Technical Report Writing-2
Contents
1. Have you varied the length and structure of your sentences Do you tend to use the passive voice too often Does your writing contain a lot of unnecessary phrases 6 Citations Have you cited appropriately quotes paraphrases and ideas you got from sources Are your citations in the correct format Are there too many or too few quotations Are the paraphrases in your own words Proofreading You should proofread only after you have finished all of your other editing revisions Proofreading means examining your text carefully to find and correct typographical errors and mistakes in grammar spelling and punctuations Why proofread It s the content that really matters right Content is important But like it or not the way a report looks affects the way others judge it When you ve worked hard to develop and present your ideas you don t want careless errors distracting your reader from what you have to say It s worth paying attention to the details that help you to make a good impression Before You Proofread 1 Be sure you ve revised the larger aspects of your text Don t make corrections at the sentence and word level if you still need to work on the content Proofread for only one kind of error at a time If you try to identify and revise too many things at once you risk losing focus and your proofreading will be less effective It s easier to catch grammar errors if you aren t checking punctuation and spelling at the same2. Ahead in Health Care HR Magazine Vol 50 No 13 pp 60 61 Websites Author Title Full address of the web page and also the date on which you accessed the page Barger J 2000 A biography of Leopold Paula Bloom http www Robotwisdom com jaj ulysses bloom html accessed 11 07 2006 Acknowledgements This is where you acknowledge any help and support you have received whether from your supervisors colleagues or external bodies Appendix Anything that can t be left out but is too large for the main part of the report and would serve to distract or interrupt the flow of the report It includes Large tables of data Detailed explanations and descriptions of used techniques f more than five symbols abbreviations or acronyms are used in the report they are to be listed with their explanations Layout presentation and style of writing Guidelines for the Layout To facilitate reading of your report it should be well laid out in a structured and well organized manner Check with your department supervisor or lecturer for any specific requirements regarding margin width line spacing and choice of font You should be consistent with your layout throughout the whole of your report 1 Page Layout It is usual to break down your contents into sections and subsections of up to three levels This enables the reader to go directly to a section that is of particular interest to him 2 Text Formatting 2 1 Main Text It is suggested
3. lines 3 Laboratory report Describe an experiment that has been undertaken 4 Primary research report Describe experiments and surveys Extend the laboratory report by explaining the background to the experiment methodology and the facilities 5 Feasibility report t details findings such as whether the project is technically possible and feasible 6 Proposals As a student write a short proposal as an assessed piece of coursework 7 Business plan Plans for starting a business venture or extending an already established business Contain information about proposed business market place anticipated share of the market and financial issues Planning to write a report Consider the following 1 Establishing the purpose Is written with the intention of achieving some objective Based on practical work industrial or business situation Is to investigate present and analyze information thoroughly and logically Recommend action to solve a problem Is usually to make proposals 2 Reader Is established in the topic and is often a client or manager It is necessary to identify the needs of the readers Awareness of the reader to determine how much background information needs to be given in the report Bridge the gap between the readers background knowledge and their needs Awareness of the readers helps to determine the choice of vocabulary degree of details and tone of report 3 Investigating Past Knowledge T
4. or not your results fall within a reference range including your age and sex overall level of stress or a pregnancy It is entirely possible to fall out of the reference range ona particular lab test despite being out of good health You should consult your physician if you are concerned about a certain result Flags Flags are letters that ask for special attention to a lab result 1 Common lab flags These include C for Critical sometimes it can stand for Comment H for High L for Low CH for Critical High CL for Critical 17 Low and D for Delta A Delta value is a large and sudden change of a lab result from the previous test result 2 No flag usually means a result is normal Normal values can usually be found onthe right hand side of the lab report Your Rights 1 Obtaining a copy of the report it is your right to get copies of those tests from the doctor or laboratory that administered them 2 Reviewing information Your doctor is required to explain any lab results to you during your scheduled consultation with him or her 3 Never use your lab results to treat yourself Lab results are only one part of a broad array of tools a doctor uses to diagnose and manage diseases or disease states A full medical examination images X Rays CT Scans etc patient history and other diagnostic tools help your physician e Exercise Write a medical laboratory report e Work individually
