Brimhall and Vanegas - the Kansas Geological Survey
Contents
1. 40 p 682 688 Derry D R 1980 World Atlas of Geology and Mineral Deposits Halsted press London 110 pages Fryer S Gregson J Connors T Poole A and Heise B 2000 The National Park Service Digital Geologic map Model Transformation from paper to Digital 24 Featuring legends Cross sections Map Notes and Keyword Searchability in D R Soller ed Proceedings of a Workshop on Digital Mapping techniques U S Geological Survey Open file Report 00 325 p 69 82 Furr T W 2000 Digital Geological Mapping for the State of Oklahoma in D R Soller ed Proceedings of a Workshop on Digital Mapping techniques U S Geological Survey Open file Report 00 325 p 191 194 Johnson K and Brimhall G 1999 Novel real time digital mapping method for caves as a supplement to speleothem based paleo climate reconstruction Geol Soc Amer Abstracts with Programs Cordilleran Section meeting v 31 no 6 p A 67 Kramer John H 2000 Digital Mapping Systems in D R Soller ed Proceedings of a Workshop on Digital Mapping Techniques U S Geological Survey Open file Report 00 325 p 13 19 Lindgren W and Turner H W 1894 Description of the gold belt description of the Placerville sheet California Geological Atlas Folio GF 0003 Lindgren W and Turner H W 1895 Description of the gold belt description of the Smartsville sheet California Geological Atlas Folio GF 0018 Linforth F A 1914 Appli2. Hence we have combined these two steps into a single Project Manager startup screen in GeoMapper Universal Figure 7 13 GeoMapper Project Legends ENERAL GEOLOGY Personalize Legend 1m es ce Create New Project Legend Figure 7 Project Manager is the first computer screen of GeoMapper Universal With it one elects to either make a new mapping legend or start mapping The screen shows the names of the Projects here as general geology By clicking on Create a New Project Legend a new project title can be added to the list and selected at will from all those created Then click either on Start Mapping or Personalize Legend to proceed Legend Maker The stratigraphic section in an area of interest is the geologist s link with time and process and defines the units to be mapped In any region of the U S the local stratigraphic section can be easily downloaded digitally or retrieved conventionally from the Correlation of Stratigraphic Units of North America COSUNA Childs and Salvador 1985 from the AAPG Bookstore To create such a legend in GeoMapper we use Legend Maker which is implemented when one clicks on Personalize Legend in the Project Manager Figure 8 To personalize the legend a user simply needs to use point and click skills to effect changes in the design of the formation and lithology buttons select their area fill patterns and or colors and type in their descriptive names Typically this process ta
3. Survey Open file Report 00 325 p 131 136 Peters W C 1987 Exploration and Mining Geology John Wiley and Sons New York p 10 11 Proffett J 1973 Structure of the Butte District Montana Montana in Miller R N ed Soc Econ Geol Butte Field meeting section G Sales R H 1929 Ore discovery and development Eng and Min Jour v 128 p 277 279 Sales R 1941 Mine maps and models in Peels s Mining Engineer s handbook Section 19 John Wiley and Sons New York p 2 11 Soller R 2000 in D R Soller ed Proceedings of a Workshop on Digital Mapping techniques U S Geological Survey Open file Report 00 325 p 13 19 25 Soller D R and Berg T M and Wahl R 2000 Developing the National Geologic Map Database Phase 3 an Online Living Database of Map Information in D R Soller ed Proceedings of a Workshop on Digital Mapping techniques U S Geological Survey Open file Report 00 325 p 49 52 Soller D R and Lindquist T 2000 Development and Public review of the draft Digital Cartographic Standard for geologic Map Symbolization in D R Soller ed Proceedings of a Workshop on Digital Mapping techniques U S Geological Survey Open file Report 00 325 p 43 48 Stamm N R Wardlaw B R Soller D R 2000 GEOLEX The national Geologic Map database s Geologic Names Lexicon in D R Soller ed Proceedings of a Workshop on Digital Mapping Techniques U S Geolog
4. 2 q Py bhn cp fair ore 1 0 py a 1 5 fair ore Py bhn a gt 4 good ore 4 cp en amp 1 1 5 q Py tn bn 3 4 PY cD rae k a Py Lik in bins en 1 a py sl cela a3 EXPLANATION A eee fault showing dip S285 Main Stage Vein showing dip Pre Main Stage Quartz Mol ybdenite aa Vein showing dip Quartz Porphyry Dike Fit Fault tr trace Figure 1 Steward Mine Butte Montana part of the 3800 level mapped by J M Proffett 1973 Alteration mapping of advanced argillic sericitic and white and green argillic envelopes aligned with and co axial to causative hydrothermal veins provided genetic relationships to relate mineralization as copper content to wall rock alteration processes Figure 2 Brimhall 1973 necessary to interpret multi stage magmatic hydrothermal events and determine the source s of metals as well as inferring the geochemical conditions and fluid chemistry Figure 2 Steward Mine Butte Montana part of the 3400 level mapped by G H Brimhall 1973 Copper assay versus distance Sericitic alteration is brown colored argillic is orange Main Stage veins are red and pre Main Stage veins are purple Wide zones exit with considerable copper but only pre Main Stage veins From hundreds of such maps the chronology of all magmatic and hydrothermal processes was synthesized and translated into a standardized geological mapping legend of the Butte District
