Styli User Guide - Resources For Manufacturing, Inc.
Contents
1. e the permitted masses specified by the sensor manufacturer This chapter provides information about the materials that should be used Fluctuations in temperature can cause serious measurement errors If you are operating your CMM in an air conditioned area at a stable 20 degrees C this effect does not generally occur except for extreme extensions Otherwise fluctuations in temperature always cause significant thermal expansion and changes in the length of the probe component or extension and so lead to measurement errors unless compensated for Bear in mind too that even gt minor differences in temperature can cause measurement errors You can minimise such errors by choosing the right material for the stylus stem or the extension 32 Chapter 2 Very long extension made of carbon fibre 33 Chapter 2 RF M Resources For Manufacturing Inc em Calculating changes in length Changes in length depend on the change in temperature the length of the stylus shank being used and the expansion behaviour of the material The change in length is calculated by AL change in length L probe length expansion coefficient At difference in temperature Aluminium Steel Titanium Tungsten CFK carbide Thermal length increase in u with a 200mm probe extension and a temperature difference of 1K Tungsten carbide Ceramic 5 0 x 10 6 K7 Titanium 5 5 x 10 6 K 1 4 5 Ste2. lts thermal stability Due to its lightness ceramic is mainly delivers huge benefits particularly with very used for long styli It is thermally stable for long styli and this makes it suitable for use production related applications It can also in a production environment RFM Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA A Chapter 2 RFM Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA Parameters for materials for extensions plate extensions are similar to those for the stylus stem Tungsten carbide Deflection resistant carbide stems for all standard applications at stable ambient temperatures primarily for the use in the measuring room Steel Extension with superior rigidity for standard applications where weight is not an issue Aluminium Very light so in principle ideally suited for extensions but only in a stable air conditioned environment due to thermal growth Ceramic Light solid thermally stable for use in production related applications Carbon fibre thermally stable with low mass The high tech material for long extensions is an absolute must where there are temperature fluctuations Our 20mm diameter extensions enable the assembly of probe configurations with great flexural rigidity Titanium Compared with aluminium thermally stable good flexural rigidity very light So very suitable for long extensions 29 Chapter 2 REM Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA a Special characterist
3. 2 Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA A SS See Cylinder styli Cylinder styli are made from tungsten carbide ruby or ceramic Main application For measuring sheet metal pressed components and thin work pieces with which proper contact cannot be guaranteed with ball styli In addition various threaded features can be probed and the centres of tapped holes located Ball ended cylinder styli allow full datuming and probing in X Y and Z directions thus allowing surface inspection to be performed Cylinder styli e g for measurement of metal sheets Chapter 2 RF M Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA lt A AAA 20 RF Mi Chapter 2 Resources For Manufacturing Inc AA Ceramic hemispherical styli Their advantage is that they have a large effective ball diameter with minimal weight Main application For measuring deep features and bores Suitable also for contact with rough surfaces as the roughness is mechanically filtered out by the large diameter surface 1 uN EM E p Measurement of a deep Probing with such a large diameter ball can average threaded bore out the effects of very rough surfaces 21 Chapter 2 RF M Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA ed Adaptor plates If you need to measure certain features repeatedly it is a good idea to set up the required styli configurations on adaptor plates You can store the assembled adaptor plates in styli cabin
4. This means that whichever stylus you use to probe a point you always get the same result When taking measurements the amp CMM compensates for the stylus position and tip dimensions This leaves just the form of the stylus tip as the only factor influencing the measurements co ordinate system A special analysis program and the known diameter of the calibrated ball are used to establish the unknown diameters of the stylus tip The co ordinates of the centre of the first stylus ball calibrated are stored in the CMM s data processor as reference co ordinates All the remaining tip positions are established by generating differences with the first one and then also stored as ball centre coordinates 90 REM Chapter 4 Resources For Manufacturing Inc m ea zz zz j dri ir0t rn nn se Calibrating other shaped components Apart from reference balls stylus calibration can also be done using other references such as end gauges ring gauges and pin gauges Typical examples are with cylinder and disc styli The basic principle does not alter The machine manufacturer s user manuals will describe the routines for these types of calibration Reference stylus 91 RFM Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA a xl Summary of key criteria for using probe components In the CMM sector all the equipment manufacturers invest heavily in keeping measurement uncertainty to a minimum This is also ofte
