Report Writing Guidelines
Contents
1. Appended Parts Structure of the report In lengthy reports it is often difficult to develop and hold an absolutely clear line of thought or argument For the reader this means the possibility of losing the thread of what the author is saying Therefore it isalwaysa good idea to provide the reader with a map which outlines the key areas covered in each section and the main linkages or pathways between them Tell the reader the order of the topicsand perhaps more importantly why that order hasbeen adopted B 2 2 The Body of the Report This isthe area about which guidance notescan be the least helpful since it is wholly dependent on the subject matter the type of data or information the form of data collection etc Cleary it is here that the author presents their information analysis and findings If this isa standard scientific projecta typical sequence can be found in almost any scientific joumal on the subject matter in question If it is more arts or social science onented eg a drama a film a photographic record a diary etc it isto exemplars within those fields that the author should tum for guidance on presentation Perhaps one of your initial referees might be willing to provide direction on where to look forthe more accepted and acceptable forms of presentation here That said there are some common enorsthat a guide like this might highlight and in so doing help to alleviate Inductive or2. The function of an appendix is to present relevant supporting material that is too bulky to incorporate in the body of the text Simple diagramsand tables that support arguments or present critical data and which are discussed in depth should never be relegated to an appendix One essential point to remember is that any and all appendix material must be referred to and used in some way in the report It is rarely correct to simply include materal just because it hasbeen collected and might be interesting Appendices have a purpose just like every other element of the report Some possible materials that an LRMF report author might consider including as appendicesare and note that the sequence should be the order in which they are used in the report e Acopy ofa questionnaire and ora summary table of key data collected e A time table or project plan e Mapsand oritineraries with routes and timings marked e Budgeted versus actual costs e Transcripts and extracts of particular importance e Tables offering supporting calculations for figures used in the body of the report e Brief explanations of issues you feel the reader might not understand and so might need more information about but which only have a bearing on rather than a critical place in your report eg a synopsis of some other authors theory that is subject specific Finally the only thing that should follow the appendicesisan index but the LRMF Trustees do not expect
3. Intemational Business Review 3 1 p1 14 J ones M T 1993 Mainstream and Radical Theories of the Multinational Enterprise Complementary Approaches The Intemational Executive 35 4 p 339 356 Kim W C amp P Hwang 1992 Global Strategy and Multinational Entry Mode Choice J oumal of Intemational Business Studies 23 p 29 53 Kogut B amp H Singh 1988 The Effect of National Culture on The Choice of Entry Mode Joumal of Intemational Business Studies 19 3 p41 1 432 Kroeber A L amp C Kuckhohn 1952 Culture A Critical Review of Conceptsand Definitions Cambridge MA Museum McGrath R G I C McMillan amp S Scheinberg 1992 Elitists Risk ta kers and Rugged Individualists An Exploratory Analysis of Cultural Differences Between Entrepreneurs and Non Entrepreneurs J oumal of Business Venturing 7 2 p115 135 Ng S A Cossain P Ball M H Bond K Hyashi S Lim M O Driscoll D Sinha and K Yang 1982 Human Values in Nine CountriesIN R Rath H Asthana D Sinha and J Sinha editors Diversity and Unity in Cross cultural Psychology Lisse Netherlands Swets amp Zeitlinger p 196 205
4. allows any readerto track down the orginal work if they were particulary interested in doing so The second function isto give credit where it isdue Presentation of someone else s ideas or work without due credit is called plagiarism and is the most heinous of academic crimes Before moving on to actual examples of referencing it is worth noting the difference between a reference list and a bibliography A reference list isa list of those works cited in the report If it was not used it should not be in the reference list Some disciplines refer to such a list asa bibliography However a bibliography has another connotation a simple even if not comprehensive list of works on a particular subject Unless the report calls for orthe author wishes to include the presentation of a useful readings list then only a reference list is required What is important is that the two are not confused and that the author does not imply the reading and use of works that did not actually contribute to the report through direct reference or quotation In terms of style there are many ways of referencing material footnotes endnotes alphabetical order numerical order etc but the only critical thing in any one piece of work is consistency That said imespective of the style that is used the information required in a reference is fairly standard Note because they accept work from a number of authors specific works e g academic
5. the reportsto be indexed it isa laborious and time consuming task C SOME ANAL POINTERS AND A CONCLUDING STATEMENT There are so many other points of advice that could be raised Lesikar s text is 400 pages long but which go beyond the scope of this brief guide However there is one final and some general points that should be bome in mind Always read and spell check your work prior to submission Spell checking alone is insufficient since it doesnot pick up corectly spelt but inappropriately used words eg resort instead of report asses instead of assess Some typographical erors are Clear errors some are funny and some change the meaning of what you intended to say It ishoped that these notes provide some sound guidance on the compilation of reportsto a publishable standard As mentioned in section B 2 there is no one correct style or method of constructing a report but all reports must communicate their intent as clearly as possible Although by no meansa perfect example the structure and compilation of this guide might offer some pointers to some of the ideas it contains In addition the author is sure that members of the LRMF Committee and the referees you used on your Fund application would offer advice on how to you might make your report reach the best standard possible although probably not to the extent of reading multiple drafts priorto submission Good luck with your report DC Amott Lecturer in Marketing
