i-Tree Pest Detection Field Data Entry Tip Sheet
Contents
1. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry 11 Campus Blvd Suite 200 Newtown Square PA 19073 May 2013 www na fs fed us Field Data Entry Tip Sheet Inventory Pest and Detection Protocol The Inventory and Pest Detection tool in i Tree Streets provides a simple pest detection protocol that can be used on a handheld computer To guide you in using the Inventory and Pest Detection tool to collect pest data in the field this tip sheet covers 1 How to use the inventory and pest detection tool 2 Getting started with the inventory and pest detection tool login on the PDA 3 Getting started with the inventory and pest detection tab on the PDA 4 Finishing up in the field 1 How to use the Inventory and Pest Detection Tool The protocol enables you to view a tree much as an expert diagnostician would e First are there signs of overall tree stress e Second are there signs or symptoms within the foliage or twigs e And last are there signs or symptoms on the tree bole or main branches In a sense you view the overall tree and then conduct a closer examination Keep in mind that while the protocol uses diagnostic techniques the protocol for pest detection is primarily a method of detection not diagnosis At times signs and symptoms give a pretty good idea of the cause of the problem Generally however the protocol enables you to accumulate signs an2. Caterpillars are most often found on the foliage where they feed but can occasionally be found within branches or shoots if they are migrating to a new feeding location or hiding A few signs of feeding may not be worth recording You will have to use judgment Pervasive feeding generally means that it is noticeable even from a distance This of course does not include midrib feeding discussed earlier Beetles feeding pervasive throughout the crown Not all beetles feed as adults but some do Although they may not be feeding they can sometimes be found on the foliage or twigs Aphids white cotton pervasive throughout the crown Severe infestations of aphids occur when they can be found throughout the crown on twigs shoots or young branches Bags pervasive throughout the crown Select this field if small spindle shaped bags can be seen hanging from the foliage or twigs throughout the crown Field Data Entry Tip Sheet Inventory Pest and Detection Protocol Scale pervasive throughout the crown Scale insects often secrete a scale like wax coating over their backs and can resemble bark Most scales infest twigs and smaller branches but some can be found on foliage Be sure to inspect the undersides of leaves Tents webbing multiple branches Silken tents are easily spotted and should be noted when found throughout the crown Other Select Other if there appears to be damage that is not consistent with the above selections for ins
3. Sheet Inventory Pest and Detection Protocol was written and developed by Dan Twardus Joe O Brien and Donna Murphy Daniel Twardus Forest Health Group Leader Donna Murphy Landscape Architect U S Department of Agriculture U S Department of Agriculture Forest Service Forest Service Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry 180 Canfield St Morgantown WV 26505 180 Canfield St Morgantown WV 26505 dtwardus fs fed us dmmurphy fs fed us 304 285 1545 304 285 1547 Joseph O Brien Plant Pathologist U S Department of Agriculture Forest Service Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry 1992 Folwell Ave St Paul MN 55108 jobrien fs fed us 651 649 5266 ACKNOWLEDGMENT Special thanks go to Bryan Feicht for beta testing the Inventory Pest and Detection Protocol using this Tip Sheet Feicht an undergraduate studying Forest Resource Management at West Virginia University in Morgantown worked as a bioscience aid for the Forest Service from June 2012 to May 2013 Field Data Entry Tip Sheet Inventory Pest and Detection Protocol 11 The U S Department of Agriculture USDA prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race color national origin age disability and where applicable sex marital status familial status parental status religion sexual orientation genetic information political beliefs reprisal or because all or part of a
4. barked trees Carpenter Ants Carpenter ants do not eat wood but rather remove wood as they create galleries and tunnels Carpenter ants discard wood as shredded fragments of coarse sawdust ejected from their nests The sawdust may contain dead ants and bits of dead insects that the ants have eaten Other insects Note any other signs of insects that do not fit into any of the categories above Disease Signs Disease signs are the structures produced by pathogens and can include mushrooms conks or other fruiting bodies spores and specialized vegetative and reproductive structures Disease symptoms are the various responses of the host to pathogens None Select None if no signs of disease appear on the tree Decay Decay can affect the roots sapwood or heartwood of a tree Conks Conks include structures that are hard and woody leathery or thin and flexible Conks can be found individually or in masses but always grow on wood Fleshy mushrooms Fleshy mushrooms are often prominent signs of plant disease and are some of the largest fungal fruiting bodies Fleshy mushrooms that occur on wood are the fruiting bodies of fungi that decay wood Cankers Cankers are localized often sunken dead areas of bark and cambium on a twig branch or bole Some cankers may be swollen or target shaped because callus tissue develops around the portion of the tree infected with the canker causing organism Field Data Entry Tip She