5. balls are available in a range of materials Chapter 3 provides a detailed description of stylus and ball materials Straight styli Straight styli are the simplest and most frequently used type of stylus Straight shouldered stems and tapered stems are available Styli with tapered stems offer e better rigidity when the work piece is easily accessible i Stylus balls are made from ruby silicon 1 nitride zirconia ceramic or tungsten carbide The holders and stems come in a range of materials titanium tungsten carbide stainless steel ceramic and carbon fibre Main application For simple features with which direct 7 To prevent stylus bending you contact can be made should use the shortest stylus possible particularly with touch trigger probe systems The measuring travel direction should be near parallel to the coordinate axes and at right angles to the surface of the work piece A wide range of accessories is available for aligning probes e g Straight stylus right angled for measuring angled holes to the work piece surface Chapter 2 RF NN Resources For Manufacturing Inc AA a Star styli These are multi tip stylus configurations with rigidly mounted styli Balls are made from ruby silicon nitride or zirconia You can also configure your own star styli using stylus centres to mount up to 5 styli components Star stylus w
6. form deviation ball styli are constructed using an undrilled ball bonded into a spherical cup Investigations into the effect of the design and construction of styli using such a highly specified ball have indicated that the form of the ball can be degraded by both machining a hole in it and through distortion from gluing it onto a spigot Measurements taken before and after assembly have shown that the form of the ball remains well within specification throughout the process Due to limits of measurement capability and bond strength Grade 3 ball styli are only be available with a minimum diameter of 1mm 5 IP It is important that a manufacturer ensures that spigot lengths and bore depths match If the hole is too deep air gets captured and the balls come loose very quickly when measuring in Z directions If the spigot is too long the bottom of the bore becomes conical or A Cap connection less gluing area round so that air pockets will B Spigot connection greater gluing area and probably occur and cause a lack of safety due to spigot stability 47 PATENT No US 5505005 48 RFM Resources For Manufacturing Inc gt Calibrating styli Before you begin taking measurements it is crucial that you calibrate the probe precisely for all your measurement procedures The effective dimensions of the probe components have to be established if accurate results are to be obtained These values are stor
7. the surface of the work piece can suffer wear from abrasion Minute particles of residue can cause fine scratches on the ball stylus and the surface of the work piece We recommend zirconia ball styli for this type of application to minimise this affect Adhesive wear scanning aluminium parts When a ruby ball is used to scan an aluminium surface the two materials attract one another The material is usually passed from the softer surface to the harder surface This means that aluminium 15 deposited on the surface of the ball and the coating of aluminium can be seen clearly after only 100 m of continuous measurement using a single contact patch on the stylus ball We recommend ball styli made from silicon nitride for this type of application This material repels aluminium so the deposit effect rarely occurs 43 L1 N RF IM UNAapler 3 Resources For Manufacturing Inc UU Ball precision grade A ball s grade is a rating that describes the precision class of the ball used Precision classes range from grade 48 the lowest precision class to grade 3 the highest Renishaw use grade 3 and grade 5 balls Table of precision classes Grade deviation Roundness 20 0 50 um 0 50 um 16 0 40 um 0 40 um 10 0 25 um 0 25 um 5 0 13 um 0 13 um 3 0 08 um 0 08 um Dw 2 l 5 Nominal ball diameter Dy Y Deviation Deviation Roundness The diameter value used to The difference betwee
8. 0 ga La a RI M unapfter 2 Resources For Manufacturing Inc BKGvbZSEZTG z_e e nK AAA The geometry of the work piece determines the choice of stylus component A stylus must be able to easily reach all of the work piece s probing points You need to be very careful when choosing your stylus components so they provide the required inspection criteria and accessibility for each feature measured If you want to take all the measurements for a work piece on a co ordinate measuring machine equipped with a fixed sensor you often need a number of styli mounted in different orientations requiring different shaped styli components extensions and knuckles The combination of all these components is known as a stylus configuration which is mounted on an adaptor plate Renishaw produces stylus components in a range of materials so you can assemble your stylus configurations so that they are ideally suited to the measurement A complex stylus configuration with application multiple components When assembling your stylus configuration you need to refer to the maximum mass that the sensor manufacturer has specified The maximum mass can be up to 500 grams RFM Resources For Manufacturing Inc gt Stylus types Renishaw offers the widest range of stylus types and accessories so that you can carry out all your measurements successfully All components including styli