6. whether you use the word diagram figure exhibit etc isnot important Another critical implication is that pages are given page numbers B 1 3 The Synopsis The primary purpose of a synopsis is to provide a very quick and accurate overview of what is contained in the report The synopsis hasa variety of names summary abstract executive summary pr cis synopsis epitome etc but such variation is merely semantics They all mean the same thing The two rules are that i it should NEVER be more than a single page of a single spaced clearly readable font and ii it should provide an accurate synopsis of what the report is about If appropriate it should cover four key elements the primary objective of the report how the task wastackled orthe approach used to achieve the objectives key items of information or findings contained in the report and the primary conclusions and recommendations derived from the work Finally for consistency and coherence the sequence of any points presented in the synopsis should follow the sequence within the report proper B 2 Body of the Work Clearly there isno one definitive way of constructing the main body of a report since itis dependent on the purpose of the report the context in which the report is set the actual material and data collected and analysed within the report and the intent and preferred style of the author There are however two very common generic s
7. CONSTRUCTING A REPORT GUIDANCE NOTES FOR LORD ROOTES MEMORIAL FUND AWARD HOLDERS A INTRODUCTION All holders of a Lord Rootes Memorial Fund LRMF award are required to submit a report after completion of their project The following notes are intended to provide a guide to award holders and outline some of the expectations of the LRMF Trustees with regard to structure and content of the report Perhaps the most important point to keep in mind when writing the report is that it is intended to communicate the holder s experience to the reader of the report and as such requires careful planning structure succinctness and clarity The most important person when considering the design of your report isthe intended target s and it is their convenience not the author s that should take precedence The LRMF report serves two main purposes i Itisa record of the project having taken place and thus triggers payment of the remainder of the award to the holder and ii Itis placed in the public domain in the Modem Records Centre of the University Library to form a source of information for future students and researchers It is precisely because these reports enter the public domain and collectively reflect on the calibre of students studying at Warwick that it is critical they achieve a basic standard of academic presentation These guidelines are intended to assist in the achievement of that standard While the Trustees are not expecting a rigoro
8. and Strategic Management Member Lord Rootes Memorial Fund Committee Trustee Lord Rootes Memorial Fund References Lesikar Raymond V Report Writing for Business 5th edition Holmwood IL Richard D Irwin 1977 Kipling Rudyard Just So Stories Papermac edition London Macmillan 1989 p77 Appendix 1 Example of a reference list from a marketing publication Anderson E amp H Gatignon 1986 Modesof Entry A Transaction Cost Analysisand Propostions J oumal of Intemational Business Studies 7 3 p1 26 Bond M H amp M K Pang 1991 Trusting to the Tao Chinese Valuesand the Re centering of Psychology Bulletin of the Hong Kong Psychological Society 26 27 p5 27 Franke R H G Hofstede amp M Bond 1991 Cultural Rootsof Economic Performance A Research Note Strategic ManagementJ oumal 12 p 165 173 Greene W H 1992 LIM DEP Users Manual and Reference Guide Version 6 0 Beilport NY Econometric Software Inc Hill C W P Hwang and W C Kim 1990 An Eclectic of the Choice of Intemational Entry Mode Strategic Management oumal 11 p117 128 Hofstede G amp M H Bond 1984 Hofstede s Culture Dimensions An Independent Validation Using Rokeach s Value Survey J oumal of Cross cultural Psychology 15 p 417 433 Hofstede G 1980 Culture s Consequences Intemational Differenc esin Work related Values Beverly Hills Sage Publications Hofstede G 1994 The Businessof Intemational Businessis Culture
9. constraints that the reader should bearin mind when reviewing the report History of the subject matter if appropriate In order to fully understand the topic of the report it is sometimes necessary to give an overview of the facts leading up to the award holder s interest and involvement Many of the applicants for an LRMF Award have a buming desire to complete a particular project hiking in the Andes comparing welfare and education of infantsin Cuba and the UK etc others wish to look at particular problems the plight of native Americans forexample Forthe most part the initial readers of the LRMF reports ie the Trustees will have little background knowledge of the subject geographic area or the historical context of the project It is often a good idea to invite the reader to enter the report by placing the work in context This may involve a brief discussion of the region if there isa geographic aspect to the project of some key and relevant issues e g political environment and of any relevant principles raised eg civil rights Definitions and glossary if deemed necessary If there are a few words or concepts that need defining in order for the reader to understand the work then it is appropriate to include them in the introductory section If the list is extensive because of the unusual nature of the subject matter orsimply if the author feels it is necessary then such definitions and glossaries are better included in the