5. Compile Maps 4 Load DXF file vector graphics 5 Make Base Map vector base map made out of loaded vector graphics 6 Select Base Map 7 Set Base Map Options 8 Load Survey Points 9 Set AutoSave timer 10 Select GPS 11 Start GPS 12 Methods of Input Off 13 Survey Point 14 Survey Graphics Off 15 Set LASER 16 Start LASER 17 ID Angle correction for LASER 18 Map Ground Line w LASER 19 Plot Survey Tape 20 Plot Map Scale 21 Set Map Display Options 22 Paint Buttons Utility 23 Layers Tool box 24 Set GIS Table Options and Area Fills transparency 25 Set Symbols default size and orientation 26 GIS Table Form Generator Utility 27 Set DTM Parameters 28 GeoMapper Tools Toolbar 29 Lithology Toolbar 30 Structure Toolbar 31 Formations Toolbar 32 Mineralization Toolbar 33 Alteration Toolbar 34 Snap node for instrument method of input 35 Free node for pen method of input 36 Type in coordinate data method of input 37 Undo Redo graphics input 38 Erase graphics drag a polygon to select graphic nodes 39 Erase symbols 40 Move individual polyline nodes 41 Move individual polyline nodes snapping onto other nodes 42 Move rotate or resize symbols 43 Edit the elevations drag a polygon to select graphic nodes 44 Redraw the map graphics 45 Pan the map 46 Zoom Utility box 47 Zoom in out to the previous view 48 Zoom out by five 49 Zoom out to show all of the map 50 Plot Rock Sample 51 Pl
6. Figure 3 Miller 1973 WGE DATES EWN TYPE UNCIPAL ALTERA TIUA AS wy ROCK AS AND VEIN TYPE AND CULDUN SILICATES fn As MAPPING COVE Hesen pelt and Advanced Argitlic Diskite topaz seen recent o weunm ae Me mipping codes Byroptyiide alan ete sapeniaponed of Ref Meyer and Newt Yorn Stage 207 ead Neyer aad Avvicitization tr otes 1068 Borvenr 48 50 my Lowland creek 57 volcanics Qariz fF perire hyer y 57 3 1 6 Buite swis siaga See description af coluna Sectisa F KAAN aseinite 4 veiss sbuw Satrece E f lt beracteriativ S758 La wise Mypogenr S Batte wain stage pra sonatas Ren Meed J i RA AN siricite z D Had orders 1948 58 520t16 No ireretios code Feme assen ioge e orret guerre veins Ne alteration conde we a tarielte ananmts and Htworite K feldspar biorite Mack assem ne os crncAfes serictte Keane shalvar wis Aa Maim or bove tecrystai sies Prebadl lt iomty tized biotite rotated ja time do pervasive biotitizetioe Saa sectim Ht Figure 3 Generalized intrusive vein alteration sequence and mapping symbolism Miller 1973 8 The Anaconda mapping system created in Butte evolved over almost a century Figure 4 to a system widely emulated elsewhere because of its simplicity and utility Calusa Vein LEONARD SHAFT v O NA CA cs EXPLANATION am Main Stage Vein a Foult 0 Quertz Perphyry Dike SCALE Figur
7. field testing and procedures have also been worked out mutually with our sponsors The 23 authors are grateful to a host of research sponsors including Codelco Chile Placer Dome Exploration WMC Australia NASA and NSF Their abiding support made creation of digital mapping with GeoMapper possible Many institutions will now benefit from their belief and investment in the future of geological mapping REFERENCES Brodaric B 2000 Digital geological Information From the Field to the map to the Internet in D R Soller ed Proceedings of a Workshop on Digital Mapping techniques U S Geological Survey Open file Report 00 325 p 3 12 Brimhall G 1973 Mineralogy texture and chemistry of early wall rock alteration in the deep underground mines and continental area Butte District Montana in Miller R N ed Soc Econ Geol Butte Field meeting section H Brimhall G 1998 Direct digital field mapping using pen based PC computers supported by differential global positioning systems and laser range finders Geol Soc Amer Abstracts with Programs v 30 no 7 p A 256 Brimhall G 1999 Evaluation of digital mapping classes in introductory and advanced field classes at UC Berkeley Geol Soc Amer Abstracts with Programs v 32 no 7 p A 191 Brimhall G H 2000 The Earth Resources Center Digital Mapping Lab University of California Berkeley lt http socrates berkeley edu earthres gt Brimhall G and Vanegas
