrations of the contaminant The system can also be used to quickly prepare crude but appropriately scaled incident site maps Instrumentation includes large volume sodium iodide gamma ray detectors data formatting and recording equipment positioning equipment meteorological instruments direct readout hardware and data analysis equipment A variety of DoE owned aerial platforms fixed wing and helicopter are dedicated to supporting this mission Also equipment capable of being mounted on a variety of DoD helicopters is available to perform survey missions as needed 5 C 8 a In a nuclear weapon accident a preliminary radiological survey would establish whether radioactive materials had been dispersed from the weapon Dispersion patterns and relative radiation intensities immediately available from the initial survey may be used to guide radiation survey teams to the areas of heaviest contamination AMS personnel will assist
43. e monitoring of individuals at the hotline or air sampler filters b As discussed above the sensitivity minimum detectability of an alpha detector is not dictated by the ability of the active region of the detector to respond to the passage of an alpha particle counting efficiency for alpha detectors is 25 60 percent of the alpha particles from a distributed source that reach the detector probe Fortunately alpha detectors in good repair normally have a fairly low background there are few counts from cosmic and other spurious radiation sources and the elimination of most electronic noise is easy with current state of the art instruments As a result count rates in the order of a few hundred counts per minute are easily detectable on instruments such as the AN PDR 60 However the detectability is dominated by the ability of the alpha particles to get into the active region of the detector which depends upon such factors as overburden amount of dust and or moisture lying between the alpha emitters and the detector and the proximity of the detector to the emitters c In demonstrations conducted in the laboratory a sealed alpha source Am 24 1 was monitored with a well maintained AN PDR 60 alpha probe and meter Dust and water were sprinkled onto the source and changes noted It was found that a drop of water a heavy piece of lint or a single thickness of tissue paper totally eliminated all readings A light spray of water
44. e PAR RER format may include as a minimum problem discussion action coordination and approval sections the format should be site and situation specific A sample PAR for controlled evacuation is found on the next page 5 6 ACCIDENT RESPONSE PLAN ANNEX Procedures and information appropriate for inclusion in the Radiological Hazard Safety annex to the accident response plan include Protective Action Recommendation for Major Accident at location Issued by Problem An accident involving missile system re entry vehicle occurred at Time date and location Maintenance technicians have experienced complications in removing the missile second stage from the missile launch facility Discussion It is possible though highly improbable that the second stage could explode In the unlikely event of an explosion debris could be thrown yards meters As a result an evacuation of outline the specific area has been ordered by Civilian Authority Office Action With the possibility of the explosion of the missile second stage during removal operations the following area will be evacuated Indicate the specific area to be vacated and a schedule indicating evacuation start completion verification of evacuation maintenance work start work completion and return to the area Note All personnel are required to sign in at a specific location s during evacuation to help local law enforcement SRF personnel verify that all personn
45. el are out of the area prior to maintenance start A holding area for example YMCA gymnasium or school may be a temporary holding area for evacuees Also the evacuees could be released for shopping or other activities outside the area Upon successful completion of maintenance the personnel would return to their houses businesses Note Release of this Protective Action Recommendation cannot precede confirmation of the presence of a nuclear weapon by the OSC and should coordinated with local officials and PAO prior to release a A description of the JHEC organization and responsibilities b Procedures for operation of the JHEC c Procedures for establishing and maintaining the contamination control line d Procedures for ensuring that all indigenous personnel possibly exposed to contamination are identified screened and treated This function will become DoE and or civilian responsibility as time progresses e Guidelines for determining radiation survey and decontamination priorities 5 lo f Procedures for ensuring that response force personnel working in the contaminated area are properly protected g Procedures for recording and maintaining pertinent data for the radiological safety of response force personnel h Procedures for recording correlating and plotting the results of radiological surveys and data collection instrumentation for example air samplers i Procedures for JHEC and FRMAC int
46. emoval and disposition of the weapons and compo nents The two person rule must be enforced strictly when working with nuclear weapons In the early stages of accident response following all of the required security measures may be difficult However the OSC should implement necessary security procedures as soon as possible The initial entry will determine the preliminary weapon s status and hazards in the area In the process of determining the weapon condition search may be required to find the weapon s The OSC directs the initiation of the render safe procedures The EOD team advises the OSC of the safest and most reliable means for neutralizing weapon hazards b Site Restoration Procedures methods to return the accident scene to a technically achievable and financially acceptable condition begins early in the response effort Site restoration becomes a major issue after classified information weapons weapon debris and other hazards are removed Several factors have significant influence on site restoration decisions and procedures such as size of the contaminated area topographical geological hydrological meteorological and demographic information Other important aspects are utilization of the area and civil authorities officials prerogatives for the area Restoration will include those measures to remove or neutralize the contamination 8 Disposal of Contaminated Waste Contam ination control station operations and J
47. equent light emission will be visible to one of the photomultipliers in the analysis chamber Alter natively the cloth can be replaced by a special plastic material that dissolves in scintillation liquid without significantly quenching light output In either case the technique works best when the contamination can be gathered without large amounts of local dirt oil etc 5 1 6 DoD 51 OO 52 M APPENDIX 5 B ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLING 5 B 1 GENERAL The collection and analysis of samples provides numerical data which describes a particular situation The JHEC will provide direction for sampling proce dures The sampling criteria will be situation and site dependent The results then may be used for the formu lation of a course of action This appendix addresses air soil vegetation water and swipe samples a Air Sampling Air sampling is conducted to determine if airborne contamination is present It provides a basis for estimating the radiation dose which people without respiratory protection may have received The time required to respond to an accident and initiate an air sampling program will result normally in little or no data being obtained during the initial release of contamination when the highest levels of airborne contamination are expected Most air sampling data obtained during an accident response will reflect airborne contamination caused by resuspension Even though this discussion is directed primarily at air
48. er access to the area Contamination or the lack of it should be reported immediately to the OSC Anti contamination clothing and respiratory protection should always be donned before entering a suspect area c If radiation detection instruments are not yet on scene observations from firefighters and witnesses 5 3 and the condition of the wreckage or debris may indicate contamination Anticipated questions that may be asked to evaluate the release of contamination are 1 Was there a high explosives detonation 2 Has a weapon undergone sustained burning 3 How many intact weapons or containers have been observed 4 Do broken or damaged weapons or con tainers appear to have been involved in an explosion or fire d If no contamination was released by the accident the remaining radiological response becomes preparations for response in the event of a release during weapon recovery operations 3 Actions to be taken if contamination is detected Authorities should be notified and the assistance of specialized radiological teams and the DoE Aerial Mea surement System requested The highest priority should be actions to initiate general public hazard abatement Do not delay or omit any life saving measures because of radiation contamination If precautionary measures have not been implemented to reduce the hazard to the public civil authorities officials should be advised of the situation and consider possible actio