10. d inferences that may contradict your own and so lead to rejection of or disbelief in the conclusions presented Conclusions The body of the report will have presented a large amount of information facts data analysis and other forms of evidence that are presumably linked to the original objective of the project Information for information s sake haslittle value It prompts the readerto ask the age old question So what The question that now needs addressing is What doesit mean Of what value is this piece of work this report What can asthe author infer ordeduce from the data and analyses that 1 have presented to you asthe reader In many reports this is the most critical and most difficult section to write It requires that you be asobjective as possible about your own work Recommendations Some reports have a primary objective of making recommendations for action by the recipient It is unlikely that such will be the case foran LRMF award holder However if you consider your most likely readership there are several offerings you might make For example if it were a photographic ordiaristic record what advice would you give to someone else planning to use the same technique If you hiked the Andes what advice would you offer someone planning a similar trip Furthermore what advice would you give any committee eg the LRMF Committee if they were considering an application for funding of a si
11. esina high paying discipline not offered by other institutions Unless such factors are eliminated or explained a study linking graduates salaries to the University they attended may be measuring the wrong variables Chronological sequence does not equal causation Simply because one event follows another does not provide evidence of causation Neithercan correlation be used to infer causation Everyone recognises that if it rains every time you go out without a raincoat the fact that going out without a raincoat precedes the rain and the fact that it rains 100 of the times you leave home without a raincoat there isno evidence of a causative link it is merely a statistical coincidence It is suprising how many researchers seem to forget such simple issues when the interpretation of theirdata goes against their expectations or desires B 2 4 The Concluding Section Once again there are three or four elements that an author might consider Summary By this point the reader will have read orreviewed a large amount of information some of which presents sequential argument some of which will be parallel arguments some will be in graphical or visual form some in words A summary of the points that you asthe author wish your reader to consider while you disc uss what it is you conclude from the information presented helps the communication process It does not leave the reader to draw his her own inferences from the body of work presente
12. joumals have their own very specific requirements on the style of the information presented The LRMF Trustees expect reports to be correctly referenced when needed but leave the style up to the author Typical information required in a reference is as follows Referencing a book Author s Authors capacity eg editor compiler etc if appropriate Chapter title if approprate Book title usually highlighted in some way undernine italics or bold Edition if other than a first edition Publishing company Publisher s location usually the one nearest the author Date of publication of the edition being referenced Page or page numbers being referred to if appropriate Referencing a periodical i e joumals and magazines Author s Year of publication Article title usually placed in inverted commas Periodical or Joumal title usually highlighted as per book title Volume and Issue numbers Exact date of publication usually in parentheses Pages the start end and page of the article or if you refer to a specific page then that should be entered Newspapers letters verbal quotations etc all have forms of referencing and the author should review a few styles from joumals in their own or appropriate fields of study to decide how they prefer to format their references A typical reference list from a marketing publication and covering a range of material is appended to this report see Appendix 1 B 3 2 Appendices
13. milar project What did you actually achieve and get out of the project One of the primary reasons the LRMF exists is to allow students the opportunity to do something that they would not otherwise get the opportunity to do something that is personaland nota part of their nomal programme of study Therefore one of the items that make an ideal ending to a report to the LRMF Trustees is whether or not the award achieved its purpose Note As always these are areasto consider and not recommendations for sub headingsin your concluding section Forexample conclusions and recommendations are often combined and in some cases where a conclusion is self evident there may be a case for omission B 3 THE APPENDED PART There are many items that might be appended to a report Glossary Definitions Appendices Bibliography References Index etc From the point of view of the LRMF report only two need discussion here References and Appendices B 3 1 References In an academic report this is usually the last section unless appendices are also included It isa critical section because it communicates two essential pieces of information Firstly it providesa list of all the sources of ideas information quotes etc that are used in the report In doing so it indicates breadth and depth of knowledge of the author about their subject matter and the level of validity and credence that can be applied to the information presented Furthermore it