8. for the office environment of map production cannot do this effectively Finally since mapping addresses three dimensional exposures existing mapping systems that support only mapping in plan view leave a large gap in required mapping capabilities THE PROMISE OF DIGITAL MAPPING If proven to be practical economical and flexible in terms of mapping in plan or section portable integrated field mapping systems supported by GPS lasers and digital cameras could soon become commonplace not only for mapping on land but underground from the air on the sea bed and ultimately in space on other planetary surfaces first robotically and then by astronauts Resource sustainability and proactive environmental management on a global basis have become imperative societal goals making geo spatial phenomena the central scientific infrastructure However for digital mapping to realize its potential to serve these needs as a truly enabling generative technology worthy of becoming widely adopted and ultimately replacing the traditional paper methods while creating valuable new knowledge about the earth a significant challenge remains to be overcome in software design and functionality The present limitations stem from not fully acknowledging the scientific needs of practitioners especially as being distinct from technological needs alone We need to manage new technologies more effectively in doing science Here we address only the issue of workflow and throug
9. observation are richly complex and offer a profoundly interesting natural science view of the world where our eyes still provide the seminal information about rocks which are nature s archive of geological history and the evolution of process The mapping system we use to support our work must serve our needs very well if we are to 2 function successfully and maintain our enthusiasm as well as earn the continued support of our host institutions by creating useful maps and interpretations Given the realities of mapping anything that impedes our work is soon abandoned Consequently conversion from paper base maps to digital mapping systems has not been easy Commercial graphics programs barely approach the level of visual sophistication required by mappers and have little data base management functionality Alternatively 2 D and 3 D GIS software while offering powerful utilities in visualization and numerical calculation extracting features and outputting maps from existing data they lack front end data capture engines to map new features directly in the field Hence the primary role of a geologist as a scientist in the field could not be accommodated with commercial software We recognized the need for a practical and portable field mapping system some five years ago and have a system now working in a variety of application areas Approach Being both geologists and computer programmers ourselves with mapping experience in a variety of ap
10. so far These early innovator institutions who have invested in the growth of digital mapping and were bold enough to experiment with a new technology have experienced both the excitement of using a powerful new technology as well as the frustration of dealing with the limitations of early products of software development and hardware systems adapted to new areas of application Here we summarize the present status of our development and field capabilities of an integrated geological mapping software system called GeoMapper to meet the varied scientific needs of geologists working in industry agencies and academia GeoMapper was developed by us within the Digital Mapping Lab of the University of California Berkeley Earth Resources Center Motivation for GeoMapper Geological mapping in the field or underground is sometimes as demanding a task as one would imagine ever doing more than once Even though we practitioners of earth science often thrive on such invigorating outdoor work amidst the grandeur nature often provides we often labor under severe conditions and stringent time demands Given this happy ordeal in the field our craft is not for everyone Only the highly motivated and strong survive the physical rigors of the work place the isolation in the field and the vagaries of the economic employment cycles While challenging physically mapping remains the main reason for our enthusiasm for geology The intellectual activities in quantitative
11. the U S for a century in federal and state agencies industry and academia Traditional mapping methods have been proven globally in all types of field conditions varied geology and project scope from rapid reconnaissance to detailed mine mapping Digital mapping must meet the quality of the traditional standards United States Geological Survey In the U S mapping has evolved considerably from scientific support of mining by the U S Geological Survey Lindgren and Turner 1894 1895 which set an international standard of excellence in surface mapping and color folio map production Anaconda Mapping System in Butte Montana Industrial geologists initially in the Anaconda Company in Butte Montana Peters 1987 developed standardized mapping procedures for underground vein mines forming the basis of compilation of plan level maps Figure 1 serial cross sections and three dimensional geological models used in exploration development and resolution of vein apex mining law litigation Brunton 1901 Linforth 1914 Sales 1929 1941 McLaughlin and Sales 1933 McKinstry 1948 Veins and intrusive igneous rocks were mapped in drifts stopes and crosscuts showing relative age relations by offsets 6 0 good ore 1 5 4 qs Py tm cp py ee A bn 25 s j mb in HW 38 z Py mb in ws oe ge S a5 py tn gouge pa good ore Bs 5 Py bn Cp n ies NINN bey 3 St o PY a bn Strgsu 2 0 high grade Py bn cp q
