Kodak J-314 User's Manual
Contents
1. Figure 4 LARGE PHOTOGRAPHIC orena ninie wiles PROCESSING FACILITIES slot hood ventilation The most effective controls for ai A minimizing potential airborne oam exposures and odors related to large Pe photographic processing operations Mul are a combination of both local exhaust and dilution ventilation Figure 3 Fresh dilution air should x be supplied to the darkroom at a rate N of 150 cfm per machine If a machine extends through a barrier into another room supply fresh dilution air to both rooms Depending on the process chemistry you may need local exhaust at uncovered stabilizer tanks or at the bleach fix tanks at a If solution tanks are enclosed or covered the fresh air supply rate may be rate of 170 cfm per machine reduced to 90 cfm and the exhaust rate to 100 cfm per machine Figure 5 Figure 4 In many cases exhaust is also provided at the dryer section to help control heat and humidity in the room An exhaust rate slightly greater than the supply rate results in a negative room air pressure which reduces the potential for air contaminants and odors for escaping from the photographic processing area to any adjacent areas i Figure 3 Open machine general room exhaust ventilation Supply Fresh Air 150 cfm Exhaust to Outdoors 170 cfm Vt SS fF 1 Means uncontaminated air which includes the ASHRAE recommendation of 02. 722 5151 For questions concerning the safe transportation of Kodak products call Kodak Transportation Services at 1 585 722 2400 Additional information is available on the Kodak website and through the Canada faxback system The products and services described in this publication may not be available in all countries In countries other than the U S contact your local Kodak representative or your usual supplier of Kodak products J 311 J 312 J 313 J 315 J 316 J 317 Hazard Communication for Photographic Processing Facilities Personal Protective Equipment Requirements in Photographic Processing Facilities Occupational Noise Exposure Requirements for Photographic Processing Facilities Special Materials Management in Photographic Processing Facilities Emergency Preparedness for Photographic Processing Facilities Injury and Illness Management for Photographic Processing Facilities Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation in Photographic Processing Facilities J 314 ENG 11 Kodak Environmental Services For more information about Kodak Environmental Services visit Kodak on line at www kodak com go kes Many technical support publications for Kodak products can be sent to your fax machine from the Kodak Information Center Call Canada 1 800 295 5531 Available 24 hours a day 7 days a week If you have questions about KODAK products call Kodak In the U S A 1 800 242 2424 Ext 19
3. exposure averaged over an 8 hour day Short term Exposure Limit STEL The allowable limit that is representative of a worker s exposure averaged over 15 minutes Ceiling Limit C The airborne concentration that is representative of a worker s exposure that should not be exceeded Action Level AL For the comprehensive standards established by OSHA an Action Level may be specified The Action Level is typically 1 2 of the PEL and is the concentration at which you may have to address certain compliance requirements such as employee monitoring training or medical surveillance AMERICAN CONFERENCE OF GOVERNMENTAL INDUSTRIAL HYGIENISTS ACGIH ACGIH is a professional organization whose members work within the government or academia This organization annually publishes a booklet entitled Threshold Limit Values TLVs for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices BEIs ACGHI TLVs are exposure guidelines and do not have the effect of law These values change in response to new data and are usually more rapidly updated than OSHA limits The Threshold Limit Value TLV refers to airborne concentrations of substances and represents conditions under which it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day without adverse health effects The ACGIH TLVs include Threshold Limit Value Time Weighted Average TLV TWA The time
4. 5 cfm ft2 8 Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation in Photographic Processing Facilities e J 314 ENG Figure 5 Enclosed machine ventilation Supply Fresh Air Exhaust to Outdoors 90 cfm it TT V1 1 O N i In addition it is important to follow the processing equipment manufacturer s recommendations regarding venting of the dryer section of the processor Whenever possible dryer vents should be ducted to the outdoors to prevent the build up of excessive temperature and humidity in the workplace Install all local exhaust systems that vent to the outdoors in accordance with local state and federal regulations Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation in Photographic Processing Facilities e J 314 ENG EFFECTIVE COVERS FOR PROCESSING EQUIPMENT AND CHEMICAL STORAGE TANKS Covers on photographic processing equipment and chemical storage tanks can effectively minimize the amount of gases vapors or mists that may enter the work area In addition covers also reduce the potential for contamination of the processing solutions Covers should be fabricated from durable non reactive materials and should cover as much of the open surface of the tank as possible In many cases effective tank covers combined with good general room ventilation and proper operation and maintenance may be all that is needed to control odors and airborne exposure to photographic processing chemicals In si