5. customized based on the needs of your project Other 1 2 3 The Other fields can be customized based on the needs of your project NOTE Be sure you check these fields during desktop setup and name them if your project requires additional information 3 Getting Started with the Inventory and Pest Detection Tab on the PDA THE INVENTORY AND Pest DETECTION TAB Print a copy of the IPED Field Guide to take with you into the field The guide can be found at http www itreetools org resources manuals IPED_Field_Guide_Print_Friendly_Version pdf The i Tree Pest Detection tab provides you with an opportunity to decide if you want to collect data on each tree by selecting Yes or No for Tree Stress Foliage Twigs Branches Bole When you select Yes the input screen appears for each of the data entry screens above and you can begin systematically collecting pest detection data If you select No you are given an opportunity to identify more commonly found insects using scientific or common names via a pulldown menu The Commonly Found Pests pulldown menu is not customizable Tree Stress Tree Stress can result from mechanical physical or biological factors or from a combination of these factors Select Yes to collect Tree Stress signs and symptoms Dieback Epicormic Sprouts Wilted Foliage Environmental Stress and Human stress Default for all values is None IMPORTANT NOTE When there are multiple str
6. exit holes Beetles that produce oval to flattened tunnels within the bark create D shaped exit holes Trees with dieback should be examined for exit holes Emerald ash borer produces D shaped exit holes check ash carefully Pencil round oval holes 2 mm Round exit holes in the branches or bole are created by insects as they leave the tree The Sirex woodwasp produces a round exit hole in pines as does the Asian longhorned beetle check maples carefully Field Data Entry Tip Sheet Inventory Pest and Detection Protocol Shot holes lt 2 mm Small beetles exiting a tree may leave tiny holes in the bark Other holes Insects make many different types of holes in the branches and bole If the holes found do not appear to fit into any of the above categories note it here Insect Presence Look for insects on the bark or at the base of the tree Other signs of insects on the branches and bole include egg masses Caterpillars Caterpillars feed on foliage in the tree crown Caterpillars found on tree branches and the bole are moving to a resting site or are hiding Beetles Beetles can be found on the branches and bole Females may be searching for egg laying sites or adult beetles may be emerging from exit holes Aphids Aphids generally are not found on the branches and bole They tend to be found on new growth of leaves and tips Scale Scales generally are found on the smaller branches and twigs or on the bole of smooth
7. amples of white coatings include powdery mildews and insect coverings caused by aphids adelgids or scales Black coating often sticky Sooty molds are caused by several fungi that grow on the upper surface of leaves as well as on needles bark or even wood or concrete structures The fungi grow on the exudations of honeydew secreting sucking insects such as aphids Complete browning bronzing Browning or bronzing of foliage can be caused by insects disease or environmental conditions Bronzing can also be caused by some types of mites ozone damage or pollution or all of these The leaf bronzing that is a major symptom of oak wilt is a good example of this kind of leaf discoloration but there are several diseases and insects that can cause browning or bronzing in leaves Field Data Entry Tip Sheet Inventory Pest and Detection Protocol Complete yellowing Complete yellowing of the leaves is called chlorosis Complete yellowing of all foliage on a tree is often an indication of a problem in the root system Conifers affected by root disease pathogens or root collar weevils often turn completely yellow green to yellow before they die Chlorosis can also be caused by nutrient deficiencies including a lack of iron manganese or nitrogen Stippling Stippling is small spotted or speckled injuries on foliage caused by certain insects mites and viruses In some cases stippling can be yellow or black but is most often white Yellow ora