5. paraphrase must have the same meaning as the source it should also have the same relationship between main ideas and supporting details Words use different vocabulary when possible usually more common synonyms expressions and simpler phrases Keep specialized vocabulary which has no synonyms e g calcium plastic theory neutron proper names e g Europe World Health Organization numbers and formulae e g 50 1984 Length the length should not vary very much from the length of the original Style should be your own and not an imitation of the source even if your own style seems less perfect to you A GOOD PARAPHRASE IS Accurate the ideas in the paraphrase are the same as in the source Original the language use is different from the source Grammatically correct 10 You must cite a reference source when you use a direct quote information expressed in your own words i e paraphrase statistics diagrams tables graphs photos You do not need to cite a reference when you use Your own personal experience or opinion Common knowledge Editing and Proofreading Is editing the same thing as proofreading Not exactly Although many people use the terms interchangeably editing and proofreading are two different stages of the revision process Both demand close and careful reading but they focus on different aspects of the writing and employ different techniques Editing Editing is what you b
6. the punctuation is correct Most people devote only a few minutes to proofreading hoping to catch any glaring errors that jump out from the page But a quick and cursory reading usually misses a lot It s better to work with a definite plan that helps you to search systematically for specific kinds of errors Sure this takes a little extra time but it pays off in the end 13 Medical Laboratory Report It is the report presented by the medical laboratory to the patient after taking a specified sample and analyze it upon request ordered by his physician Medical Laboratory Report A single page report that has the following structure Lab details Name of lab name of Responsible person address phones so on Patients details Name of patient age date name of the physician so on Analysis results Comment and signature of the physician in charge Analysis results The structure of this part depends on the type of the analysis done For example 1 Urine Analysis It will contain the following parts Physical examination including color aspect deposit and specific gravity Chemical examination including the results of analysis of protein sugar acetone nitrite bilirubin blood Microscopic examination including pus cells RBCs epithelial cells fungi bacteria The normal value for each one should be written 2 Blood analysis It will contain the following parts Chemical
7. to use a serif font for all your text 12 or 14 pt Times New Roman is a frequent choice for technical writers Avoid using italic or bold face in the body of your text Use paragraphs to structure your ideas As a rule of thumb each idea should be dedicated to one paragraph Try to use short and precise sentences Split longer sentences into multiple shorter ones 2 2 Headings Headings should be clearly identified slightly larger font bold face and numbered It is suggested to use up to three levels of numbering for documents of 20 pages or less and to use up to 4 levels for all other documents 3 Tables Tables are numbered consecutively throughout the report short paper or within each main section long document Tables must have a caption It is customary to centre the table number and its description and place this above the table All tables must be given an appropriate and meaningful title 4 Figures Figures are numbered consecutively throughout the report or within each main section Figures must have a caption It is customary to centre the figure number and its description and place this below the figure In the case of graphs it is important to label axes state the units you are using and apply a sensible scale to ensure that intermediate values can easily be determined Tables and Figures Each table and figure should have at least one cross reference to it in the text Itis customary to refer to the t
8. EE Technical Report Writing 2 Dr Nadia Mahmoud Maysarah Dr Mohammed Al Gayyar GEN 310 Report Is a structured written presentation directed to interested readers for a specific purpose aim or request A report should be 1 ACCURATE True facts precise wording supporting data reference to sources 2 CONCISE All the important ideas in as few words as possible Avoid repetitions 3 CLEAR Easy to read Clear organisation of the text sections subsections headings subheadings paragraphing numbering Do not use too long sentences 4 OBJECTIVE Content include all the relevant information do not be biased Impersonal style e g absence of emotional words use of passive Good report Good report should clearly motivate and define the problem describe the approach and compare it to other approaches present and discuss the results Writing a report is a skill that can t be summarized in a set of rules but like any craft can be learnt mainly through lots of practice and feedback Different types of reports 1 Technical background reports Is the most frequently written type of technical report t provides detail about a particular topic e g mobile phone coastal erosion DU campus 2 Instruction leaflets and manuals Take the form of a user manual for an appliance or a procedure e g small insert included with a product as pamphlet detailed instructions for setting up production
9. a that may be found in the body Immunology the study of the body s defense substances called antibodies Endocrinology the study of hormones and Blood Banking Immunohematology the study of blood types and blood cell protein 2 Specimen Source This is critical because something like protein can be measured from multiple sources such as your blood or urine 3 Date and time of specimen collection Because some tests are affected by when the specimen was collected this will appear on every report 4 Name of test performed Although the name of the test will appear it is often abbreviated labtestsonline org has a clear list of abbreviations for a variety of tests 5 Test results Results can appear in a number of different ways depending on the test The result can be shown as a number i e in a cholesterol level scan a positive or negative indication i e in a pregnancy test orin text i e the name of bacteria taken from an infected site Lab resorts that are abnormal will usually be highlighted in some way An L may mean that the number is lower than the reference range or an H may meanitis higher than that Results that are dangerously abnormal must be reported immediately to the physician and are usually marked with an asterisk 6 Reference ranges These are the sample population that is used to determine whether a test result is normal or abnormal There are many factors that can determine whether