5. Environment IN FORMATION FROM KODAK Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation in Photographic Processing Facilities INTRODUCTION The Occupational Safety and Health Administration OSHA presents a framework of federal regulations that set chemical exposure standards for the workplace environment These standards outline allowable limits that employees may be safely exposed to during the work day Effective ventilation systems are an important tool that will help minimize employee exposure to photographic processing chemicals While photographic processing facilities are typically considered to be a low hazard Fresh Air SS D Exhaust workplace indoor air quality environment can be improved if well engineered ventilation systems are installed This publication will provide information on the following topics e Indoor air quality e Exposure concepts e Air contaminants e Exposure standards and guidelines e Methods of evaluation e Ventilation and work practice control measures This publication is meant to assist others with their compliance programs However this is not a comprehensive treatment of the issues We cannot identify all possible situations and ultimately it is the reader s obligation to decide on the appropriateness of this information to his her operation Eastman Kodak Company 2002 J 314 ENG 10 00 Kodak s health safety and environmental pub
6. Monday Friday 9 a m 7 p m Eastern time In Canada 1 800 465 6325 Monday Friday 8 a m 5 p m Eastern time This publication is a guide to the Federal Health and Safety Regulations that apply to a typical photographic processing facility Local or state requirements may also apply Verify the specific requirements for your facility with your legal counsel This publication is printed on recycled paper that contains 50 percent recycled fiber and 10 percent post consumer material EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY ROCHESTER NY 14650 Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation in Photographic Processing Facilities KODAK Publication No J 314 ENG Revised 9 02 CAT No 184 9298 Kodak and e mark are trademarks Printed in U S A
7. company standards regarding smoking in the workplace Requiring that personnel involved in the design operation evaluation and maintenance of HVAC systems are properly trained and aware of new IAQ regulations and trends Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation in Photographic Processing Facilities e J 314 ENG EXPOSURE CONCEPTS ROUTES OF EXPOSURE In a work environment where chemicals are used an individual may potentially be exposed in three ways e inhalation e skin and eye contact e ingestion Inhalation is the most common route of exposure for airborne particulates gases and vapors Inhalation exposures are important because many chemicals that enter the lungs can pass directly into the blood stream and be transported to other areas of the body Skin contact can also be a significant source of exposure which can lead to adverse health effects Some chemicals can be absorbed into the body through the skin while others may cause irritation or rashes dermatitis In addition some chemicals are potential eye irritants Ingestion is not considered to bea significant problem in the workplace Inadvertent ingestion of chemicals may occur if food or beverages are consumed in chemical handling areas or if good personal hygiene practices are not followed i e washing hands before eating drinking smoking etc Air contaminants are chemicals that may be present in the air that could be inhaled and ma
8. dings To help prevent IAQ problems we recommend that you assemble a comprehensive program that is preventive in focus Specific performance elements of your IAQ program should include 1 Developing and maintaining an IAQ profile for each building year built tenant operations number of people type of HVAC 2 Developing and maintaining a thorough understanding of your IAQ requirements and processes 10 11 12 Maintaining up to date line drawings and equipment schedules for each HVAC system Documenting the operational parameters for each HVAC system including scheduled time of operation temperature and humidity set points seasonal variations outside air requirements air flow parameters Providing a process to identify investigate track and respond to IAQ related complaints Maintaining a written maintenance program and relevant history of each HVAC unit Providing a process to review all major projects in or near the building for their IAQ implications Ensuring that HVAC systems are commissioned and periodically balanced Ensuring that the performance of local exhaust systems are periodically assessed Providing a process to review health safety and environmental implications of maintenance and housekeeping chemicals used in the facility for remodeling or construction activities that may impact IAQ Requiring compliance with local regulations or