49. erfacing j Procedures for JHEC incorporation into the FRMAC DoD 51 00 52 M APPENDIX 5 A RADIOLOGICAL MONITORING EQUIPMENT DOSIMETERS Instrument Capability Limitations Self Reading Ionization Reusable device for measuring exposure to X and or gamma radiation Chamber Dosimeter Limitations False positive readings due to charge leakage and sensitivity to mechanical shock Non Self Reading Same capabilities limitations and use as Self Reading Ionization Chamber Ionization Chamber Dosimeter Additional Limitations Requires reading device Dosimeter Film Badge Provides measurement and permanent record of beta and gamma radiation doses over wide dosage range Special neutron films are available Ten 10 percent dose accuracy depending on quality control during development Limitations Sensitive to light humidity aging and exposure to x radiation Delay between exposure and dose reading due to processing time Thermoluminescent The TLD thermoluminescent dosimeter provides measurement of gamma Dosimeter TLD radiation dose equivalents up to 10000 rem Accurate to within a factor of two when the energy of the neutrons is unknown Limitations after long periods of exposure mrem damaged or bent cards delay processing static electric discharge causes spurious readings and temperatures gt 115 degrees F reduce sensitivity Delay between exposure and dose reading due to central processing of TLDs TRITIU
50. es of surveys may be from one to five days depending upon the area to be surveyed and the weather d The results of an aerial survey of Area 13 of the Nevada Test Site is shown in Figure 5 C 3 This was the site of a one point detonation in the 1950s to simulate a weapon accident The aerial survey data analyzed for the 60 keV photopeak of Am241 Detailed radiological contours such as those shown in Figure 5 C 3 would be available five to eight hours after the completion of the previous survey flight e The sensitivity of the system depends upon the flight altitude area of contamination and the interference of other isotopes both natural and man made Experience has shown that the lower level of detectability y of Am241 can be expected to be 0 03 to 1 0 pCi m2 and 0 03 to 0 3 uCi m for both Cs137 and 1131 The americium concentrations indicated represents on the order of I to 10 uCi m of plutonium f Comparison with ground based survey and sample results should be done with caution The area sampled in a single aerial measurement is on the order of 1 000 times the area sampled by a FIDLER type instrument at one 1 foot above the ground and 1 000 000 times larger than the area sampled by an alpha probe or a soil sample The aerial survey results average scale averages and take into account the overall effect of roads ditches water bodies vegetation cover and terrain effects 3 Aerial Search In cert
51. escribed in this chapter allows measurement of the x ray activity per square meter and thus evaluation of the uranium contamination Confidence in the accuracy of these measurements is in the pt 25 percent range The detection of plutonium is somewhat more complicated Plutonium 239 and its daughters emit a 17 keV x ray which can be detected with a FIDLER detector However absorption of that relatively low energy x ray by overburden plus interference by background signals in the same range as the desired x ray make measurement of the 17 keV a highly uncertain technique The determination of plutonium ination can be made more confidently through the following indirect technique 1 Weapons grade plutonium contains several isotopes in addition to the dominant Pu 239 there is always a trace amount of Pu 241 Pu 241 beta decays with a half life of 14 35 years to 241 Am 241 subsequently decays with the emission of a 60 keV x ray which like the 80 keV x ray of uranium is relatively easy to detect under field conditions Thus a most sensitive technique for the detection of weapons grade plutonium is to detect the contaminant Am 241 and infer the accompanying plutonium 2 Clearly this technique requires more informa tion than the direct detection of radiation from the most plentiful isotope such as knowledge of the age and original assay of the weapon material However decay times weapon age and assay are known
52. for taking swipe tests Whatman No 41 filter paper 4 25 cm FSN 6640 00 836 6870 is recommended for swipes If this is unavailable other filter paper with a maximum diameter of 1 3 4 inches may be substituted Place a small x IN PENCIL ONLY on the outer edge of the filter paper on the side which is to touch the radioactive source or area being tested for contamination Each swipe should be taken from an area of about 100 gently rubbing two or three times with the dry filter paper disc The swipe is then placed unfolded in a properly completed Service form for a Swipe Container If forms are unavailable a plain envelope containing the required collection information may be substituted DoD 51 52 APPENDIX 5 C SPECIALIZED RADIOLOGICAL MONITORING RADIAC REPAIR AND HAZARD ASSESSMENT CAPABILITIES TEAMS 5 C 1 GENERAL a This appendix provides information on service radiation monitoring teams health physics and bioassay specialists a radiation equipment repair team and on DoE and related monitoring and assessment capabilities b The detection measurement of different types of radiation and the inherent difficulties have been enumerated However in the event of an incident accident radiation detection measurement must be completed The need or preliminary data on the absence presence of radiation for the OSC is imperative Many military units and some civilian firms agencies possess alpha and ga
53. g Normal Spread Of Pulses From A Mono energetic Source Mixed With A Typical Background Spectrum and Indicating Typical Discriminator Settings 5 1 4 of x ray emitting radioactive contamination One such detector is the Field Instrument for Detection of Low Energy Radiation FIDLER A FIDLER 47 1 mm Nal T1 probe in good condition mated to a Ludlum 2220 electronics package can detect 60 keV activity as low as 0 2 microcuries per meter In a typical weapon grade mix for a medium aged weapon this mix would correspond to about one microcurie of plutonium per square meter Furthermore since the x rays are much less affected by overburden than are alpha particles the radiation monitor has much better control of the factors which influence his meter readings As a result the monitor can make quantitative measurements of the amount of radiation and infer the actual amount of contamination with far greater confidence than with any other field technique 5 A 1 7 DETECTION OF URANIUM AND PLUTONIUM d Although uranium and plutonium are alpha emitters they and their daughters also emit x radiation Therefore as discussed above the instrument of choice for detection of these elements is a scintillation detector b The detection of uranium contamination is fairly straightforward Among the radiations emitted in the decay of Uranium 235 and its daughters is an 80 keV x ray Set up and field calibration of the detector as d
54. ged they should be placed in a plastic bag for laboratory analysis and annotated with items a f a Type and serial number of sampler b Location of sampler including identification of field marking stake used to mark location 5 B 3 c Average flow rate and or volume of air d Date e Start and stop time of sample f Wind direction and weather conditions g Type of filter h Field readings on filter and time made particularly if readings were taken without changing falter Including radiation detection instrument type and serial number as well as designation of attached probe used to monitor the filter n i Laboratory facility to which the filter was sent for processing 5 B 5 AIR SAMPLE ANALYSIS Air sampler filters can be analyzed using radioanalytical techniques by DoE RADCON and AFRAT personnel or by using a calculation method The calculations shown below are for field use in calculating gross activity on the filter Any background radiation from naturally occurring radionuclides for example radon thoron and their daughters should be subtracted when applying the calculated results to protection standards This calculation is done by subtracting the gross activity of the background sampler No 3 from the gross activity of the sampler of interest when making rapid evaluations Background corrected results may also be obtained by letting the naturally occurring radon thoron and their daughters
55. he procedures provided 3 Evacuation Contaminated areas must be defined and an evacuation procedure developed and implemented by civil authorities Civil authorities will be responsible for the evacuation but may require radiological advice and assistance Immediate evacua tion of downwind personnel should be discouraged since the probability of inhalation of contaminants may increase Explosive or toxic materials may present an immediate hazard to people near the accident site and immediate evacuation would then be required 4 Fixing Areas of High Contamination Areas of high contamination must be controlled to prevent spread by resuspension water run off or movement of personnel Although fixing of contamination is part of the site restoration process some fixing procedures may be necessary long before site restoration plans are implemented d Respiratory and Whole Body Protection Protec tion of the general public response force members and 5 8 workers in the accident area from exposure through inhalation is extremely important Refer to Appendix 5 D for additional guidance e Radiation Surveys Extensive radiation surveys will be required to identify and characterize the area so that decontamination and restoration plans may be deve loped and the results evaluated Determining that contamination was released by the accident is very important if release occurred priority must be given to the actions to identify and mi