10. able or figure by its given number rather than the table below or above Tables and figures are presented in the text at a convenient position for both layout and viewing in relationship to the text that they relate to or they may be placed at the end of the report it is more convenient for your readers if they are placed close to the relevant text 5 Equations Equations are consecutively numbered or numbered within each section and referred to in the text N B Bullet points if not over used are useful as they clearly convey important points to the readers f the report is to be bound so the left hand margin should be large enough to allow for binding 6 Index For documents of 20 pages or more you should include a table of contents For documents of pages 40 and more you should also give a list of figures and tables A glossary might be helpful if you use a significant number of abbreviations or terms you assume the reader is not familiar with Presentation Arial font is generally used for text in memos e mails and examination papers however equations and Greek characters are presented in Times New Roman lt may be departmental requirements Determine size of font and line spacing If there are not any specifications it is suggested to use 12 pt font with single line spacing Ensure that the first time you use an abbreviation or acronym the full description is given f many abbreviations or techni
11. cal terms are used it will be helpful to include a glossary Plagiarism and paraphrasing References have to include at least title and authors name as well as some information on how and where to obtain the document e g publisher journal title pages You must also give information on the date of the publication Use citations to refer to material that you have used in obtaining your results Always cite i e give a reference to other related work or facts opinions that you quote Never pass off the work of others as your own this is plagiarism and is a very big academic crime Plagiarism f you do not indicate the sources of your ideas it could appear that you are wrongfully claiming another author s ideas or words to be your own This is known as plagiarism Never take the work of others without giving proper credit Never take verbatim sentences paragraphs from the literature If you feel that you must use verbatim material use quotation marks and a reference COMMON TYPES OF PLAGIARISM Cut amp Paste Plagiarism Whenever you take an entire sentence or significant phrase from a source you must use quotation marks and reference the source Word Switch Plagiarism If you take a sentence from a source and simply change around a few words it is still plagiarism Style Plagiarism If you follow a Source Article sentence by sentence or paragraph by paragraph it is plagiarism even though none of your senten
12. ces is exactly like those in the Source article or even in the same order You are copying is the author s reasoning style Other types of academic dishonesty 1 Collusion Allowing work to be copied by another student Copying another student s work with their knowledge Doing another student s work for them 2 Falsification Fabricating references or a bibliography Inventing Altering data 3 Copying Copying another student s work without their knowledge 4 Cheating Not contributing a fair share to group work 5 Plagiarism Paraphrasing material from a source without acknowledging the original author Copying material for a report without acknowledging the source Lifting information form the Internet without sourcing it Submitting work from an outside source How to avoid plagiarism Develop a system to record bibliographic information for all sources you use Take careful notes and develop a system to distinguish Text you have copied from the source Text you have paraphrased or summarised Your own ideas Compile your reference list as you write your assignment Get into the habit of paraphrasing appropriately Quotation Quotation to put the exact words between Quotes PARAPHRASING say it in your own way Structure the grammatical structure should be changed if this can be done without changing meaning Often this can be done by joining up sentences or by dividing up long sentences Meaning your
13. egin doing as soon as you finish your first draft You reread your draft to see for example whether the paper is well organized the transitions between paragraphs are smooth and your evidence really backs up your argument You can edit on several levels 1 Content Have you done everything the assignment requires If it is required to do so does your paper make an argument Is the argument complete Have you supported each point with adequate evidence Is all of the information in your report relevant to the assignment 2 Overall structure Are headings clear and concise Does your report have an appropriate introduction and conclusion Is your topic clearly stated in your introduction Is it clear how each paragraph in the body of your report is related to your topic Are the paragraphs arranged in a logical sequence Have you made clear transitions between paragraphs 3 Structure within paragraphs Does each paragraph have a clear topic sentence Does each paragraph stick to one main idea Are there any extraneous or missing sentences in any of your paragraphs Do the ideas hang together cohesively 11 4 Clarity Have you defined any important terms that might be unclear to your reader Is the meaning of each sentence clear Is it clear what each pronoun he she it this etc refers to Have you chosen the proper words to express your ideas 5 Style Have you used an appropriate tone formal informal persuasive etc