9. ect reading detector tubes are useful for quick assessments of airborne contaminants associated with photographic processing A special pump draws a specific volume of room air through a detector tube If the contaminant is present a color change occurs along the length of the tube that is directly proportional to the concentration of the contaminant in the air Tubes are available for acetic acid sulfur dioxide ammonia and many other gases and vapors The tubes are easy to use and generally have an accuracy of 25 Other chemicals in the air may interfere with the accuracy and sensitivity of the tubes Direct Reading Instruments Many different direct reading instruments are available for air sampling measurements Some of these can be very specific to a chemical e g sulfur dioxide analyzers while others are nonspecific e g organic vapor analyzer with photoionization PID or flame ionization FID detectors Calibrate all instruments before and after making any measurements Samples with Subsequent Laboratory Analysis There are many air sampling techniques that rely on collecting a known volume of air followed by laboratory analysis Passive diffusion badges are easy to use and excellent for measuring many volatile organic compounds This method is most useful for measuring quantifying known airborne contaminants Although passive badges are commonly employed for measuring full shift average exposures t
10. emical substances Unless something is burning smoke is not generated during photographic processing operations Mists result from the dispersion of fine droplets by aerosolization of any liquid spray cans nitrogen agitation of tanks electroplating Mists can be formed during the mixing recirculation or pouring of liquids Mist can also be generated from foam on the surface of a liquid As the bubbles burst tiny droplets of the liquid are released into the air The composition of a mist is usually the same as the liquid from which it was generated ANTICIPATED AIR CONTAMINANTS FROM PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSING OPERATIONS Potential air contaminants associated with photographic processing operations will be determined by the specific process chemistry and the operating conditions of the equipment Some photographic processing solutions release small amounts of vapors such as acetic acid and benzyl alcohol or gases such as ammonia or sulfur dioxide High temperature processing and nitrogen burst agitation of tank solutions may increase the release of chemicals into the air and generate mists from the photographic processing solutions Depending on the concentration in the air these chemicals could be irritating to the eyes and respiratory tract or create odors Although odor does not always indicate safe versus unsafe conditions strong odors or the presence of eye and or respiratory irritation can indicate
11. es If the designer has the opportunity to make suggestions in the early stages of planning the result may be a better overall design and lower installation and operating costs REGULATORY AND ASSOCIATED REFERENCES Subject Resource Exposure Standard OSHA 29 CFR 1910 1000 Table Z1 Z2 and Z3 Formaldehyde Standard OSHA 29 CFR 11910 1000 1048 Design of Ventilation Systems ACGIH Industrial Ventilation Manual ACGIH 2001 Design of Ventilation Systems American Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air Condition Engineers Standard 62 1989 Ventilation Recommendations Theshold Limit Values Threshold Limits Values latest edition American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists Indoor Air Quality Building Air Quality A Guide for Building Owners and Facility Managers U S Environmental Protection Agency Indoor Air Quality Indoor Air Quality and HVAC Systems David W Bearg Lewis Publishers 1993 10 Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation in Photographic Processing Facilities J 314 ENG MORE INFORMATION If you have environmental or safety questions about Kodak products services or publications contact Kodak Environmental Services at 1 585 477 3194 or visit KES on line at www kodak com go kes Kodak also maintains a 24 hour health hotline to answer questions about the safe handling of photographic chemicals If you need health related information about Kodak products call 1 585
12. hey also can be useful for short term exposure measurements Solid sorbent tubes bubblers are similar in many ways to passive badges except that air must be actively drawn through the sampling device using a calibrated sampling pump Numerous laboratory techniques are available for specific chemical analysis following sample collection Grab samples refer to collecting a volume of air at a certain point in time This technique can be useful for assessing short term exposures New canister samplers allow for the sample to be drawn in over a much longer period of time if desired This technique is most useful for volatile organic hydrocarbons VENTILATION AND WORK PRACTICE CONTROL MEASURES Proper ventilation is important to assure a safe and comfortable indoor environment for photographic processing areas Several common potential indoor air contaminants can be associated with photographic processing These include acetic acid sulfur dioxide and ammonia These chemicals may be eye and respiratory tract irritants depending on their airborne concentrations Exposure guidelines and standards for these chemicals have been established to prevent significant eye or respiratory tract irritation in most workers Significant eye or respiratory tract irritation during normal photographic processing or maintenance operations may indicate elevated levels of these materials and the need for better control General control st