9. Manufacturing Inc AAA Extensions made from carbon fibre As is the case with stylus components the choice of the material of extensions is important in metrology With long extensions in particular you need to pay close attention to the material s thermal characteristics 25 Chapter 2 RF M Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA A Materials used for Renishaw stylus components Our product range caters for the widest range of material combinations All the materials used in metrology are described below Holders The stylus stem is attached to a threaded holder Steel and titanium are the ideal materials for holders Titanium is far lighter than steel and should be used when a light weight assembly is required 26 RF M Chapter 2 Resources For Manufacturing Inc Stem The stem must be designed for maximum rigidity to minimise bending during measurement Tungsten carbide be used as a break protection in machine Provides exceptional rigidity particularly tool applications with small stem diameters and shouldered probes Steel For styli with superior rigidity for standard With large stem diameters and long applications where weight is not an issue styli you need to be careful about the weight Ideally suited for most standard Carbon fibre thermally stable applications Also ideally suited for long styli as carbon fibre styli only weigh around 20 of Ceramic tungsten carbide styli
10. REM Resources For Manufacturing Inc apply innovation M d Y RFM Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA F Chapter 1 The importance of styli for precise measurements 4 Chapter 2 Selecting and using styli COMPONENTS sss 8 Chapter 3 Selecting and using Styli unse ee 38 Chapter 4 Calibrating styli sus 48 Chapter 5 Summary of key criteria for using styli components 52 Quality assurance from A Z Checking a range of styli balls Chapter 1 RF M Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA el The importance of styli for precise measurements Quality assurance standards have increased dramatically in recent years Companies can only remain competitive if they deliver top class process stability and superior quality and all as rapidly as possible Quality assurance and co ordinate measurement technology are playing a crucial role in these processes To stay competitive manufacturers have been continually upgrading their co ordinate measuring machines CMMs are now being integrated directly into manufacturing as part of production processes and swift high performance scanning systems guarantee extremely precise measurements within the tightest timeframes Renishaw and its probing systems have always been at the forefront of these developments The quality of styli and accessories plays a v
11. apter 3 RF M Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA u Typical coating of impurity on a ruby ball after 350 m of scanning The same ball after being cleaned with a dry lint free cloth 40 REM Chapter 3 Resources For Manufacturing Inc E SSS SS ee Notes on scanning With point measurements the ball only comes into contact with the component s surface for a very short time Scanning is different as the ball slides along the surface of the work piece Because the contact is continuous there is a prolonged sliding contact between the ball stylus and the surface of the work piece Ball stylus wear and tear and ball stylus deposits left by scanning can affect measurements Renishaw has run an extensive research programme to examine the interaction between ball materials and work piece Surfaces Impurities All the tests with ball materials have shown that materials are deposited on ball surfaces Between inspections it is recommended that the balls are cleaned with a dry lint free cloth so that no residue is left 41 Chapter 3 RE IN Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA Im E The scratches on the surface of this ruby ball are clearly visible A coating of aluminium is clearly visible on this ruby ball 42 RFM Resources For Manufacturing Inc Abrasive wear scanning abrasive materials If for example components made from cast iron are being measured both the ball stylus and
12. at the stylus delivers the greatest possible accuracy at the point of contact 0 Styli and accessories for all measurement applications 8 i l e y Matre x Nu nl l MI Thread adaptors can provide flexibility e g you can use M2 M3 M4 styli on M5 connecting threads RF K Chapter 2 Resources For Manufacturing Inc Selecting and using styli You should be very careful to select the stylus that is best suited to your measurement application This chapter describes the main types of styli and accessories and the key parameters and material properties Connecting thread At a basic level the choice of stylus always relates to the connecting thread on your coordinate measuring machine s sensor usually M2 M3 M4 or M5 Renishaw sensors work with connecting threads M4 Zeiss sensors mainly work with M5 and M3 connecting threads 00 M3 Styli can be used very flexibly with the x help of thread adaptors e g you can use M2 M3 M4 styli on M5 sensor connecting threads 4 M2 7 When choosing a stylus the with all connecting threads connecting thread is the decisive to suit sensors and accessories from factor Renishaw has the largest all manufacturers range of styli and accessories also styli for probes for CNC machine tools RFM Resources For Manufacturing Inc A el Stylus configuration mounted on an adaptor plate 1