12. 510 643 7214 email Veronica Lanier at vlanier uclink berkeley edu PenMap Strata The Business and Innovation Centre Angel Way Bradford United Kingdom BD7 1Bx http www penmap com and Condor Earth Technologies Inc 21663 Brian Lane Sonora CA 95370 3905 Tel 209 532 0361 lt http www conndorearth com products gt 26
13. A 2000 Digital mapping of geology and ore deposits with GeoMapper Geol Soc Amer Abstracts with Programs v 32 no 7 p A 514 Brimhall G and Vanegas 2001 Digital Mapping Using Pen PC Computers Differential Mode GPS Laser Range Finders and Digital Cameras GeoMapper User Manual Earth Resources Center Digital Mapping Lab University of California Berkeley Brimhall G and Vanegas A Removing Science Workflow Barriers to Adoption of Digital Geological Mapping by Using the GeoMapper Universal Program and Visual User Interface in D R Soller ed Proceedings of a Workshop on Digital Mapping techniques U S Geological Survey in press Brunton D W 1901 Geological mine maps and sections Trans Amer Inst Min Engrs v 86 p 508 Brimhall G and Vanegas A in press Removing Science Workflow Barriers to Adoption of Digital Geological Mapping by Using the GeoMapper Universal Program and Visual User Interface in D R Soller ed Proceedings of a Workshop on Digital Mapping Techniques U S Geological Survey Open file Report 15 p Childs O E and Salvador A 1985 Correlation of Stratigraphic Units of North America COSUNA Amer Assoc of Petrol Geologists Bull v 69 p 173 189 lt http www aapg org datasystems LibraryPricing html gt Compton R R 1985 Geology in the Field John Wiley and Sons New York 398 pages Derry D R 1947 Geological Mapping Canadian Mining and Metallurgical Bulletin v
14. E EE RERET E ANN EEEE EER EEEE HEE 29 9 29 ff 28 EECECER IFTE umm Figure 10 Lithology Toolbar shows the local rock types in an area in age sequence Lithologies can be mapped either using a line style or areas filled with patterns Buttons are changed automatically by a user when they use Legend Maker The buttons are arranged in an age sequence that decreases as you move to the right on the toolbar Button number 1 is marble 2 is quartzite 3 is serpentinite 4 is 17 peridotite 5 is gabbro 6 is granite 7 is porphyry 8 is diorite 9 is tuff and 10 is schist before any personalization The lithological patterns programmed follow Compton 1985 The Lithology toolbar also contains the basic structural features of contacts and strike and dip so that a mapper needn t change tool bars while doing the most basic mapping activities This saves time Structure Toolbar Clicking on the Structure button brings up a full set of structural symbols given in both azimuthal and down dip methods shown with a D Figure 11 When a symbol is selected the mapper enters azimuthal and dip data The program then plots the symbol in its correct orientation automatically Contacts are shown in black faults in blue veins in red and fold axes in black Dashed lines represent uncertain positions of these features Different thickness of faults and veins are given as separate buttons Structural symbols include contacts faults normal thrust stri
15. GeoMapper Universal Digital Pen Mapping System for Geological Mining Exploration and Environmental Mapping with a Point and Click Legend Maker and Project based File Manager George Brimhall and Abel Vanegas Earth Resources Center ERC Digital Mapping Lab 345 McCone Hall Department of Earth and Planetary Science University of California Berkeley Berkeley California 94720 4767 Email brimhall socrates berkeley edu ERC website http socrates berkeley edu earthres Submitted for publication July 5 2001 2001 Annual Conference of the International Association for Mathematical Geology Cancun Mexico September 6 12 2001 ABSTRACT GeoMapper is a proven digital mapping system designed from the standpoint of the field geologist for rapid acquisition of necessary digital mapping skills and production of their first map in the shortest possible time GeoMapper is in use in academic mining and environmental applications and follows the mapping system developed by the former Anaconda Company in Butte Montana Regardless of the application area the transition from traditional paper mapping to direct real time digital mapping is not difficult as our visual user interface is logical and largely self explanatory and breaks mapping down into commonly used features such as contacts faults veins colored areas of each formation outcrops and structural symbols such as strike and dip GeoMapper s architecture implements mapping tools with butto