13. ion nausea eye nose and throat irritation sneezing a metallic or sweet taste in mouth dizziness Two terms are used to describe IAQ health related problems Sick Building Syndrome SBS describes cases in which building occupants experience acute health and comfort effects that are apparently linked to the time they spend in the building but in which no specific illness or cause can be identified Basically people enter the building and experience symptoms which clear up after they leave the building Building Related Illness BRI refers to symptoms of diagnosable illness that can be directly attributed to environmental agents chemical biological or physical in the building air In other words people enter and become ill from a known agent in the building air but do not necessarily get better after they leave the building examples Legionnaire s disease respiratory infections and humidifier fume fever The causes of poor IAQ continue to be studied extensively In the 1980s the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health NIOSH studied over 600 buildings and identified the following as potential causes of poor IAQ Inadequate ventilation 52 Inside sources 17 Outside sources 11 Biological 5 Building fabric 3 Unknown 12 Recent studies have lead some experts to believe that biological contamination molds fungi bacteria may account for up to 30 of the IAQ problems in buil
14. lications are available to help you manage your photographic processing operations in a safe environmentally sound and cost effective manner This publication is a part of a series of publications on health and safety issues affecting photographic processing facilities It will help you understand the role and proper use of ventilation systems in the workplace Kodak Environmental Services INDOOR AIR QUALITY ate The quality of the air in our homes schools and places of business is an important environmental health issue It is estimated that we spend over 90 of our time indoors It is also important to note that the design of buildings and ventilation systems has changed dramatically over the last 50 years as we have moved toward more energy efficient climate controlled environments New or remodeled buildings are more air tight which leads to less air exchange between indoor air and fresh outdoor air To ensure good indoor air quality adequate fresh outdoor air must be brought indoors You can no longer rely on leaking windows or other pathways for outdoor air infiltration Indoor air quality IAQ depends upon the ability of a ventilation system to remove or control the contaminants generated within a space to acceptable levels When there is insufficient fresh dilution air IAQ problems can occur which may result in a variety of symptoms in building occupants including e headache sinus congest
15. nd or open tanks may be recommended Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation in Photographic Processing Facilities e J 314 ENG DILUTION VENTILATION Dilution or general ventilation is simply bringing in and distributing enough fresh uncontaminated air preferably outdoor air to dilute the indoor air contaminants to an acceptable level Minimum recommendations for general ventilation for buildings and processes are provided by the American Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers ASHRAE For photographic processing operations ASHRAE Standard 62 1989 recommends e 0 5 cubic feet per minute cfm of fresh outside air per square foot ft of floor area 0 5 cfm ft assuming a maximum occupancy of 10 persons 1000 ft in darkrooms For example if the room where photoprocessing takes place is 10 ft x 20 ft x 8 ft the floor area is 200 ft2 and the room volume is 1600 fts Based on 0 5 cmf ft you would need to supply at least 200 x 0 5 or 100 cfm of fresh outside air to the space The number of room air changes per hour is determined by the fresh air supply rate In the example in one hour 6000 ft 100 ft min x 60 min of fresh air entered the space room volume 1600 ft3 To calculate the room air changes per hour you divide the total amount of fresh air that has entered the space by the volume of the room When using dilution ventilation airborne contaminants are not ca
16. ot considered local exhaust ventilation A local exhaust system may be more expensive to install than a general dilution ventilation system but requires less air and energy to effectively control the airborne contaminants When designing local exhaust systems the objective is to capture contaminants close to the source and draw the contaminated air stream away from the air you breathe Avoid placing workstations between the source photographic processor and the inlet to the exhaust hood You can find information on the proper design of local exhaust systems in the ACGIH Industrial Ventilation Manual ACGIH 2001 The design must also consider the required make up air system you ll need to replace and condition the air that is exhausted from the building In addition it is also important to review local laws and ordinances regarding local exhaust and any permit requirements with local state or federal regulators RECOMMENDATIONS MINILABS General dilution ventilation following the minimum fresh air recommendations from ASHRAE 0 5 cfm ft of floor area should be effective at controlling air contaminants associated with minilab processes In some cases venting the dryer section of the processor to outdoors may be appropriate to prevent excessive humidity greater than 60 relative humidity and odors in the workplace Consult with the processor manufacturer for specific venting requirements