56. hose residing near the accident site Consideration of possible radiation exposures is the primary method of estimating the potential health hazard If no beta gamma radiation is present the primary risk is inhalation of alpha emitters which may cause a long term increase in the probability of radiation related diseases Initial hazard assessments will of necessity be based on limited information assumptions and worst case projections of possible radiation doses received Atmospheric Release Advisory Capability ARAC described in Appendix 5 C provides theoretical projection of the maximum internal radiation dose people may have received if outdoors without respiratory protection from the time of release to the effective time of the ARAC plot Exposure to resuspended contaminants normally results in doses which are a small fraction of that dose which would be received from exposure to the initial release for the same time period Contamination released by the accident should not normally affect the safety of public water systems with adequate water treatment capability 2 Reduction of Public Exposure The hazard assessment must be followed quickly by recommended precautionary and safety measures to protect the public 5 7 from exposure To control and minimize exposure radioactive contaminants must be prevented from entering the body and confined to specific geographic areas so that the contamination can be removed systema
57. iation worker Check YES if trained in use of M1 7 or M 17A protective masks Check YES if anti C work was participation in training courses with or without actual radioactive contamination Check YES if you underwent medical treatment involving radiation or radioactive materials if your occupational exposure is near permissible limits and or if an accident response dose report is necessary to continue your regular radiation work Following codes may be used R for Radiological Safety Officer or Radiological Protection Officer M for Medical Department C for Commander F for USAF Master Radiation Registry In lieu of commercial number show AVN for AUTOVON or FTS for Federal Tele communications System 5 E 4 S A S TIME RECORDER SSN 5 SEC NO PAGE OF RADIOLOGICAL CONTROL NAME LAST FIRST M I FORM 2 enu AREA LOG ZONTROL NUMBER eee 8444144 555 5358 THIS FORM SUBJECTTO THE PRIVACY ACT FILM ADGE NUMBER Figure 5 E 2 Radiological Control Area Log r W 2 a 6 515 565 DOSIMETER Q CONTAMINATION FOUND DECONTAMINATED 960 216464 1616804 10 71172 73 74 7576 7778 791 9 3 5 DATE START HEBORDERH RADIOLOGICAL CONTROL AREA LOG CONTINUATION SHEET SSN Rz coRDER E THIS FORM suBJECT
58. ic Contour Display Release loca tion is centered in this area refined projections may have release location offset from center with a 2000 foot fragmentation circle drawn around the release point The display is always oriented with north toward the top A maximum of three contoured areas will be shown emanating from the release point which will in most cases overlay a geographic representation showing road networks and waterways etc of the area around the accident site The words SEE NOTES will be printed across the middle of the display directing the viewer to the ARAC Computer Estimation Notes on the right side of the graphics plot Printed across the top of each graphic display area will be the title of the underlying computer estimation denoting either a 50 Year Whole Body Effective Dose or Cumulative Deposition plot b Descriptive Notes To the right of the contour display will be a legend The first line is a title line for these notes The second line will denote the date and time that the specific computer model estimation was produced Lines three through six will be reserved for general amplifying remarks about the computer estimation Line seven identifies either the dose integration period or total deposition period time as appropriate NOTE times will be shown as Z time Z is equivalent to Universal Coordinated Time UTC which has replaced the more familiar Greenwich Mean Time GMT Line n
59. ine shows the radiological material modeled and the height above ground level at which the contour levels are calculated and displayed Lines 10 through 22 will show the specific computer estimation action levels as calculated for that particular plot The next several lines down to the scale of the display shown in both kilometers and feet comprise three separate blocks of information Within each block is an area showing a particular contour cross hatch pattern used to mark areas in the contour display where the dose or deposition is greater than the stated value the area covered by this particular pattern in square kilometers and abbreviated generalized actions that may be considered within this area Note that the area given will encompass the area of all higher levels shown for example the area given for exceeding 25 rem is the sum of the area covered by the 25 and 150 rem contour patterns There are a maximum of three cumulative deposition and four dose exposure levels for which projections are made Only the areas with the three highest projected levels will be shown on any ARAC plot Projected cumulative depositions are for levels greater than 600 60 and 6 microCuries per square meter uCi m Dose exposures are projected for levels greater than 150 25 5 and 0 5 rem which refer to a 50 year whole body effective dose via the inhalation pathway 9 The wording which accompanies the action levels in the legend follows
60. interpreting and correlating their information with other radiological survey data Additional data processing will establish the identity and concentration of the isotopes involved Subsequent surveys could provide data on the progress of clean up operations b The first radiological photography survey conducted after a weapon accident is likely to follow this protocol and time frame 1 The helicopter would arrive six to ten hours following notification 2 The helicopter would then be refueled and the crew would obtain instructions within two hours 3 A survey would then be conducted in a serpentine pattern of survey lines 0 5 to five miles apart to determine a Radiological deposition outline b Direction of the plume centerline c Approximate radiation levels along the plume centerline d Dominant isotopes 4 Information from 3 would be transmitted by radio to base operations during the survey 5 The analysis laboratory would arrive 4 hours plus driving time after notification 6 Full analysis of flight results would be available 6 to 12 hours after the flight is completed or after the analysis laboratory arrives c After the first broad survey is completed a series of smaller area surveys would be initiated The flight altitude would likely be 100 feet with 200 foot line spacings The purpose of these surveys would be to map the contaminated area in detail The length of time required to complete this seri
61. is used as a safety precaution to determine any areas containing hazardous fission products c Common gamma detectors are scintillation detectors using scintillation media different from that described above for alpha detection or gas ionization type detectors ion chambers proportional counters or Geiger counters In either case the high penetrability of the radiation allows the detector to have reasonably heavy aluminum beryllium or plastic windows and to be carried at a 0 5 1 0m height Dimensions of the active region of the detector for example the thickness of a scintillation crystal can be made larger to increase sensitivity Because the detection efficiencies are reasonably insensitive to energies in the energy regions of interest the detectors can be calibrated in terms of dosage rads or rem rather than in terms of activity 5 A 1 3 r this practice reflects the common use for beta gamma detectors d Typical of a beta gamma detector is the Ludlum Model 3 with a Ludlum 44 9 pancake Geiger Muller probe Minimum detectability for such a detector is a radiation field that produces readings two to three times greater than the background no contaminant natural radiation plus electronic noise reading Customarily this corresponds to a few hundredths of a millirem per hour 5 A 1 6 X RAY DETECTION a For low energy 17 100 keV x rays the scintillation detector is again the instrument of choice Window
62. ld be made during the flight to avoid contam ination appropriate ground support should be provided upon landing if personnel and aircraft become contaminated 1 Pre Deployment Actions a Prior to departing for the accident site delivery arrangements should be made for an Atmos pheric Release Advisory Capability ARAC plot if available to assist in determining possible areas of contamination ARAC plots will provide theoretical estimates of the radiation dose to personnel downwind at the time of the accident Also plots will provide the expected ocation and level of contamination deposition on the ground A detailed discussion of ARAC is in Appendix 5 C As it becomes known specific accident data described in the appendices should be provided to the ARAC facility at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory b If an advance party is deployed at least one trained person should have radiation detection instru ments to determine if alpha emitting contamination was dispersed and to confirm that no beta and or gamma hazard exists The earlier that confirmation of released contamination is established the easier it will be to develop a plan of action and communicate with involved civil authorities 2 Initial Actions a If the OSC or an advance party deploys by helicopter to the accident site an overflight of the accident scene and the downwind area can provide a rapid assessment of streets or roads in the area and the