14. ncluded The completeness of this information is up to the author and depends on whether the author expects or wishes for readers who are interested in the topic to try to make contact Academics always include complete information including e mail details but for an LRMF award holder simply putting something like 3rd year Politics student University of Warwick would be sufficient Of course there may be more than one authorand details of each author should then be provided The recipient This indicates who the report was prepared forand why if it forms only a part of a larger commitment e g a dissertation fora degree ora report for the LRMF award This would read something like Prepared forthe Lord Rootes Memonal Fund Trustees in partial fulfillment of the conditions of receipt of an LRMF Award Note Whether the author s or the recipient s is are placed first does not matter e The date This is the date you completed and submitted the report and isnomally placed near the bottom of the title page The date should be in full and cover at least the month and year i e August not Aug and 1996 not 96 although the format is up to the author B 1 2 Table of contents and table of illustrations These two components may be placed togetheron a single page if both are short but more normally are on separate pages The need for such pages implies that sections and diagrams are given both titles and section or diagram numbers
15. not inductive That is the question It is in the body where the evidence is presented It also forms about 70 80 by volume of the report It is here that the need for structure is at its most critical Written communication by convention and necessity is unidimensional and unidirectional you start at the beginning front top and work to the end back bottom and especially when writing reports there is rarely any feedback on itsacceptability or usefulness The problem facing the writer is the condensation of a multidimensional rather diffuse subject into a unidimensional coherent framework This is achieved by using two key tools i Presentation sequence There are numerous methods to sequence information logical inferential psychological deductive chronological thematic random etc The decision on which to use depends on the subject and data collection method For example a tourof North America by Greyhound bus hasa naturally imposed structure based on the route taken Thus one possibility isa diarstic format in a chronological or route based sequence However if the purpose of the trip was a comparison of attitude of the American Citizen of the East Coast Mid West and West Coast towards British students touring their country and asking silly questions these natural time based sequences may no longerbe appropriate The one sequence that should almost always be avoided isthe random approach ii Sign posting Qui
16. ome might say traditional approaches the inductive and the deductive which if well understood can be modified and adapted to suit almost any subject matter The first method the logical orinductive approach isperhapsthe most common It is particulary common in scientific reports even in today s post modemist word However it isso common that its form can also be recognised in such unscientific works as playsand novels The basic sequence is set the scene ie some sort of introduction build the suspense ie introduce the necessary information data orevidence and whodunnit ie what can be concluded from the data and analysis In a more formal report this would be built around a basic framework that looked something like Table I Table 1 Basic Stucture of A Logical Inductive Report adapted from Lesikar 1977 p100 105 Introduction typically covering Origin of report why it exists the intended audience and who compiled wrote it Purpose objective of projectand report Scope boundariesof the project and the report Sourcesof information and methods forcollecting and analysing the data Limitations and constraints both on the execution of project and on the report Historical background to the problem under investigation if appropriate Definitionsthat the readerneedsto understand Structure of the report explanation of itslogic orargument development Body of the report Conclusions of the repo
17. rate sub headed sections Origins of the report In a business report this is termed authorisation since it specifies who requested the report and why In the LRMF context it should be a brief statement of why the author s chose the project and what made it of such great interest that they went out of their way to apply for funding to execute the project and to write a report on their efforts Purpose or objective This isa critical element It specifies the expected outcomes of both the project and the report Again it hasa plethora of names objective problem object pumose goal mission assignment proposal etc and of course the project may have several objectives of varying importance Scope It is essential that the author specify the boundaries of what is being covered in the report It is also important to note that the boundaries of the report and of the project may be different i e the report may focus on only one aspect of the total project Note Without both objectives and scope being defined a project and its report is unlikely to remain focused on the issues it purports to be presenting Limitations All projects suffer from a lack of resources to complete the task the researcher or author would really like to do All projects suffer from a lack of complete clear cut information However these constraints vary from project to project It istherefore a good idea to outline any major limitations or
18. rt typically covering Summary Conclusionsthat can be deduced orinferencesthat can be drawn from the data and its analysis Recommendations What have contributed to the word and what have leamt The second common style of a report construction is termed the psychological or deductive approach Many of the elements of this approach are similar if not the same as those in the inductive approach What differs is the sequencing This style starts with the surprise with the answer with the conclusions or ecommendations and then proceeds to prove the point Again it has parallels in the novel and the play The film that starts in 1996 but then through flashbacks or retrospectives takes you back to what is perceived asthe beginning and fills in the sequence of events that led to the current situation is using just such an approach Because of its frequency of use these guidelines are focused on the logical inductive approach which will be discussed using the sequence presented in Table 1 but note that the LRMF Trustees do not insist on this approach B 2 1 A Typical Inductive Report Format Introduction The primary purpose of the introduction isto orient the readerto the problem ortopic to be disc ussed in the report Its content again varies depending on the report but authors should at least consider including the following Note that they do not need to be considered in the order given nor do they have to be sepa