17. ptured at the source Instead the contaminated air is turned over and replaced quickly enough to minimize potential exposure and related odors To be most effective make sure you properly position the supply air inlets and return air outlets for good mixing dilution of the room air Their placement must minimize the potential for short circuiting or direct flow of supply air to return with minimum room air mixing Figure 2 For a large room you may need supply air inlets and return air outlets throughout the room Do not position the inlet and outlets too close together Figure 2 Open tank processor with general room dilution ventilation Bya Supply Fresh Air LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION 6000 ft hr 1600 ft room volume 3 75 air changes per hour It is important to note that the ASHRAE recommendations represent the minimum amount of fresh air that should be supplied to the space Past recommendations from Kodak have been as high as ten air changes per hour Local exhaust ventilation is used to capture air contaminants close to the source of generation before they can enter the general work room air This type of ventilation can be very effective at controlling airborne contaminants A general room exhaust system will reduce airborne Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation in Photographic Processing Facilities e J 314 ENG levels but is n
18. r emissions from inside sources office equipment furnishings carpet people kitchens janitorial activities Whatever the source contaminants in the air fall into one of two physical states of matter They are either e gases and vapors or e solids particulates Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation in Photographic Processing Facilities e J 314 ENG Gases Vapors The difference between gases and vapors is their physical state at standard temperature and atmospheric pressure STP 22 5 C and 760 mm Hg A gas is in the gaseous state at STP examples nitrogen carbon dioxide sulfur dioxide A vapor is a gas from a substance that at STP is a liquid example acetic acid Particulates There are several forms of particulate matter that can be airborne These include e dust e fumes e smoke mists Dust results from the application of energy to matter by grinding sifting pouring solids paper cutting etc Dust particles have to be small enough and light enough to be airborne Fumes are generated by the condensation of particles in the vapor state from heated metals Fumes are typically smaller than dust more soluble and are more physiologically active Fumes are not generated during normal photographic processing operations Smoke results from incomplete combustion and is made up of extremely fine particles even smaller than fumes Smoke is extremely complex chemically containing thousands of ch
19. rategies in order of preference include e chemical substitution where possible e engineering controls ventilation enclosures process isolation e work practices or administrative controls operating procedures employee rotation e personal protective equipment safety glasses gloves respirators Engineering controls that have proven to be effective in minimizing airborne levels of photographic processing chemicals include e Good design and layout for process flow and ergonomic considerations e Using dilution and local exhaust ventilation e Providing covers for processing equipment tanks and chemical storage tanks GOOD FACILITY DESIGN The proper location and layout of photographic processing operations is animportant element in designing a safe and healthy workplace General ventilation systems have the potential to recirculate a significant percentage of the air returning from the photographic processing areas If the general ventilation system also supplies non photographic processing work areas it is possible that the photographic processing odors may also impact these areas VENTILATION Kodak studies of potential worker exposure during automated photographic processing operations have indicated that vapors and gases can be controlled to acceptable levels through good general room ventilation dilution ventilation However in some cases local exhaust for enclosed a
20. that there is not sufficient general dilution ventilation or that the local exhaust systems may not be capturing the air contaminants effectively at their source In order to assess whether or not exposure to airborne chemicals presents a health and safety hazard several exposure standards and guidelines are available for comparison EXPOSURE STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES THE OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION OSHA In 1970 OSHA reviewed existing exposure guidelines and consensus standards in the workplace and adopted these as OSHA regulations These exposure standards set airborne concentration limits and are legally enforceable Two of the major references used by OSHA at that time were the 1968 Threshold Limits Values TLVs published by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists ACGIH and Acceptable Concentrations of Toxic Dusts and Gases published by the American National Standards Institute ANSI Since 1970 OSHA has established approximately 28 new chemical specific standards These new standards such as the one for formaldehyde are much more comprehensive and detailed These new standards include additional requirements for written programs training personal protective equipment control measures medical surveillance etc The airborne exposure limits established by OSHA include Permissible Exposure Limit PEL The allowable limit that is representative of a worker s