13. describes the relationship between tension and expansion when a solid body is deformed As the value of the elastic modulus increases the more resistance a material presents to being deformed So a material with a high elastic modulus is rigid while a material with a low elastic modulus is flexible Tungsten carbide 620 Aluminium 70 Ceramic 300 400 37 Chapter 3 Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA A SSS ee Selecting and using styli The choice of the ball material depends on the measuring strategy and the work piece material Bear in mind the ball s quality rating Renishaw only use balls in the top precision category grade 3 to grade 5 Ruby After diamond ruby is one of the hardest materials known so it is an ideal material for balls in most standard applications Silicon nitride Silicon nitride is very similar to ruby in terms of its technical properties It is an exceptionally wear resistant ceramic material that can be shaped into perfect balls whose surface can be polished until it is extremely smooth Silicon nitride is not attracted to aluminium For this reason the material is ideally suited for scanning aluminium surfaces as unlike with ruby aluminium particles from the aluminium surface are not deposited on the ball Zirconia The special nature of this material s surface makes it perfect for scanning the surfaces of abrasive work pieces such as cast iron parts 39 Ch
14. ed in the CMM s data processor Make sure particularly if you are using more than one CMM that you use the calibrated ball whose values have been input to the software 49 How it works The position of the individual ball styli and their diameters are established using a special probe calibration programme see the machine manufacturer s user manual You contact a reference point with all the styli to be used one after the other The reference used is usually an extremely precise manufactured ball with a known diameter The exact dimensions of the ball being calibrated are input to the measuring software If the styli are to be used for measuring separate points the stylus is calibrated using a number of points on the reference ball s cardinal points see image A far greater number of points are taken for scanning systems The machine manufacturer s user manual will describe the precise probing strategy for calibrating the styli RFM Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA AAA Chapter 4 Outcome The probe calibration procedure establishes the stylus tip s effective diameters when measuring and their positions in relation to one another and to the machine s Once the various tips of a stylus configuration have been calibrated their centre points are compensated for by the CMM software so that measurements with all the styli appear as though they had been taken with just a single stylus
15. el 16 0 x 10 6 K 85 Aluminium 23 8 x 106 K 2 56 Expansion coefficient 10 6 K1 Density g cm 1 52 Tungsten Ceramic Titanium Steel Aluminium Carbon carbide Fibre Thermal length increase in u with a 200mm probe extension and a temperature difference of 1K 35 RFM Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA IT E As you can see there are major variations in terms of both thermal expansion and weight between the different materials Carbon fibre offers the ideal combination of minimal mass and greatest temperature stability You should always use carbon gt fibre for very long extensions as in these cases even tiny temperature differences could otherwise cause major measurement errors 36 RF M Chapter 2 Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA Flexural rigidity The stylus stem must be designed for maximum rigidity During probing measuring forces occur that must not cause the stylus to bend excessively as this can directly impact on the machine s measurement uncertainty particularly with dynamic measurements scanning that simultaneously probe in all spatial directions The bottom line styli should be as stiff as possible RENISHAW E apply innovation Low deflection Excessive deflection Deflection has a direct impact on the accuracy of measurement Materials flexural rigidity compared In materials technology the elastic modulus is a material characteristic that
16. ets or racks on the CMM and use them when needed Whenever you make a change there is no need to recalibrate the probe so you can start measuring immediately With a probe rack even highly complex work pieces can be measured in CNC mode Adapter plate for Renishaw SP 80 probe head Adapter plates for Zeiss VAST probe heads RF M Chapter 2 Resources For Manufacturing Inc gt Accessories Accessories are useful for adapting probe components more precisely to specific measuring tasks Renishaw offers an extremely wide range of accessories Due to lack of space we can only show a few examples on this page but our product catalogue shows the entire range Bodies cubes Combine to create specific styli configurations Knuckles The angular alignment of the probe component for making vertical contact with angled work piece surfaces or angled holes Knuckles must be extremely stable and precisely machined if the probing force is not to alter the position of the stylus tip while measuring Quality of design and materials is vital 23 Chapter 2 RF M Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA ed Extensions Renishaw manufactures a wide range of extensions in different lengths and materials steel titanium aluminium ceramic and carbon fibre Main application Extensions are used for measuring very deep features and bores or probing points that are difficult to access RFM Resources For