63. ld evaluation of air sampling data cpm x Ar dpm m3 05xm xFxErxEcX Ac alpha meter reading on air filter in counts per minute where cpm Ay Area of filter used any units Area of filter actually counted by the instrument same units as Af F Alpha absorption factor for filter used from manufacturer s specifications Es Collection efficiency of filter used from manufacturer s specifications m Total volume of sampled air in cubic meters E Efficiency of counting instrument 5 B 4 5 B 6 ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES Soil Soil sampling procedures depend on purpose of the sampling program In all cases careful selection of control background samples is required to allow interpretation of results The following minimum quantities are necessary for analysis 1 Gamma spectrometry plus gross alpha and or gross beta two kilograms of soil approximately one square foot area three inches deep 2 Gross alpha and or gross beta only 100 grams 3 For a specific alpha and or beta radionuclide particularly Pu 239 plutonium consult the approp riate Service laboratory b Water 1 Surface and or waste discharge sources two liters 2 Drinking water sources one liter c Vegetation The minimum sample volume is three liters of densely packed sample and should be double plastic bagged or packed in a one gallon wide mouth plastic jar d Swipes Filter paper discs are used
64. le Each successive survey operation will be based in part on the information gained from earlier operations Initial radiation surveys may be based on ARAC information if available or only on the knowl edge that contamination will be dispersed downwind Later surveys will be based on the initial survey data and AMS plots Days will be required to complete comprehensive contamination characterization b General Survey Procedures Selection of instru mentation identification of the edge of contamination determination of the location of measurements made and data recording procedures are similar for most survey operations 1 Selection of Instrumentation a Alpha Instruments Alpha instruments can detect lower levels of contamination than low energy gamma instruments Under field conditions however alpha radiation has an extremely short detection range and its detection may be blocked by nothing more than surface moisture Alpha surveys are possible only under dry conditions for example after any morning dew has evaporated The fragility of the Mylar probe face on most alpha instruments combined with the short detection range of alpha radiation results in a high rate of instrument failure when field use requires measure ment of contamination on rough ground or other irregular surfaces Alpha instruments should therefore be used primarily for personnel and equipment 5 D 1 monitoring at the hot line Field use should be limi
65. media concern and public scrutiny of response operations The JIC requires assistance from the JHEC and FRMAC in preparing press releases to minimize and allay these concerns Any portion of the public which may have been advised to take precau tionary measures will seek clear understandable explanations of methods to protect their health and property The public must be provided information through the JIC and the Community Emergency Action Team CEAT explaining all real hazards in terms which recognize the populace s knowledge level and under standing of radiation and its effects 6 Fixing of Contaminants Fixatives maybe used to reduce resuspension and the spread of contamination If water is readily available it may be used as a temporary fixative to reduce resuspension Other more permanent fixatives may be used to reduce the spread of contamination by resuspension and run off from highly contaminated areas The use of fixatives in areas of low level contamination is usually inappropriate Fixatives may enhance or hinder decontamination and restoration operations and affect radiation survey procedures The DoE ARG can provide information on the advantages and disadvantages of different types of fixatives and methods of application They should be consulted prior to application of permanent fixatives 7 Recovery Restoration a Recovery This activity includes the initial reconnaissance the render safe procedures hazard r
66. mma detection capabilities These units firms have equipment and individual monitor capabil ities that can provide radiation measurements and preliminary survey data However a finite definition of the accident area is needed to plan initiate and complete site restoration c The radiological characterization of the accident site is an iterative process involving the systematic integration of data produced by several assessment techniques The following describes those resources available to enable theoretical preliminary and definitive site characterization for the OSC 5 C 2 DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE a U S Army Radiological Control RADCON Team The RADCON Team is a specialized team located at Aberdeen Proving Ground Maryland and organized to provide technical assistance and advice to the OSC in radiological emergencies 1 The RADCON Team is organized to 2 Perform detailed radiological surveys for alpha beta and gamma radiation b Control and supervise waste disposal measures c Provide health physics services d Control and supervise radiological safety Services e Supervise and provide technical advice for decontamination operations f Supervise and provide technical advice for the control and containment of the radiological contami nation at an accident site 2 The RADCON Team will consist as a minimum of a team leader a qualified health physicist and eight specialists qualified in air sampli
67. mpt evaluation is obtained an air sampling program should be established to obtain 24 hour samples equipment permitting or high volume samples on a regular basis 5 B 3 AIR SAMPLER PLACEMENT Sampler positioning is directed toward the first 24 48 hours following an accident or until an air sampling program tailored to the specific situation can be implemented During this period the number of air samplers available will be limited and should be placed to obtain the maximum amount of information possible a The amount of airborne contamination caused by resuspension will vary from location to location as a function of surface type physical activity surface wind patterns and the level of contamination on the ground Recommendations on the initial placement of samplers assume that the mix of surface t ypes is relatively constant throughout the area that air samplers will be placed to minimize any localized wind effects and that the location of physical activity in the area for example response actions or evacuation will be known and controlled The main variables in determining the amount of airborne contamination will be ground contamination levels and wind speed To provide the quickest and most accurate estimate of the maximum concentrations of airborne contamination priority should therefore be given to placing an air sampler at or near the most highly contaminated area which is accessible b Figure 5 B 1 sho
68. n are contained in Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory LLNL Manual 161 reference The manual is designed for users of the codes and therefore does not contain detailed descriptions of algorithms used in the codes however key assumptions for example particle size distribution and release fraction are noted as appropriate 4 Table 5 C 1 is a summary of the programs contained in reference 0 Several programs deal with the release of plutonium uranium and tritium to expedite the initial assessment of accidents involving nuclear weapons Three general programs PLUME EXPLUME and RESUS allow for downwind dose assessment following the release of any radioactive material as a result of the continuous or puff release explosive release or an area contamination event These three programs interact with a data base containing 75 radionuclides selected from ICRP Publication 30 The source term can contain any or all of the radionuclides in the database each with its independent release fraction activity and mitigation factor if applicable Should a desired radionuclide not reside in the database a dose conversion factor can be input by the user Other programs estimate the dose commitment from inhalation of any one of the radionuclides listed in the database and estimate the effects of a surface burst detonation of a nuclear weapon 5 The dosimetric methods of ICRP have been used throughout the HOT SPOT programs Individu