8. breast height DBH 4 5 ft in inches or centimeters or using the range of DBH sizes depending on how you have chosen to set this up during the i Tree Streets desktop setup Condition of wood Condition of leaves Condition of wood and leaves can be enabled in the i Tree Streets desktop setup and customized Default ranges are Not entered Dead and dying 10 Poor 35 Fair 60 and Good 85 Note Comment Enter any notes you wish to make in this box Note this tree Check this box if you wish to identify the tree as significant if you are unsure of the species or for any other reason ManaGementT MGT The following fields can be enabled during the i Tree Streets desktop setup by selecting the Maintenance tab All management tab fields noted below can be customized based on the needs of your project Maintenance recommendation Select the most important maintenance recommendations from the drop down menu Maintenance recommendations can be customized based on the needs of your project Field Data Entry Tip Sheet Inventory Pest and Detection Protocol Priority task Select a priority task from the drop down menu Priority Task can be customized based on the needs of your project Sidewalk damage Select the level of sidewalk damage from the drop down menu Sidewalk Damage can be customized based on the needs of your project Wire conflict Select the appropriate options from the drop down list Wire conflict can be
9. cientific name and move on to the next tree without completing a pest detection assessment Default for all values is None If signs and symptoms are noted and the pest is unknown select Unknown 4 Finishing up in the Field EDITING Your DATA To view the trees you have assessed for signs and symptoms return to the home screen and select Edit A complete list of all trees is available Select any tree you wish to edit to view all of the data for that tree Clear all Data Do not select this unless you have successfully backed up your data SavinGc Your DATA Be sure to return to the log in screen and select Backup Data to SD Card Select where you want to back up to SD or CF card or select the files you want to send to a nearby wireless device and select Send CHECK TO Make Sure Your DATA ARE ON THE SD Carp Select Programs gt File Explorer gt STREETS RESOURCES USDA Forest Service i Tree Streets User s Manual v 4 0 64 p http www itreetools org resources manuals i Tree 20Streets 20Users 20Manual pdf USDA Forest Service 2010 IPED Field Guide Pest Evaluation and Detection Newtown Square PA NA TP 02 10 63 p http www itreetools org resources manuals iped_field_guide_print_friendly_version pdf USDA Forest Service University of Georgia Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health November 2001 IPED wiki http wiki bugwood org IPED This Field Data Entry Tip
10. cline Minor mechanical injury or one poorly pruned limb should not be recorded because documenting such a minor injury does not help in understanding tree decline TRAINING Training observers before they collect pest data is important Training helps everyone get on the same page and can be especially important where the low occurrence of specific symptoms can be highly significant that is in the case of emerald ash borer or Asian longhorned beetle 2 Getting Started with the Inventory and Pest Detection Tool Login on the PDA After loading and launching i Tree Streets on your PDA the program will require you to input information The PDA screen requests the following information although not all of it is required You will see the fields listed below with short definitions of what each field requires and a quick reminder of how that information was imported into the i Tree Streets Inventory and Pest Detection tool before launching the PDA application In the event you want to work through only the Inventory and Pest Detection tool application log onto the PDA and enable the Pest Detection tab LOGIN Survey date Use the or sign to change the date if necessary Survey Team ID Add your name or the name of the Survey Team members during the desktop setup App New TREE Add trees during the i Tree Streets desktop setup by first selecting the climate zone where the project is located to import a list of species common in
11. d symptoms that may necessitate further examination by an expert Why Use It Observing signs and symptoms may result in the detection of a pest problem that otherwise may have gone unnoticed Observation can increase the probability of detecting invasive pests and achieving better control in the early stages of a pest or disease infestation THRESHOLDS You will see reference to thresholds For example in the case of twig and branch dieback dieback of less than 10 of the crown should not be recorded In the case of dieback some twig death is normal So this threshold of less than 10 dieback is considered normal for a tree and not worth recording Similar thresholds are established for defoliation leaf mining and discolored or abnormal foliage Some signs and symptoms such as the exit holes of insects have no thresholds and any observation may be important While no threshold is established for the presence of an insect you will have to use your own judgment as to whether to record it A single caterpillar on a leaf may not be worth recording On the other hand it may be of great importance and the combination of the presence of that caterpillar with other signs and symptoms may be a clue to a pest infestation JUDGMENT Judgment is important in recording poor pruning and mechanical injury Although this is a pest detection protocol these observations are included only insofar as they may help in understanding the cause of tree de