19. tacular than it is in real life must be avoided There must be one right answer In life there is not one single solution to many problems but a selection from amongst a number of options The belief that the work must lead to an absolute and definitive and imefuta ble conclusion should be discarded This simply means recognising that there are usually several interpretations that can be placed on information but does not mean that some sort of conclusion cannot be reached and supported through the work presented Lack of evidence is not proof to the contrary Lack of evidence to support one hypothesis or proposition cannot be taken as evidence to support a contrary proposition All conclusions must be based on and supported by the evidence collected We are all biased and bigoted We all like to think of ourselves as liberal and right thinking people but the truth is we all have preferences and biases What we must try to do is recognise those biasesand make inferences and deductions about how they might affect ourinterpretation of data Comparing apples and oranges Keeping the unit of analysis clearly in mind is very important as is the use of data relating to those units For example the proposition that on average Warwick graduates eam more on graduation than graduates of other institutions may be a reflection of selection of students at intake not the fact that they have a Warwick degree or it may be biased bya high number of graduat
20. te simply this means considering your reader As author you know why you place things in the order you do you know what line of thought you are taking you know why you break your writing up as you do However unless you make these things explicit each time the readercomesto a new section of a report particulary a long one be she is likely to be saying where are you taking me now The solution is simple top and tail each major section with brief introductory and concluding paragraphsthat do not simply summarise what you are doing but also say why Presentation style Some people are more comfortable writing in essay style ie not using headings and subheadings than ina more formal report style That isa personal preference and the former may well suit the material better However it does not negate the need fora structure even novels have chapter titles and follow the basic rules of grammar and syntax If a report structure isadopted then that implies the use of headings and consistency in style of heading as in this guide is then critical since it indicates the relationship between elements of the argument presented B 2 3 On being human Since many of the LRMF award holders will not be skilled researchers it isimportant that some of the commonest frailties be recognised and addressed Exaggeration We have all heard of the fisherman s tale about the size of the one that got away The desire to make something more spec
21. times asa courtesy to the many people who usually help in a project a fourth element an Acknowledgements page isadded where credit is given to those without whose help the project would not have been completed Such acknowledgement is always at the discretion of the author but in research and other funded reports it is considered very remiss not to acknowledge the sources of your funding other than self of course B 1 1 The Tite Page This provides the obvious information of title and author but in the case of a report it should also contain details of the intended recipient and the date of completion or submission e The title Even something as simple as the title should communicate and it should indicate ata glance what is contained in the report You may wish to consider using Kipling s 1989 Papermac edition six honest serving men who what where when why and how when constructing your title Needless to say many titles do not require all of them but by way of examples consider A directors who diaristic report how on the staging of Rascals Retreat what at the 1996 when Edinburgh Festival where orA photographic record how of pipe organs what in Israel where 1997 when e The author This is self evident and it can be assumed that an author knows their own name However there may be additional information required A contact e mail orweb address at the time of writing should be i
22. us academic report the time scale forthe project and the writing does not lend itself to that they are expecting a reasonable attempt at producing a work of publishable standard Of course it is recognised that the reports the Trustees receive are froma very wide range of project types and recording methods e g photographic records diaries drama productions studies via questionnaires studies via observation etc and so it is clearly impossible to be totally prescriptive about what should and should not be included However there are certain elements that should always be present in the construction of a report Thus even if the primary objective of the project was the creation of say a film a copy of that film should only form one part of the submission to the LRMF Trustees the other key element being a written report B THE CONSTRUCTION OF A REPORT Pick up any textbook any academic article oreven a novelora play and you probably recognise a common structure and a typical report has the same three main components although they may differ in content and importance e Prefatory parts e Body of the work e Appended parts Each of these components is constructed from a numberof elements which again have similarities across the spectrum of writings and which are discussed below B 1 The Prefatory Parts The three essential components here are a title page a table of contents and illustrations and a synopsis Some
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