69. n of the perimeter to the command center and permit team progress to be tracked While not classified transmissior of radiation readings should be discouraged on unsecure nets b Full Perimeter Survey FIDLERs should be used when performing a full survey of the perimeter This may not be possible until after the specialized teams arrive and may take weeks to complete The procedure most likely to be used will consist of monitoring in and out along the edge of the area with readings being taken about every 50 feet If weather or terrain require the use of the AN PDR 56 x ray probe on the initial perimeter survey the full perimeter survey can result in an expansion of the perimeter If an alpha instrument was used for the initial perimeter survey the perimeter established by the full perimeter survey should be about the same size or slightly smaller 6 Area Surveys a Radiological surveys of the contaminated area are required to identify areas requiring fixation to support decontamination and restoration planning and to determine decontamination effectiveness The first survey covering the entire area will be provided most times by the Aerial Measurement System AMS 5 D 2 The initial AMS data will be available four five hours after completion of survey flights The AMS plot requires interpretation by trained analysts Ground survey data is required to validate and support analysis of the plot Some of the supporting ground da
70. n radioactivity exceeds a preset level ALPHA SURVEY INSTRUMENTS Instrument Capability Type Scale Indicator AN PDR 56 Alpha Scintillation O to 1 000K CPM 17 cm 4 ranges A small auxiliary probe provided for monitoring irregular objects Mylar probe face is extremely fragile and a puncture disables the instrument until repaired Accompanying x ray probe is calibrated for 17 KeV with associated meter scale from O 10 mg m in four ranges AN PDR 60 Alpha Scintillation to 2 000K CPM 60 cm PAC ISAGA Gamma G M tube 4 ranges R hr Capable of measuring gamma utilizing the 2R range Intermediate and high range alpha survey intermediate gamma range weighs eight pounds May use plutonium gamma detector pG l for inclement weather Mylar probe face is delicate and puncture disables alpha monitor capability until repaired gamma detector will continue to function AN PDR 60 or PAC IS has identical alpha capabilities but does not have the gamma detection capability PRM 5 Alpha Scintillation O to 500K CPM 4 ranges Portable high and low range instrument for detecting alpha contamination through measurement of the associated X rays and low energy gamma radiation This exercise is done with probes with separate ranges PG 2 probe 10 to 100 KeV and FIDLER probe O to 100 Kev Weighs 5 4 pounds The FIDLER probe has significantly greater sensitivity than other probes Very few units other than specialized Service and DoE teams possess the FIDLER
71. n reading has not been subtracted or Net meaning the background radiation reading has not subtracted from the instrument reading 5 Perimeter Surveys a Initial Perimeter Survey Rapid identification of the perimeter of the contaminated area is required to prevent undue alarm to aid in identifying affected people and to establish controls to prevent the spread of contamination The On Scene Commander and civil authorities will need at least a rough plot of the perimeter as soon as possible upon which to base their actions The urgency of perimeter definition is directly related to the population in the area Streets and roads will normally provide rapid access to populated areas although the location of rivers or other terrain features which may hinder access to portions of the potentially contaminated area must be considered when directing the perimeter survey The contaminated area may be a mile or more wide and several miles long therefore use of widely separated monitoring points and a vehicle to move between monitoring points should be considered when directing the initial perimeter survey ARAC projections if available will assist in determining the area and distance the perimeter survey teams may be required to cover and perimeter survey procedures may be adjusted accordingly If perimeter survey teams are equipped with a radio a position report at the perimeter locations on each traverse will provide an immediate locatio
72. nd other openings into the building If no contami nation is found at these locations it is very likely no contamination entered the building If contamination is found additional monitoring should be performed Monitoring results from furnace and air conditioning filters should be included in building survey records DoD 51 0 52 APPENDIX 5 E RADIOLOGICAL MONITORING MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL FORMS Accurate records should be maintained of exposure times and levels of exposure for all personnel entering and exiting the accident area Additionally a complete radiological history should be made for each individual who is actually contaminated This appendix contains examples of forms that may be used to document and record this information Form 1 Form 2 Form 3 Form 4 Form 5 Form 6 Form 7 Form 8 Personal Data Form This form contains data which should be obtained from all personnel who enter the radiological control area Radiological Control Area Log This form is for use at the contamination control station Bioassay Screening Log This form is for maintaining a record of all necessary bioassay screening performed and may be used for both response force personnel and civilians who may have been contaminated as a result of the accident Radiation Health History This form is to assist in the screening of civilians who may have been contaminated as a result of the accident Field Monitoring Da
73. ng and in monitoring for alpha beta and gamma radiation All team members have a minimum security clearance of Secret and are authorized access to Restricted Data and Critical Nuclear Weapons Design Information 3 Requests for additional information shouid be directed to RADCON personnel Radiological Control team assistance may be requested through the Army Operations Center or the JNACC b U S Air Force Occupational and Environmental Health Laboratory OEHL The Occupation and Environmental Health Laboratory Brooks AFB Texas 78235 provides many radiation protection services as follows 1 Conducts calibration traceable to the National Institute of Standards and Technology and minor repair services for portable instruments used and owned by the USAF Medical Service for the detection and measurement of electromagnetic and ionizing radiation 2 Maintains the USAF stock of low energy photon field survey instruments with trained operators to support disaster operations 3 Deploys a field qualified team of health physicists health physics technicians and equipment called the AFRAT This team is capable of responding worldwide to radiation accidents with air transportable equipment for detecting identifying and quantifying any type of radiation hazard radioisotope analysis of selected environmental biological and manufactured materials and on site equipment maintenance and calibration 4 Conducts special projects
74. ng techniques the relative amounts of various isotopes present in the contaminant may be determined accurately Recalling the discussions in the preceding sections immediate application can be seen for such information For example spectroscopy allows determination of the relative abundance of Am 241 to Pu 239 resulting in accurate calibration of the most sensitive FIDLER survey techniques b Alpha Beta Counting 1 Another laboratory technique alpha beta counting results in a reasonably accurate determination of the absolute amount of contamination in a sample Two types of counters are common and both are fairly simple in principle In one a reasonably sensitive alpha beta detector such as a thin layer of ZnS mated to a photomultiplier tube is mounted in a chamber that is shielded to remove background radiation A sample made very thin to minimize self absorption is inserted into the chamber under the detector In some apparatus air is evacuated from the chamber to eliminate air absorption of the radiation The count rate is then measured Knowing the geometry of the experiment permits translating the count rate to an absolute evaluation of sample activity 2 Another alpha beta technique involves gas flow proportional counters In these devices a sample is inserted into the chamber of a proportional counter Any emitted radiation causes ionization of the gas in the counter which is electronically amplified and counte
75. nimize the hazards to people These actions are included in Appendix 5 E f Site Restoration Site restoration involves negotiat ing cleanup levels and fixing or removing contamination The removal is most time consuming and requires an extensive workload to collect remove decontaminate if appropriate and replace the top soil Monitoring is required during the removal process to verify that cleanup has been achieved g Verification The decontamination effectiveness will be verified by remonitoring resurveying the accident scene to determine that the cleanup levels are achieved h Protective Action Recommendations PARs and re entry recommendations RERs provide appropriate protective action and re entry recommendations to the public The PARs and RERs will have been coordinated reviewed by the cognizant federal authority DoD and responsible civilian authorities officials The PARs and RERs will consider Protective Action Guides issued by EPA and state agencies In an accident PARs for initial notification or evacuation would likely not be prepared formally The notification in the accident area would occur via visual means or word of mouth Evacuation of approximately a 600 meter disaster cordon might occur automatically or at the direction of civilian law enforcement personnel A PAR for a controlled evacuation could be formalized in anticipation of a subsequent release of hazardous materials or radioactive contamination Th