17. ic of our thermally stable extensions The connecting components are made from titanium with a positive thermal expansion coefficient whilst the extension tube is made from carbon fibre with a negative thermal expansion coefficient The two components are designed to match one another so that when heat is applied the carbon fibre contracts by the same amount by which the titanium expands The outcome is that these extensions suffer little expansion even with extreme temperature changes of between 15 and 40 degrees Celsius Carbon fibre with negative thermal expansion and Titanium caps with positive thermal expansion 15 C 40 C 30 REM Chapter 2 Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA Materials for connecting components Titanium We supply the larger M5 accessories such as knuckles and cubes in titanium to keep the products very light Steel The smaller products are usually made from stainless steel Bear the following in mind components you should always give The materials shown here influence priority to the measuring application the product s price However when and the ambient conditions Erroneous choosing your styli and associated measurements waste time and money 91 Chapter 2 RF M Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA szrv 2 A Choice of material for styli components and accessories The key criteria when choosing a material are e ambient conditions e length flexural rigidity
18. ital role in industrial measurement technology which is why in this manual we have summarised key information on the subject for your benefit We hope that you find reading it productive Yours Renishaw plc RF M Chapter 1 Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA A www A Renishaw d provide high tech precision and superior quality Chapter 1 RFM Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA lt A AAA The stylus is the first link between CMM and work piece REM Chapter 1 Resources For Manufacturing Inc AA What is a stylus In principle styli are the CMM s tools providing the same relationship that turning tools have with lathes and milling and boring tools have with milling machines When measuring with a touch trigger probe the machine uses the stylus to take the data points on the surface of the work piece Each touch generates a point that is defined using coordinate values in X Y and Z Feature size form and position can then be computed from these points By contrast a scanning probe takes continuous readings along the surface of a work piece Sophisticated software uses this data to compute the size position and form of features on the component How do you choose the right stylus components Chapter 2 gives details of all the main parameters and material properties As you can see the stylus is the first link with the work piece This is why it is vital th
19. ith 5 rigidly mounted styli Measuring a complex interior contour 14 RFM Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA AAA x eS See Main application For surfaces and holes with which direct contact can be made This configuration gives flexibility enabling the tip to make contact with different features without changing the stylus Different features can be reached with one stylus configuration 15 Chapter 2 RF M Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA m gt gt IDG Du nz Swivel styli Main application This is a clamping mechanism that can be For angled surfaces and angled holes used to adjust styli to the required angle this configuration gives flexibility enabling you to make contact with different features without changing the stylus Flexible alignment for angled surfaces and angled holes 16 radius end roller extends beyond the diameter of the probe The radius end roller can be datumed on a sphere or a slip gauge Rotating and locking the disc about it s centre axis allows the radius end roller to be positioned to suit the application REM Resources For Manufacturing Inc SSeS SS SSS ESS SSS ee Disc styli These styli are sections of highly spherical balls and are available in various diameters and thicknesses Mounted on a threaded spigot the discs are made from steel ceramic or ruby Full rotational adjustment and the ability to add a centre