16. a generic visual user interface Here we present our recent advances in designing the second generation of GeoMapper GeoMapper Universal with totally new visual user interfaces for a geologist to readily personalize the mapping legend for local geology on a project basis learn the mapping system and readily conduct digital geological mapping using the scientific methods of field geology Brimhall and Vanegas 2001 including mapping in section view Unless digital mapping capabilities meet both technological and scientific requirements of field geology as it is practiced today and are robust and easy to use adoption will come only slowly after each barrier to use is removed Present paper mapping capabilities with traditional methods are immensely powerful and the tools are simple and inexpensive By practical necessity the tools have evolved to the point of near perfection for what they present an inexpensive portable light weight paper based medium proven by the test of time to offer the essential information of science at the lowest cost However paper mapping being an analog process is not inherently well adapted to incorporation into the digital revolution and the information age Here we consider what paper mapping is where it came from and how best to translate mapping into a viable digital protocol EVOLUTION OF MAPPING AS THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF GEOLOGY Mapping using paper media has been a core discipline of professional geology in
17. a inputs created by mapping and in so doing are useful printing output data storage and interpretive tools In that respect GeoMapper Universal can be viewed as the front end of GIS systems Compilation of maps as new map information is available can be done either within GeoMapper as a growing aggregate map file or exported as small sub areal maps to GIS systems GIS information can be ported into GeoMapper including base maps ground lines and survey point data Map Production At UC Berkeley we have produced digital maps for three years including field methods training and summer field camp We output reports maps cross section and field photos in folio format following the tradition set by the USGS while implementing 22 the detailed mapping system of the Anaconda Company at the dawn of the 20 century Figure 18 het int Figure 18 Poster sheet for Berkeley Hills geology map with report on the left map and cross section center and digital field photos on the far right Conclusions In the hands of a practiced field geologist GeoMapper Universal can now produce good quality geological maps in a reasonable amount of time with a minimum of training and no knowledge of computer programming Once students are trained in paper mapping methods they too can readily learn digital mapping with GeoMapper Universal Poster or folio map productions combining maps text cross sections and photographs are easily made with PageMa
18. e 4 District geology of the Berkeley Pit Butte Montana showing quartz porphyry dikes Main Stage veins and faults McClave 1973 The mapping system was expanded through mapping other mining districts of the company including the El Salvador mine in Chile Yerington in Nevada Carr Fork in Utah with contributions by many Anaconda mine and exploration geologists District scale compilations provided guidance for mine development and creation of genetic models for space time mineralization alteration in porphyry copper deposits Figure 5 cima Vern LEONARD SHAFT EXPLANATION EXPLANATION lt Moin Stage Vein C gt Predominantly Sericitic 7 Fale Predominantly Argillic eee Querts Perphyry Dike cs Fresh 0 1000 2000 SCALE lee FEET Figure 5 Relationship of alteration to Main Stage veins in the Berkeley Pit Butte Montana McClave 1973 10 Based upon plan maps vertical cross sections were drawn to show the hypogene and supergene leaching and enrichment zoning used in production and ore control Figure 6 EXPLANATION Main Stege Vein _ Poult SS Quartz Porphyry Dike SED Zone of Supargane Enrichment SIZE Crovel Figure 6 Vertical north south cross section of Butte Montana mining district looking west McClave 1973 Mapping in Academia To prepare students for this growing geological field systematic field mapping classes for undergraduate students were instituted in the US and Canada one of the