12. de enough room for root growth as well as girdling roots which are often caused by improper planting Wounding of woody tissues also includes injuries to root systems resulting from sidewalk and street construction Poor pruning is subjective a single poor pruning cut is probably not significant but poor pruning resulting in numerous stubs or repeated injury to stem tissue flush cuts should be recorded If you select Other you can clarify it in the Notes field Pests OF FOLIAGE AND TWIGS The default for all values is None Where sign and symptom information is noted either enter Unknown in the primary pest field or identify the primary pest IMPORTANT For each of the symptom classes below if you select any of the symptoms or signs also enter a value in the foliage twigs is affected field Defoliation Foliage eaten wholly or partially is generally referred to as defoliation Depending on what you see enter one of the following None Select None if no defoliation is present Defoliation gt 10 of foliage but not pervasive Note defoliation from any amount of feeding that results in damage on 10 or more of the leaves needles within a tree s crown Defoliation pervasive Pervasive thinning of leaves in tree crowns is an indication of severe insect infestation if more than 30 of the crown is affected and can result in severe stress Leaf mining gt 10 of the foliage but not pervasive Leaf mi
13. ect signs and then make a note Foliage Affected For the symptoms you have observed record how much of the crown foliage is affected gt 10 lt 30 affected Select gt 10 lt 30 if the extent of the foliage twig symptoms is greater than 10 and less than 30 of the entire foliage twig area in the crown gt 30 but not the whole crown More than 30 of the foliage is affected but not the entire crown Whole crown affected The entire crown is affected Notes Note any secondary insect signs since only one symptom above can be selected BRANCHES AND BOLE Insect Signs Insects and or disease may be detected by careful inspection of the woody portions of the branches and bole Boring insects produce frass and sawdust that can be seen in bark crevices or on the ground Exit holes are a sign of insect activity Signs of disease may include fungal fruiting bodies or bleeding None Select None if there are no signs of insects on the branches and bole Frass only Frass is solid insect excrement usually mixed with chewed plant fragments Look for frass in bark crevices or at the base of the tree Sawdust Sawdust can be found in bark crevices or at the base of the tree With some beetles the sawdust appears almost like a toothpick sticking out from the tree bole Pitch resin exudation Pitch or resin exuding from the bark is often seen on conifers as a result of insect activity wounds or disease D shaped
14. essors select the stressor that is having the greatest impact on the tree Dieback Crown dieback is the general dying back of branches and branch tips in the upper and outer portions of the tree crown Dieback is one of the most important symptoms of tree stress Determine if Dieback is gt 10 not pervasive or if it is Pervasive twig dieback Pervasive generally means more than 30 of the twigs are affected scattered throughout the crown If crown dieback is less than 10 select None Epicormic Sprouts Epicormic sprouts at the base of the tree or along the bole are often a symptom of either biotic or abiotic stress Many trees produce epicormic sprouts which can be a sign of tree stress Epicormic sprouts whether at the base of the tree or along the bole can be caused by topping wounding insect infestation or disease Epicormic branches often occur when sunlight reaches areas of the crown that were previously shaded Epicormic sprouts on branches often have a weak attachment to the branch and can grow to be structurally unsound Are epicormic sprouts present on the bole Select Yes or No Field Data Entry Tip Sheet Inventory Pest and Detection Protocol Wilted Foliage Wilt in tree crowns can be caused by biotic factors diseases such as oak wilt or Dutch elm disease drought or other situations in which water uptake by the roots is disrupted Wilt is generally very serious and indicates a high level of stre
15. et Inventory Pest and Detection Protocol Bleeding slime flux Bleeding slime flux is an exudate composed of sap and bacteria Slime flux often has a distinctive sharp odor of fermentation Resinosis gummosis Accumulation of pitch in conifers resinosis or hardwoods gummosis is often the result of insect or pathogen attack Woody galls or burls Woody galls or burls form on woody plants and are usually caused by bacteria invading the plant and affecting the tree s DNA Problem Location A tree planted on a site that does not have the proper cultural requirements may become stressed Stressed trees are more susceptible to insects and disease and should be checked carefully for signs and symptoms associated with each None Select None if there are no signs or symptoms of insects or disease in the main branches or on the bole or root collar Branches Select Branches if the signs or symptoms of insects or disease are found in the main branches Bole and or root collar Select Bole and or root collar if the signs or symptoms of insects or disease are found from the root collar up to the branches Both Select Both if the signs or symptoms of insects or disease are found in the main branches and on the bole from the root collar up to the branches Loose Bark Loose or flaking bark on the bole or branches can indicate a number of insects and diseases Be conscious of removing bark from privately owned trees witho