20. n reflected in the high cost of investing in CMMs The performance of your gauging can easily be degraded if you use a stylus with poor ball roundness poor ball location bad thread fit or a compromised design that allows excessive bending during measurement To ensure the integrity of the data you gather make certain that you specify and use a stylus from the comprehensive range of genuine Renishaw styli 53 Always use styli that are as short and stable as possible With long styli components ensure that they have the required stability Check that the styli you use have no defects particularly on the thread and the seating area This will ensure that the mount is very secure Variations Check that the probe component is firmly attached Replace worn styli Are you using components that are thermally stable Bear in mind the ambient conditions When putting together stylus configurations refer to the permitted masses as specified by the sensor manufacturer Avoid too many or superfluous thread connections Use the lowest possible number of separate components 94 Do you have scanning applications Take advantage of the benefits offered by silicon nitride balls when scanning aluminium Use the largest possible balls Large ball styli act as mechanical filters on the surface of the work piece The fine structures on the surface of the work piece are scarcely recorded with large balls which prevents random measureme
21. n The greatest radial distance identify the ball size the largest and smallest in any radial plane between diameters of one ball a sphere circumscribed around the ball surface and any point on the ball surface 7 The roundness deviation the ball s Diameter tolerances are almost form defect directly impacts on insignificant for 3D metrology because measurements the effective ball stylus centre and diameter are established during the calibration process see Chapter 4 45 Chapter 3 RE MI Resources For Manufacturing Inc Spigot mounted styli A SS m Spigot mounted balls guarantee top class stability and a long service life 46 RFM Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA AA AAA Cap or spigot ball assembly Basically there are two options for connecting the stem to the ball a cap connection or a spigot connection The majority of Renishaw styli are manufactured using the spigot mounted design This means that we drill holes in the balls down to 0 5 mm diameter grind spigots on the shafts and bond the balls to the spigot The advantage is clear the bond is technically superior in engineering terms and particularly with slim stems there is a greater gluing area Particularly with slim stems because of the limited gluing area conventional bonding methods can result in the ball quickly separating from the stem when even a minimum of force is exerted Our Grade 3 0 08 um spherical
22. nt variations flyers Styli should always be aligned at right angles or as close to a right angle as possible to the planes being measured For angled measuring planes angled cubes and knuckles are available to ensure that styli are accurately aligned The same applies when measuring angled bores Ensure that the measuring force and dynamics suit the stylus components With small ball styli with a slim stem you should reduce these values when necessary 99 RFM Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA AAA Notes 96 RENISHAW apply innovation REM Resources For Manufacturing Inc P O Box 751432 Dayton OH 45475 Ph 937 436 4699 Fx 937 436 9244 Sales RFMInc net www RFMinc net Part No H 1000 3304 01 A Renishaw applies innovation to provide solutions to your problems Renishaw is an established world leader in metrology providing high performance cost effective solutions for measurement and increased productivity A worldwide network of subsidiary companies and distributors provides exceptional service and support for its customers Renishaw designs develops and manufactures products which conform to ISO 9001 standards Renishaw provides innovative solutions using the following products e Probe systems for inspection on CMMs co ordinate measuring machines e Systems for job set up tool setting and inspection on machine tools e Scanning and digitising systems e Laser and a
23. stylus are features of the range This makes them particularly flexible and easy to use Main application These styli are used to probe undercuts and grooves within bores which may be inaccessible to star styli Probing with the spherical edge of a simple disc is effectively the same as probing on or about the equator of a large stylus ball However only a small area of this ball surface is available for contact and hence thinner discs require angular alignment in order to ensure correct contact with the feature being probed Disc stylus for measuring edges or undercuts A simple disc requires datuming for only one diameter but this limits effective probing to only X and Y directions Adding a radius end roller allows you to datum and hence probe in the Z direction provided that the centre of the RFM Resources For Manufacturing Inc AAA AAA Semi spherical disc styli These styli have a half ball or roller mounted on each face of the disc both beneath and on top which guarantees point contact in the Z direction Main application Also for undercuts stepped bores and grooves within bores Using the hemispheres above and below you can also measure in the Z direction e g to measure the width of a groove Chapter 2 The edges of all discs are curved as though a section had been cut out of a sphere at its equator Measurement of diameter and width of the groove 18 IF M Chapter
24. utomated ballbar systems for performance measurement and calibration of machines e Encoder systems for high accuracy position feedback e Spectroscopy systems for non destructive material analysis in laboratory and process environments e Styli for inspection and tool setting probes e Customised solutions for your applications Renishaw plc 2008 All rights reserved Printed in Germany
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