19. ed geology in the Butte mines Trans Amer Inst Min Engrs v 86 p 508 McLaughlin D H and Sales R H 1933 Utilization of geology by mining companies in Ore deposits of the Western United States Lindgren Volume p 683 686 McClave M 1973 Control and distribution of supergene enrichment in the berkeley Pit Butte District Montana Montana in Miller R N ed Soc Econ Geol Butte Field meeting section K Miller r N 1973 Production history of the Butte District and geological function in Miller R N ed Soc Econ Geol Butte Field meeting section F Montero Sanchez I And Brimhall G 1998 Novel application of digitally integrated mapping systems for the mineralogical characterization of abandoned mines Geol Soc Amer Abstracts with Programs v 30 no 7 p A 358 Montero Sanchez I Brimhall G Alpers C 1999 Use of UV VIS IS spectroscopy to characterize mine waste dumps in the Penn Mine Calaveras County California Geol Soc Amer Abstracts with Programs Cordilleran Section meeting v 31 no 6 p A 91 Montero Sanchez I And Brimhall G 2000 Fast mineral identification algorithm for reflectance spectra of iron oxide iron oxyhydroxide and iron sulfate minerals Geol Soc Amer Abstracts with Programs v 32 no 7 p A 180 Morin P J 2000 What Visualization Contributes to Digital Mapping in D R Soller ed Proceedings of a Workshop on Digital Mapping techniques U S Geological
20. er 9 setting the mapping units meters or feet projection types and datum for the GPS 10 11 turning off previous methods of input 12 plotting a survey point 13 turning off the survey point graphic 14 using the laser range finder 15 16 and the magnetic declination correction use laser back site correction 17 to set the declination on the laser then mapping a ground line with the laser 18 plotting the survey tape 19 and the scale bar 20 for scale orientation and setting the display screen parameters 21 From this point the mapper can then proceed directly to the second row and use the Lithology 29 Structure 30 Formation 31 Mineralization 32 and Alteration 33 buttons to open their respective mapping tools as needed When the Lithology 29 Structure 30 Formation 31 Mineralization 32 and Alteration 33 buttons are touched by the pen stylus each expand to show their own tool bars Use of sequential tool bars reduces the amount of computer screen display used up by the legend and maximizes the area of the map Lithology Toolbar Lithologies can be mapped either as lines with different styles or as patterned infills Clicking on the Lithology button causes 20 Lithology 1 2 20 buttons to show on the right of the Area button as area fills and 10 of those Lithologies 1 2 10 that can be mapped as lines found to the right of the Line button Figure 10 een butions een F TTET EP EPER
21. er and pencil media GeoMapper has been designed to implement the fundamental guidelines of the scientific method including rigorous separation of fact and interpretation by showing uncertainty This is done by modulating line character from being solid where contacts are well located and dashed where they are inferred The outline of outcrops can also be mapped separately from a color infill which covers the entire area underlain by a given formation This is a 21 powerful and novel feature of GeoMapper as the outcrops record the primacy of the data on which interpretations are based Figure 17 Figure 17 Miocene geology near Highway 24 in Berkeley showing outcrops and formations Map Scale and Spatial Resolution We have constructed scale bar symbols which can be placed anywhere on a map when needed By mapping small scale data rich features like outcrops separately from the overall formations a map may be drawn at any scale appropriate for a question at hand When one zooms out those features may be too small to see at a broader scale but they are preserved and can be shown on a detailed scale by zooming back in Map Compilation and Bi directional Data Transfer Digital mapping creates new scientific knowledge The original map with its contacts modulated for the level of certainty outcrops and color formation infills represents this knowledge in its purest primary form Geographic Information Systems GIS can process primary dat
22. first in 1892 at the University of California Berkeley by Professor Andrew Lawson Over the next half century training in surface mapping evolved Derry 1947 and remains a requirement in the curricula of most earth science programs including intensive summer field project training following a mapping methods class Three kinds of information uniquely accessed in the field are addressed direct observation and measurement age relations and interpretation Compton 1985 Professor Compton s 1985 book became the standard field manual for generations of geology students Field camps still provide the main systematic training of young geologists to address district scale investigation and often provide the most vivid first hand realities of concepts learned in the classroom This evolution in mapping and ever increasing use of maps in earth sciences means that the challenges facing digital mapping are considerable and demand an exacting set of standards of digital systems flexibility adaptability Digital mapping cannot compromise these professional standards and succeed At UC Berkeley today we have completed three years of digital mapping following training with paper methods 11 What we do in the Field and How We Map To offer more than a generic graphical tool pad with device drivers for pen input and control of electronic instrumentation it is essential to design a geological user interface around the practical needs of earth scientists a