16. n individual s income is derived from any public assistance program Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information Braille large print audiotape etc should contact USDA s TARGET Center at 202 720 2600 voice and TDD To file a complaint of discrimination write to USDA Director Office of Civil Rights 1400 Independence Avenue SW Washington D C 20250 9410 or call 800 795 3272 voice or 202 720 6382 TDD USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer Field Data Entry Tip Sheet Inventory Pest and Detection Protocol
17. nge white pustules Pustules can occur from spring into fall depending upon the disease Many pustules are the fruiting bodies of rust fungi which produce white or brightly colored spores Other Select Other If discoloration does not fit any of the symptoms above Abnormal Foliage Several other foliage disorders result in abnormal foliage These include surface molds distorted or curled foliage or twigs and galls Select None if there is no abnormal foliage Foliage twigs distorted or galls Several insects and diseases can cause distorted foliage or twigs Foliage may be twisted stunted cupped blistered or curled or the shoots of conifers may be curled or stunted Galls are abnormal growths on a leaf or twig often caused by insects Witches brooms present Witches brooms are deformities in a tree that change the natural growth structure of the branches or twigs Other Select Other if damage is not consistent with the above selections for abnormal foliage Insect Signs Observe the foliage and twigs for the presence of insects Signs of insects include cottony masses created by aphids or small bags of foliage or webbing or tents created by other insects Note If signs of insect feeding are present but the insect cannot be found it should be noted as defoliation rather than as an insect sign None Select None if there is no sign of insects on the tree Caterpillars sawflies feeding pervasive
18. nguish between multiple trees at one address by numbering trees consecutively in the direction of traffic flow Specify the location of the tree in relation to other trees at the same location Field Data Entry Tip Sheet Inventory Pest and Detection Protocol Location Site The location of the tree should be recorded as the building address and the relationship of the tree to that address e g front right side left side or user defined during desktop setup Land Use Select from the default drop down menu or customize this field during the i Tree Streets desktop setup Site Type Select from the default drop down menu or customize this field during the i Tree Streets desktop setup City Managed Check the box if this is a public tree Hold Location Check this box if the next tree is located on the same street or at the same address Clear Location Use this box to clear the current location and move to the next location GPS Tas If you have a GPS compatible PDA and wish to collect GPS data see Configuring GPS on page 32 of the i Tree Streets User s Manual which can be found at http www itreetools org resources manuals i Tree 20 Streets 20Users 20Manual pdf SPECIES TAB Species Enter the species code or use the drop down menu to select the tree species Clicking the button just below the Species input field will toggle the list to choose between scientific and common names DBH Record the trunk diameter at
19. ning is recognized by the serpentine pattern of feeding beneath the leaf surface as insects live or feed within a leaf Make sure the threshold of more than 10 is reached before noting leaf mining If less than 10 of the leaves in the crown show signs of pest damage select None from the pull down menu Field Data Entry Tip Sheet Inventory Pest and Detection Protocol Leaf mining pervasive Generally pervasive is defined as more than 30 of the crown affected NOTE More than 30 of all the leaves in the crown must have damage to meet this threshold Chewing of the midrib only Feeding along the midrib of host foliage can easily be missed Pay particular attention to maples and other Asian longhorned beetle hosts for this sign of feeding If you observe midrib feeding note it This is a specific symptom that implicates the Asian longhorned beetle is extremely important and should be recorded whenever it is encountered You will have to look closely Discolored Foliage Discolored foliage can be caused by pathogens insect activity nutrient deficiency air pollution disease or natural processes such as leaf senescence Careful observation of the pattern and location of discoloration on the leaves is key to identifying leaf problems You can select only one of these so select the one that seems to best represent the situation A tree may exhibit more than one symptom and you will have to make a judgment call as to which one best re