76. ns Actions which should be initiated include a Dispatch monitor teams with radios if possible to conduct an initial survey of the security area b Prepare appropriate news release c Determine if medical treatment facilities with casualties have a suitable radiation monitoring capability If not dispatch a monitor to determine if the casualties were contaminated Also assist in ensuring that contamination has not spread in the facility Procedures a medical treatment facility may use to minimize the spread of contamination are described in Chapter 14 d Initiate air sampling e Identify in conjunction with civil authorities officials witnesses bystanders and others present at the accident scene f Establish a contamination control station and a personnel monitoring program If available civil authorities officials should have monitoring assistance provided at established personnel processing points g Implement procedures to protect response personnel Protective coveralls anti contamination clothing hoods gloves and boots are necessary to protect response personnel from contamination and to prevent its spread to uncontaminated areas If airborne contamination exists respiratory protection is required Respiratory protection can be provided in most instances by using Service approved protective masks If extremely high contamination levels of tritium are suspected in a confined area firefighting and
77. nt of fuel involved and measured contamination at specific locations with respect to the contamination source if available c Specific details of accident fire or explosion such as mechanism of the release high explosive detonation or fire duration of any fire and height and size of the plume or cloud if available from reliable observers 6 Approximately 30 minutes after the ARAC facility has been notified of the necessary accident information a computer generated estimate of maxi mum credible ground level contamination spread and projected whole body effective dose to exposed persons in the downwind area will be available Conservative assumptions are made in calculating the amount of radiological material released so that these initial projections place an upper bound on levels of resulting contamination and dose Weapons at risk excluding insensitive high explosive IHE weapons when exposed to unusual stress during the accident undergo a non nuclear high explosive detonation Also all the nuclear material at risk except that of the IHE item s is released in an aerosolized form Similar conservative assumptions are made where specific accident informa tion is missing or unknown If the accident location isn t close to an ARAC serviced site the initial projections will probably not include geographic features roads city boundaries etc ARAC projected doses will assist initial response efforts in evaluating the pote
78. ntial hazard to the general public until comprehensive radiation measurements and bioassays can be performed Projected deposition patterns will assist estimates of site restoration efforts 7 Approximately 60 to 90 minutes after notifi cation of ARAC a more refined projection will be available in somewhat less conservative assumptions are made in estimating the actual amount of material at risk released during the accident Estimates are now based on only those known to have undergone a high explosive detonation For consequence analyses ARAC can generate a calculation based on a meteorological forecast to give projected contamination patterns in case of dispersal during a weapon safing operation Although the initial projections are shown typically on a 30 by 30 kilometer grid these refined projections may cover either a larger or smaller area depending on the downwind extent of the contamination Note that ARAC can generate projection plots to match a given map scale for example 1 50 000 for ease of overlaying the projected deposition pattern 8 When available ARAC may be transmitted to the ARAC site system computer located at most ARAC serviced sites If the site does not have a site system computer the projections can be telefaxed to any CCITT Group 3 telecopier machine The following paragraphs provide information regarding the ARAC example initial projections shown in Figures 5 C I and 5 C 2 a Geograph
79. on Alpha Probe Data Form 5 19 5 E 20 Form 8 FIDLER DATA FORM Incident Date _ _ FIDLER S N Agency Org Team Monitor Check One Scaler Rate Meter Calibration Date 1 1 Radionuclide 7 Check Source Quantity Background Counting Time _ Minutes RC Time Constant Minutes Energy Window Background Check Source K Factor ll Self Shielding 17 keV 0 1 0 No Absorption in Check Source 1 100 Aborption Source to Detector Height 1 uCi Am 241 Alpha Pu Mix excludes Pl 1 241 Beta If Scaler Aipha Activity Mix CPM or Counting Time Location Reading Counts Min m m Comments Figure 5 E 8 FIDLER Data Form 2 E 22
80. other special actions require a positive pressure self contained breathing apparatus Unless an accident is contained within an enclosed space such as a magazine only those personnel working directly with the weapon need take precautions against tritium h Develop and implement plans for controlling the spread of contamination Administrative controls must stop contamination from being spread by personnel or equipment and protect response force personnel and the general public This control is usually established by determining a control area and limiting access and exit through a Contamination Control Station CCS The perimeter of the contamination control area will be in the vicinity of the line defined by the perimeter survey however early in the response before a full perimeter survey is completed a buffer zone may be considered If the control area extends beyond the National Defense Area NDA or Security Area the assistance of civil authorities officials will be required to establish and maintain the control area perimeter Personnel and equipment should not leave the control area until monitored and decontaminated Injured personnel should be monitored and decontaminated to the extent their condition permits A case by case exception to this policy is necessary in life threatening situations i Establishing the location and initial operation of the Command Post Operations Area JHEC and Base Camp is discussed in Chapter 4
81. rd radiological assessment The chapter furnishes recommendations advice sample forms and assistance to civil authorities with jurisdiction over areas affected by the accident Also weapon systems contain non radioactive toxic materials such as beryllium lithium lead propellants high explosives oxidizers and plastics These hazards are discussed in Chapter 9 The JHEC coordinates closely with the FRMAC The FRMAC supports the OSC with off site monitoring and assessment 5 1 5 3 SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS Department of Defense DoD has an obligation to protect response force personnel and the public from on site hazards associated with a nuclear weapon accident and to mitigate potential health and safety problems To accomplish this the DoD establishes a JHEC with the following objectives a Determine if radioactive contamination has been released b Advise the OSC of precautionary measures for residents and other persons in potentially contaminated areas c Identify and monitor potentially contaminated personnel on site including decontamination efforts and establish a bioassay program d Determine levels of contamination present and on site boundaries of the contaminated areas through ground and air surveys e Establish dosimetry and documentation procedures during personnel decontamination and restoration operations f Recommend methods and procedures to prevent spread of radioactive contamination g A
82. ristics of these radiations strongly influence their difficulty in detection and consequently the detection methods used b Alpha An alpha particle is the heaviest and most highly charged of the common nuclear radiations As a result alpha particles very quickly give up their energy to any medium through which they pass rapidly coming to equilibrium with and disappearing in the medium Since nearly all common alpha radioactive contaminants emit particles of approximately the same energy 5 million electron volt MeV some general statements can be made about the penetration length of alpha radiation Generally speaking a sheet of paper a thin layer a few hundredths of a millimeter of dust any coating of water or less than four 4 centimeters of air are sufficient to stop alpha radiation As a result alpha radiation is the most difficult to detect Moreover since even traces of such materials are sufficient to stop some of the alpha particles and thus change detector readings quantitative measurement of alpha radiation is impossible outside of a laboratory environment where special care can be given to sample preparation and detector efficiency c Beta Beta particles are energetic electrons emitted from the nuclei of many natural and man made materials Being much lighter than alpha particles beta particles are much more penetrating For example a 500 keV beta particle has a range in air that is orders of magnitude longer than