21. tuations where local exhaust is needed for a covered tank 25 30 cubic feet per minute cfm per square foot of tank area is adequate Work practices controls e Proper operation and maintenance of photographic processing equipment e Prudent techniques for handling chemicals PROPER OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSING EQUIPMENT The level of airborne contamination generated from photographic processing solutions can be affected by how the processing equipment is operated It is important to follow the manufacturer s recommended operating procedures for operating temperature the agitation of processing solutions and processing speeds In addition draining and flushing processing equipment tanks with cold water prior to rack removal or maintenance operations can also be effective at controlling short term exposures to processing solutions The health comfort and efficiency of personnel as well as the proper conditions for processing handling and storage of photographic materials depends on a suitable indoor air environment Modern ventilation techniques include several factors air supply air movement air distribution air conditioning or control of temperature and humidity air pressure adjustment and air cleaning or filtration If you plan a photographic plant of considerable size consult a ventilation and air conditioning engineer as early as possible in the planning stag
22. ure levels for comparison to published exposure standards or guidelines The purpose of the Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation in Photographic Processing Facilities e J 314 ENG measurement may vary depending on whether you are interested in short term exposure full shift exposure or the exposure incurred during aspecific step or process The measurements represent a sampling of the actual working conditions at the time of sampling Generally the more sampling data that are available for a certain job process task under a variety of conditions the better understanding and confidence you will have in the exposure measurements during that process As illustrated in Figure 1 actual exposure can vary substantially during the day In some cases full shift monitoring may be the goal while in others the goal may be to understand short term exposure Figure 1 Typical Exposure Scenario Actual OSHA PEL 8 hr Concentration ppm Basic Definitions Sensitivity or Precision how reproducible is the sampling method Accuracy how close to the true value is the sampling method MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Direct Reading These are measurement techniques that can immediately indicate the concentration of aerosols gases or vapors by some means such as a dial or meter or noting the color change of an indicator chemical Colorimetric Detector Tubes Several colorimetric dir
23. weighted average concentration for a normal 8 hour workday and a 40 hour work week to which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day without adverse effect Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation in Photographic Processing Facilities e J 314 ENG Threshold Limit Value Short Term Exposure Limit TLV STEL The 15 minute TWA concentration which should not be exceeded at any time during a workday even if the 8 hour TWA is within the TLV TWA Exposure above the TLV TWA up to the STEL should not be longer than 15 minutes and should not occur more than four times per day with at least 60 minutes in between exposures in this range Threshold Limit Value Ceiling TLV C The concentration that should not be exceeded during any part of the working exposure OSHA Limits vs ACGIH Guidelines OSHA limits are legally enforceable whereas ACGIH limits are guidelines In most cases the ACGIH guidelines are the same or lower than OSHA limits there are a few exceptions When the values are not the same it is prudent to follow the lower more conservative value Examples Chemical OSHA ACGIH PEL 8 hour TLV 8 hour Acetic acid 10 ppm 10 ppm Ammonia 50 ppm 25 ppm Formaldehyde 0 75 ppm 0 3 ppm ceiling Sulfur dioxide 5 ppm 2 ppm METHODS OF EVALUATION THE PURPOSE OF COLLECTING AIR SAMPLES Air samples are sometimes collected to evaluate potential worker expos
24. y produce adverse effects These effects can be divided into two classes e acute health effects an adverse effect resulting from a single exposure with symptoms developing almost immediately or shortly after exposure the effect is usually of short duration Symptoms may include irritation headache dizziness or nausea e chronic health effects adverse effects resulting from repeated low level exposure with symptoms that develop slowly over a long period of time These may affect target organs such as the liver kidney or lungs or cause cancer Dose Response All chemicals are toxic if taken into the body by the right route of exposure and ata high enough dose As the dose increases there is a corresponding effect or response Chemicals that require large doses or exposure concentrations to produce an adverse effect have a low toxicity while chemicals that require smaller doses to produce an adverse effect are considered more toxic For example acetic acid is irritating to the eyes and upper respiratory system at low concentrations about 10 ppm Isopropyl alcohol is not irritating to the eyes until concentrations reach over 400 ppm Based on this comparison acetic acid causes an irritation at much lower concentrations than isopropyl alcohol AIR CONTAMINANTS The air within buildings usually contains a variety of air contaminants These contaminants can originate from outside sources car truck exhaust o
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