23. g graphical relationships The body of necessary knowledge is immense Cognition and spatial problem solving is an on going part of mapping which is then intrinsically a real time process Through the process of mapping new insights continuously emerge from the map patterns which provide guidance as to what features to map next which direction to go next and which multiple working hypotheses to entertain until one proves superior to the others Hence geological mapping is an interactive real time scientific discipline which accommodates identification of complicated geo spatial and temporal features flexibility in interpretation error assessment in making interpretations and managing unforeseen complexity in the earth as it unfolds on a developing map The Mapping Continuum and the Visual User Interface Translated into a digital formalism mapping proves to be a great deal more than what is often referred to in the digital media world as field data capture 3 D modeling GIS analysis data base management or visualization Mapping is in practice all of these processes undertaken together simultaneously in real time outdoors or underground immersed in nature Mapping is not a sequence of discrete point measurements although to non geologists it may appear so as we walk form place to place Instead mapping is a continuum of activities requiring one to keep oriented located and continually aware of their lithological and structural envi
24. he four mineralization style buttons representing dissemination veinlets stockworks and breccias Figure 13 Oxides facies minerals include calcite quartz limonite hematite goethite cuprite tenorite pyrophyllite and kaolinite Sulfide facies minerals include galena sphalerite tenantite pryrite bornite chalcocite chalcopyrite covellite digenite enargite molybdenite and anhydrite These features are customizable reer buttons AA mmmn gagga Ao amy SY CI zE E ES EEN o ah li hen soe cur teref pre half ces araf sef ral tl eoe ks joo mh cre Figure 13 Mineralization Toolbar shows common ore minerals and mineralization styles Alteration Toolbar The Alteration button brings up two sets of buttons for Propylitic Argillic Potassic Sericitic Advanced Argillic Silicification Garnetization and Carbonation facies of hydrothermal alteration Figure 14 The first set is used to map alteration as a color coded line and the second set is used if you prefer to map alteration as a color coded area These features are customizable 19 re Baca AE a i i gasgas ET of fA KS 94S Ge a 59 PA KS A Se a E Figure 14 Alteration Toolbar shows the most common types of wall rock alteration propyliti c argillic potassic sericitic advanced argillic silicification garnetitization and carbonatization entered either as lined patterns or alternatively as areas infills GeoMapper Tools Toolbar This tool bar ope
25. hput and view the remaining problems of cost and vendor incompatibility as being dependent upon the digital mapping systems first proving to be useful before they become commonplace We hope that our system will help establish standards that will speed this process The Different Challenges of Science and Technology Science and technology are alternative perspectives of knowledge and especially of use of instrumentation Science seeks a deep understanding of natural phenomena while technology uses advanced technical means to serve human ends A geological map is fundamentally an information rich scientific document although it is produced technically Digital mapping technology is rightly concerned with technical issues yet another important dimension of the map is its scientific knowledge This scientific knowledge is created by a highly trained scientist with needs in the field quite distinct from those of office personnel who produce the map and deal with data base management In some organizations the mapper and map producer are one in the same individual In advancing GeoMapper we have viewed our challenge then to be in constructing a software architecture that above all else enables the scientific mission in the field and provides a compatibility with subsequent map production needs so the two activities become mutually supportive We perceive two main challenges in mapping software design The first is creation of an effective visual user i