20. presents what you see From a diagnostic standpoint some distinctions are important marginal scorching versus interveinal scorching so you may need to look closely The IPED Field Guide Pest Evaluation and Detection or wiki site http wiki bugwood org IPED can assist you with this if need be Discolored foliage is also subject to a 10 threshold That is if less than 10 of the foliage appears to be affected it is probably not worth recording None Select None present Mottling spots or blotches any color Mottling is discoloration of leaves or needles in an uneven and undefined pattern often involving several different shades of color Leaf spots often have much more well defined margins of yellow or brown discoloration while blotches are usually larger and more irregular in form Marginal scorching browning of leaves Marginal scorching or browning of the leaves is burn like damage to leaf margins that can be caused by environmental stress e g drought or disease Interveinal scorching browning Interveinal scorching is represented by discoloration in the tissues between the leaf veins The veins themselves may remain green for some time and are the last parts of the leaves to discolor White coating White coatings on leaves can arise from the actions of both fungi and insects Most white coatings can be rubbed or scraped off the leaves although some such as powdery mildew symptoms are more permanent Some ex
21. ss on a tree Wilt is caused by the loss of water pressure in a leaf causing it to droop curl or lose its normal color Indicate Wilt whole crown or Wilt partial crown If there is no wilt select None Environmental Stress The agents in the Environmental Stress category are tree injuries that are of interest to arborists and urban foresters but do not contribute to the detection of invasive pests Environmental stresses are included only insofar as their occurrence may help to explain tree decline Also these factors may predispose a tree to future pest problems Frost cracks Lightning strike Hail injury Sunscald Broken branches Flooding or Drought poor soil If any of these stresses is present note it If another type of environmental stress is present and you would like to note it select Other and clarify it in the Notes field If there are no environmental stresses select None Human Stress Human activities such as poor pruning improper handling during transplanting improper planting construction damage and the use of deicing salt or herbicide can damage trees directly or indirectly Indicate Topping poor pruning Poor restricted planting Wounding of woody tissues or Salt chemicals The Other category is a catch all for all human caused injury including any root problems caused by poor planting or maintenance techniques This includes trees that are planted in a space that does not provi
22. that climate zone Then follow the instructions in the i Tree Streets User s Manual on how to import the trees into the PDA These lists can be customized in the desktop setup by adding or deleting trees An additional step of defining species codes is required when adding additional trees to the species list Detailed instructions for doing this can be found in the i Tree Streets User s Manual LOCATION TAB Tree ID Each tree that is entered into the i Tree Pest Detection tool will have a unique identifying number This number is generated within the i Tree Streets program Zone This optional field can be customized during the desktop setup It provides the option of dividing the project areas into smaller units such as wards neighborhoods or districts Zone can be used to generate reports on urban forest structure and benefits within a larger project area Street Segment Street Segment identification numbers must be imported during the desktop setup See the i Tree Streets User s Manual for instructions on how to use this feature if you are using a partial inventory rather than a full inventory Street Name Street Names can be entered manually or lists of street names can be imported during desktop setup See the i Tree Streets User s Manual for instructions Street Number Specify the street number of the home building where the tree is located Location Number The position of a tree can be recorded as a way to disti
23. ut first obtaining permission Loose bark only Loose or flaking bark may be a sign of serious problems within the tree For example a tree infested with bark beetles wood boring insects or root and butt decay may have loose bark Woodpecker feeding that results in bark sloughing is a sign of insect infestation Sunscald and other physiological problems can also cause loose bark Rhizomorphs present Rhizomorphs are shoestring like structures produced by some root disease fungi especially Armillaria spp Rhizomorphs are usually dark colored tough structures that grow under the bark or in the soil Mycelial fans pads present Mycelial fans or pads are wefts of tissue produced by fungi and are usually found under the bark Most are white or buff colored Insect boring or galleries Insect boring or galleries can be caused by larvae beneath the bark producing tunnels or galleries which create entryways for pathogens that can cause structural weakness in the branches or bole In severe infestations the bark may be loose and peeling due to the galleries Other Select Other if damage is not consistent with the above selections Notes This field is for noting any secondary issues related to loose bark since only one field above can be selected Field Data Entry Tip Sheet Inventory Pest and Detection Protocol PRIMARY PEST Scientific Name The primary pest tab enables a surveyor to identify a pest or disease by its common or s
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