83. rrain or in water ATRAP units will be moved by helicopter or by water sealift means 3 Requests for additional information should be directed to ATRAP personnel ATRAP services may be requested through the Air Force Operations Center or the JNACC Phone numbers are listed in Appendix 1 G d U S Navy RADCON Team The Navy RADCON Team provides health physics assistance to the OSC or activity commander in the event of a nuclear weapons accident The Navy RADCON Team is located at the 5 C 2 Naval Sea Systems Command Detachment Radiolog ical Affairs Support Office NAVSEADET RASO Yorktown Virginia 1 The Navy RADCON Team can provide the following capabilities a Field survey and laboratory analysis for alpha beta and gamma radiation emitters b Environmental sample analysis c Limited bioassay analysis d RADCON and radiation health expertise to the OSC e Reference library f Air deployable assets g personnel dosimetry support limited RADIAC repair and Hot Line management 2 Request for additional information should be forwarded to the Director Radiological Controls Program Office SEA 06GN Naval Sea Systems Command 5 C 3 DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY DoE Services of DoE capabilities will be requested by the DoE Team Leader but requests may be made also through JNACC if the DoE Team Leader is not on scene a HOT SPOT Health Physics Codes 1 The HOT SPOT Health Physics Codes were
84. sampling parameters for example sample location s method frequency volume of sample and size b Bioassay Program l Bioassays methods estimate the amount of radioactive material deposited in the body The methods use either direct measurement sensitive x ray detectors placed over the chest lung counting and or other organs or detection of radioactivity y in the excreta nasal mucous feces or urine 2 A bioassay program for all individuals is recommended to determine if any internal dose was received and to assure those who did not receive a dose that their health was not impaired Implementation of a bioassay program and the documented results will be important in the equitable settlement of any legal actions that may occur in the years following a nuclear weapon accident Personnel monitoring and bioassay programs are discussed in this paragraph and bioassay techniques in Chapter 8 3 Work Force Protection Standard radiation accident and incident response procedures provide guidance for personnel protection during the first few days As conditions stabilize regulations governing work in radiation areas should be implemented Consideration must be given to participating organizations or Services dosage calculation methods and previous dosages as long as their procedures do not jeopardize health and safety or unduly impair operations The JHEC is responsible for implementing the OSC s health and safety standards and
85. ssist the Federal Radiological Monitoring and Assessment Center FRM AC in coordinating and plan ning the site restoration plan 5 4 RESOURCES a Response Force Resources Response forces should have a full complement of operable and calibrated radio logical monitoring equipment Sufficient quantities of materials should also be available for replacement or repair of critical or high failure rate components such as mylar probe faces Replacement plans are necessary because radiation detection equipment RADIACs available to initial response forces will not meet initial operational needs after a large release of contamination Though response forces are equipped and trained to conduct radiation surveys for low levels of radioactive contamination it is difficult to do over rough surfaces like rocks plants and wet surfaces Specialized DoD and Department of Energy DoE teams are better equipped to conduct low level contamination monitor ing and monitoring should wait until the teams arrive Appendix 5 A contains a list of radiological monitoring equipment used by the Services with a summary of their capabilities and limitations Additionally personnel should be cognizant of the various units in which contamination levels might be measured or reported and of the method of converting from one unit to another A conversion table for various measurements is provided in Chapter 11 b Specialized Teams Several specialized teams are av
86. ta Log This form is to assist in documenting field monitoring measurements by survey teams TLD Measurements This form is to be used to document TLD readings Weapons Accident Environmental Radiation This form is to be used to log samples taken from the surrounding environment FIDLER Data Form This form is used when logging readings from the FIDLER 5 E 1 5 E 2 FORM 1 PERSONAL DATA FORM Please print or place X in boxes as appropriate See Reverse for Additional Instructions 1 6 SECNO NAME BIRTH OATE last first m i 4 FEMALE sa MILITARY or CIVILIAN usa 7 GRADE 9A 98 USA USAF USAF 18 speci atity cone 000 USN 10 GRAOE senes uSMC USN C NEC DESIGNATOR uswc pee GRADE SERIES OTHER OTHER C PROFESSION AGENCY Y es No 12 Avg YOUEVER WORN A FILM BAOGE OR OTHER 00 SIMETRICDEVICE c1 13 ave YOUEVER BEEN CLASSIFIED AS A RADIATION WORKER 5 24 HAVE YOU HAO TRAINING IN RESPIRATORY PROTECT ION EQUIPMENT MASK c1 15 AVE YOU WORKEDIN ANTI CONTAMINATIONCLOTHINGAND Respirators 211122 116 mwe vou RECEIVED SIGNIFICANT DOSEOFRADIATIONWITHIN THE LAST YEAR 17 avg YOUBEEN BREIFEDON PROCEDURESFORWORKINGIN A CONTAMINATE AREA 18 QURORGANIZATION BUSINESS ADDRESS Unit Employer Name or Symbol Street P O Box Mail Stop etc Cit
87. ta may be provided by the initial perimeter survey Ground surveys to support decontamination planning will be performed with FIDLERs Usually some form of grid survey will be used with the grid size determined by the desired accuracy of estimated activity between grid points and measurement errors associated with the instruments From several days to over a week may be required to complete a ground survey of the entire area Ground surveys validating decontamination effectiveness may require several months to complete due to the low levels of contamination remaining and the desired precision 7 Building Surveys a Radiological surveys of buildings within the contaminated area will be required to determine the appropriate decontamination actions Alpha instru ments may be used on most building surfaces however use of FIDLERs may be necessary on surfaces which may damage alpha instruments or on materials such as carpets where contamination maybe below the surface and screened from alpha instruments The amount of removable contamination present must be determined by wiping surfaces with a piece of material or swipe which is then monitored for contamination it absorbed Laboratory counting equipment should be used to determine the amount of removable contamination absorbed by the swipe Initial building surveys should be performed only on the exterior unless the building is in use 5 D 3 b Civil authorities should establish pro
88. ted to only smooth surfaces like pavement and buildings b Low Energy Gamma Instruments Instru ments capable of detecting the low energy gamma and x ray radiations from plutonium and its americium daughter may be used to detect contamination Low energy gamma x ray instruments are not subject to damage by surfaces being monitored and field surveys can be rapidly conducted Low energy gamma instru ments are therefore the recommended instruments for field surveys of plutonium contamination whereas the SPA 3 probe is more useful for measuring the medium energy gamma radiation from uranium For the best detection efficiency low energy x ray surveys should be conducted prior to any rainfall and during the first five days after the accident before part of the measurable low energy radiation present is screened by the plutonium migrating into the soil The best instrumentation for low energy gamma x ray surveys uses FIDLER probes which will not normally be available until the specialized teams arrive The type and amount of low energy gamma and x ray radiation present depends on the age of the plutonium Many weapons will contain plutonium over 10 years old resulting in higher signal strengths for the same level of contamination as that produced by a new weapon therefore the age of the plutonium and projected signal strength should be determined as soon as possible The age of the plutonium in a weapon can be obtained from the DoE
89. that of the alpha particle from plutonium even though the latter has ten times more energy However many beta active elements emit particles with very low energies For example tritium emits a maximum energy 18 6 keV beta particle At this low an energy beta particles are less penetrating than common alpha particles requiring very special techniques for detection See Chapter 7 gt d Gamma and x radiation Gamma rays are form of electromagnetic radiation and as such are the most penetrating of the four radiations and easiest to detect Once emitted gamma rays differ from x rays only in their energies with x rays generally lying below a few 100 keV As a result x rays are less penetrating and harder to detect However even a 60 keV gamma ray has a typical range of a hundred meters in air and might penetrate a centimeter of aluminum In situations in which several kinds of radiations are present these penetration properties make x ray gamma ray detection the technique of choice e Radiations from the Common Contaminants The following table lists some of the commonly considered radioactive contaminants and their primary associated radiations TABLE 5 A 1 1 Commonly Considered Radioactive Contaminants and Their Primary Asso ciated Radioactive Emissions Alpha Beta Gamma X rays Ac 227 X X Am 241 X X X Cd 109 C 14 X 57 X CO 60 X X H 3 x I 125 X I 129 X X 1 13 X X K 40 x x Pa 231 X Pm 147 X P0 21