14. examination including the results of analysis ordered by physician like blood picture protein sugar hormones Microscopic examination including abnormal cells RBCs WBCs Microbiological examination including bacteria virus 3 Stool analysis It will contain the following parts Physical examination including color aspect consistency Microscopic examination including blood parasite worms worm 4 Tissues analysis It will contain the following parts Physical examination including color aspect consistency Microscopic examination including tumor cells How to Read and Understand Medical Laboratory Results All laboratory reports must contain certain elements as 15 1 Patient name and ID number These are required for proper identification and to ensure test results are linked to the correct patient 2 Name and address of laboratory The laboratory where the test took place must appear on the form for accountability purposes 3 Test report date This is the day the results were generated and reported to the ordering physician Mandatory Elements Of Lab Reports Specimens And Tests 1 Headings Some basic headings include Hematology the study of blood cell Chemistry the study of certain chemical components found in the blood stream or tissues Urinalysis the study of urine and urinary sediments and components Bacteriology Microbiology the study of bacteri
15. his may involve a literature review and interviews with key people We recommend that you Prepare your reading list making sure you find out if you need to get information from sources other than books and articles Collect your information Consider interviewing or talking to people who are involved Avoid hearsay You can also check collected brochures and pamphlets 4 Obtaining New Evidence You may need to do some of the following Carry out experiments Carry out calculations Collect data Carry out a design Visit a site Conduct interviews 5 Conclusions and Recommendations You should be thinking about making conclusions and or recommendations You must consider what will be most important for the readers Typical report structure A system of numbered sections with headings is used QO Title page Abstract Q Introduction Review of literature Aim of present research Q Methodology Materials Procedures QO Results Q Discussion Q Conclusions and recommendations m References Title page The title page should accurately describe your work and inform a potential reader of the content It contains the following elements The full title of the report informative but not too long The name of the person for whom the report has been prepared The name of the person s who has written the report and ID number s Module code and the course name The date the report is i
16. re your findings to those of others Show that you have done what was required Conclusion This part is for busy readers and for readers who want to read an overview of the findings before deciding whether to read the findings in detail Summarize the entire work Point out what you have achieved Explain how your results address the task It reviews the main results It draws a main conclusion and links to the recommendations by showing a need for action Recommendations You may make recommendations for future work this is particularly useful if your own results were inconclusive What did not work and what to do about it What aspects of design may need improvement References The references section is the final part of your report Use citations to refer to material that you have used in obtaining your results All references have to be listed in the bibliography at the end of your paper Why should I include references in my work t shows the range of reading that you have done Support your argument Itis a basic academic requirement System used for writing references The Harvard referencing system Books Author date of publication Title Volume Edition Place of publication publisher e g Merriam J L 2003 Engineering Mechanics Vol 1 Statics 5 Ed Hoboken N J Wiley Journal Articles Author year article title Journal title Volume Issue Page numbers Kushner G B 2005 Changes
17. ssued Summary or Abstract The most important page in the report it must be written so as to encourage the reader to read further Should be written after the rest of the report has been written Keep it short make it concise interesting and informative It should include the purpose of the report what you have done how you did it the main findings the conclusions that were reached and any recommendations Introduction It should include the following 1 General background review of literature to the subject area of the report with references made to others who have worked in the area This enables you to show that you have read about your subject and are aware of current work 2 Purpose aim of the present research Main body of the report The main body of the report is likely to contain a methodology results or findings and a discussion Methodology This section describes How you carried out your work Results or findings It includes the following 1 Findings as concisely and clearly as possible with little discussion or analysis 2 Graphs tables and figures Discussion This section discusses the results if results are anticipated or unexpected Analyze data and interpret results If there are any unexpected results you should suggest reasons Do not make any exaggerated claims about your findings Present a realistic interpretation of your results and link them to the purpose Compa
18. time 2 Set your text aside for a while 15 minutes a day a week Some distance from the text will help you see mistakes more easily 3 Eliminate unnecessary words before looking for mistakes 4 Know what to look for From the comments of your professors or writing on past report make a list of mistakes you need to watch for When You Proofread Work from a printout not the computer screen But see for computer functions that can help you find some kinds of mistakes 12 Read out loud This is especially helpful for spotting run on sentences but you ll also hear other problems that you may not see when reading silently Use a blank sheet of paper to cover up the lines below the one you re reading This technique keeps you from skipping ahead of possible mistakes Use the search function of the computer to find mistakes you re likely to make Spell checkers have a limited dictionary so some words that show up as misspelled may really just not be in their memory In addition spell checkers will not catch misspellings that form another valid word If you tend to make many mistakes check separately for each kind of error moving from the most to the least important For instance read through once backwards sentence by sentence to check for fragments read through again forward to be sure subjects and verbs agree and again Circle every punctuation mark This forces you to look at each one As you circle ask yourself if
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