90. thickness is again a factor though not as much as with alpha particles For example the half thickness for absorption of 17 keV x rays in aluminum is 0 4 mm and in air is about four meters These factors increase rapidly with energy For 60 keV x rays the distances become 2 5 cm and 190 m respectively Thus for x rays above 15 keV an x ray detector can be held at a comfortable height 0 5 m above the contaminated surface b The size of an electronic pulse produced by an x ray in a scintillation type detector is proportional to the energy of the x ray This has a most important application commonly called pulse height discrimina tion Because of the relatively low 10s of keV energy of the x rays of interest an x ray detector and its electronics must be quite sensitive Unfortunately such a detector is sensitive also to the myriad of radiations from natural sources and to common low level electronic Background Counts 4 noise The result is a deluge of signals that overwhelm the pulses from sought after x rays To remove the unwanted signals circuitry is installed in the meter to ignore all pulses whose size lies below a user selectable lower level threshold In cases of high natural background it is also useful to discard all pulses whose size is greater than a user selectable upper level The accepted pulses therefore are only those from the desired x rays and that small amount of background that happens
91. tically Methods for reducing the exposure to the public should be implemented by or through civil authorities officials Although political and possibly international issues are likely to be involved the ultimate decisions on measures to be taken should be made based on health and safety considerations a The initial response force may need to advise civil authorities officials of recommended actions and provide technical assistance until appropriate civilian assets arrive When contamination has been released or when probable cause exists to believe that contam ination was released the implementation of precaution ary measures to reduce exposure to radiation or contamination are appropriate even though the service response force personnel may not arrive for some time b Protective measures include 1 Establishing a contamination control area This operation requires identifying people in the area at the time of the accident incident or and restricting access to the area Any vehicles or people exiting the area should be identified and directed to go to 2 moni toring point immediately 2 Sheltering Sheltering is used to minimize exposure to the initial release of contamination as moves downwind and to minimize exposure to resuspended contamination prior to an evacuation Shel tering is implemented by advising the people to seek shelter and the procedures to follow The effectiveness of sheltering depends on following t
92. to fall in the same pulse size region c Unfortunately pulse height discrimination is not as easy as described above In fact the signals from the detection of identical x rays will not be identical in size rather a large number of such detections will produce a distribution of pulse sizes which cluster about a mean pulse size If one sets the lower level discriminate or slightly below and the upper level slightly above the mean pulse size a large fraction of the desired pulses will be eliminated resulting in a significant decrease in detector response However setting the discriminator levels far from the mean will admit too much background thereby masking the true signals See Figure 5 1 1 Thus the setting of discriminator levels requires a qualitative judgment which can significantly affect the readings from a given contamination Furthermore since the width of the pulse size distribution depends in a most complicated way upon the condition and age of the detector it is impossible to specify one setting for all similar instruments Rather techniques have been developed to establish the sensitivity of a given detector with its electronics in a field environment This technique is described in the following section d In spite of the above complications the scintillation detector remains the instrument of choice for detection Photo Peak Typical gt Discriminator Settings Figure 5 A 1 I Spectral Plot Showin
93. urements of radioactive contam ination m the field are extremely difficult Particles having short ranges such as alpha and low energy beta radiation are significantly and incalculably affected by minute amounts of overburden for example dust or precipitation Therefore detection rather than measure ment is a more realistic goal for alpha beta surveys More penetrating radiations such as gamma and higher energy x rays are effected less by such overburden however these elements require special attention to field calibration techniques in order to convert meter readings to contamination estimates b Field survey of uranium is best accomplished through measurement of x rays in the 60 80 thousand electron volt keV range emitted by uranium isotopes and daughters For plutonium the best technique is to detect the accompanying contaminant Am 24 1 which emits a strong 60 keV gamma ray Knowing the original assay and the age of the weapon the ratio of plutonium to americium can be calculated accurately and thus the total plutonium contamination determined c Many of the factors which cannot be controlled in a field environment can be managed in a mobile laboratory which can be brought to an accident incident site Typically the capabilities include gamma spectros copy low background counting for very thin alpha and beta emitting samples and liquid scintillation counters for extremely low energy beta emitters such as tritium 5
94. ws the recommended placement of air samplers The sampler number indicates the priority which should be given to placement All air sampling locations should be marked with a unique number or symbol on a stake so that data may be correlated with other information in the following days During the initial response sampler No 1 is placed downwind from the accident site to determine the hazard in the immediate area of the accident and should operate continuously The distance should be modified in a downwind direction if necessary to permit access by a clear path for placement and periodic readings and filter changes The time of readings and or filter changes should be coordinated with EOD personnel Air Sampler Placement sampler No 2 is placed downwind from the accident at a distance dependent upon the wind velocity see Table 5 B 2 Modifications to this location should be considered based on accessibility the location of nearby populated areas and microclimatology Down wind samplers should be operated until it can be determined that no airborne contamination exists at their locations and that actions taken upwind of the location 1 Command Post Background O Contamination Control Station Downwind Hazard Figure 5 B 1 5 B 2 Contamination Air Sampler Placement Table 5 B 2 Air Sample Placement No 2 Approximate Downwind Wind Speed Distance MPH Knots Meters Feet 6 10 4 9 1 000 3 300
95. y or Military Base State or County ZIP Code 19 wr RESPONSIBLEFORRECORDING YOURRADIATIONDOSIMETRY RESULTS Place X if unknown 20lyQURORGANIZATION BUSINESS TELEPHONE Area Code and Number signature Date PERSONAL OATA FORM ACCOUNTING NUMBER FOR RAO HEALTH CENTER USE FILM BADGE NO EXTERNAL OOSE INTERNAL 005 THIS FORM SUBJECT TO THE PRIVACY ACT Figure 5 E 1 Personal Data Form 5 E 3 ITEM 12 13 14 15 16 19 20 INSTRUCTIONS FOR NON SELF EXPLANATORY ITEMS COMMENT Show day and year as numerical and month as alphabetical e g 23 Jan 65 or 01 Jun 42 Check either 5A or 5B Foreign military and US Coast Guard check OTHER Show alphabetical numerical grade e g E3 or 05 rather than rank e g PFC or CDR Show MOS NE C AFSC etc of your current duty assignment Civilians with DOD agencies check DOD and appropriate service or OTHER DOD and DOE employees show pay schedule and level e g GS 10 SES 79 US government civilians other than DOD or DOE show grade and series for profession other civilians give short title for profession e g health phys rad monitor or comp programmer Check YES if you were monitored by thermoluminescent dosimeter i e TLD check YES if you worked with soft beta emitters and were monitored by some means other than film badge or TLD Check YES if an occupationally exposed individual or rad
96. zard Evaluation Center The JHEC is the organization that oversees the on site hazard and radiological data collection and assessment efforts By analyzing data it provides accurate and complete on site hazard radiological recommendations The JHEC Director should be knowledgeable about data on site and how to best employ the technical resources available The recommended functional organization is shown at Figure 5 1 a On site collected data is processed through and further distributed by the JHEC to the FRMAC b JHEC is the single control point for all hazard radiological on site data and will provide the most rapid accurate and complete radiological information to both military and civil users Data provided to the JHEC for analysis correlation and validation includes all hazard data on site After the initial response the JHEC establishes a radiation and dosimetry program which meets Service needs and requirements for personnel working in or entering the on site contamination control area The JHEC should 1 Collect radiological and hazard data required by the OSC on site Refer all unofficial requests for contamination information to the Joint Information Center 2 Analyze and correlate all contamination data collected to identify inconsistencies which require further investigation 3 Provide contamination plots and other required data to the OSC 4 Review and correlate records from contam ination control

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