26. ical Survey Open file Report 00 325 p 31 42 Stanford L R and MacKubbin V T 2000 Application of a Digital Geologic Base Model in ArcView GIS in D R Soller ed Proceedings of a Workshop on Digital Mapping techniques U S Geological Survey Open file Report 00 325 p 55 56 Stetson 2001 Healthcare Barriers to Acceptance of Mobile Computing in healthcare A look at why medical professionals are slow to accept pen computers in daily practice Pen Computing p 18 20 v 8 number 38 Takagi T and Brimhall G 2000 A simple and inexpensive diffuse reflectance standard target for accurate calibration in low altitude airborne ultraviolet visible near infrared UV VIS NIR spectroscopy Geol Soc Amer Abstracts with Programs v 32 no 7 p A 372 Takagi T and Brimhall G 2000 A simple and inexpensive diffuse reflectance standard target for accurate calibration in low altitude airborne ultraviolet visible near infrared UV VIS NIR spectroscopy Geol Soc Amer Abstracts with Programs v 32 no 7 p A 372 Vanegas A Brimhall G and Lerch D 2000 Preparation of accurate 1M digital ortho photos ERC digital mapping lab data sets for field camps and industrial field projects Geol Soc Amer Abstracts with Programs v 32 no 7 p A 514 Vendor Data GeoMapper Universal University of California Office of Technology Licensing 2150 Shattuck Ave Suite 510 Berkeley CA 59720 1620 Tel Veronica Lanier
27. ithm 20 Although we typically map in horizontal plan view in GeoMapper we can map in any arbitrary section by user matrix algebraic transformations that we have coded in Visual Basic This is done by taking a digital photograph of the inclined surface you wish to map and measuring the orientation of the inclined surface Figure 16 A laser is used to locate georeferencing points on the photo Using rotation matrices we rotate the plane of the photo into horizontality where we map as though it was inclined using the full geological legend When the mapping is complete we simply undo the rotation by another matrix transformation and restore the section to its proper position GeoMapper Cross Section Mapping Steps Overview 1 Stand perpendicular to surface and laser in control points 1LL 2LR JUL AUR in Meld of view e3 4 lel 2e A 110 2is rotation axis A a 7 Measure hillslope angle with compass 3 Rotate control points to horizonial B 4 Assign these new coordinates to analogous points in image in Rastback and rectify 5 Make a new backhmap whith is siretched G 6 Map on stretched image using GeoMapper 7 Un rolate stretched image and export files A a A Lased in Points Section View a ae Rolalion Axls Figure 16 Geometry of the section mapping algorithm used in GeoMapper Universal as accessed from the Tool Toolbar Scientific Logic and Uncertainties As in mapping with traditional pap
28. ke and dip horizontal beds vertical beds cleavage foliation trend and plunge plunging anticline and plunging syncline geen butions Fenn e a fa a yl Ae AANAAAAAAAAAA SSSI AS fi Gutter __e e AS NNANISININININNS Figure 11 Structure Toolbar shows the common structural symbols used in mapping contacts faults veins strike and dip horizontal and vertical beds foliation joints trend and plunge anticlines and synclines and down dip direction versions of the same symbols entered alternatively as azimuth and dip Formations Toolbar The Formation button causes 20 Formations 1 2 20 buttons to appear Figure 12 The buttons are arranged in sequence of age with the youngest on the right end of the toolbar buttons Formation color infills are often completed in the office by snapping onto the nodes along contacts This makes a sharp demarcation of color on both sides of the contact line with no gap Coloration of the entire map by formation using this toolbar creates the most visible attributes of completed geological maps 18 ees baa HE mmp YS ak Yeh eh aoa zE daal te P 2 a E EEE EITE TEIT EEEL fm po ee oe Figure 12 Formation Toolbar shows the local rock formations in an area in age sequence Buttons are changed automatically by a user when they use Legend Maker Mineralization Toolbar The Mineralization button brings up a suite of oxide and sulfide facies mineral symbols that are used with t
29. keley ERC Brimhall 1998 1999 2000 Brimhall and Vanegas 2000 2001 Vanegas et al 2000 Brimhall and Vanegas 2001 summarized the development of the latest version of GeoMapper called GeoMapper Universal now ready for general distribution The GeoMapper systems were tested refined and improved through their use in both surface and underground geological mapping and function well over small to large scale maps in a wide spectrum of geological environments GeoMapper has been used in instruction at UC Berkeley for three years in undergraduate and graduate field classes GeoMapper has also been used in the ERC in support of abandoned mine characterization using hyperspectral visible light infrared methods supported by real time GPS and laser positioning Montero Sanchez and Brimhall 1998 2000 Montero Shanchez et al 1999 Takagi and Brimhall 2000 including mapping from helicopters Barriers of Acceptance of Digital Mapping ERC digital mapping research and development projects with Codelco Chile Placer Dome Exploration and WMC Australia Olympic Dam provided much knowledge about the nature of the modern mapping discipline in industry Especially revealing aspects have been desirable features and the breadth of technical demands on the systems covering a spectrum from new mappers in the field mapping classes at UC Berkeley to experienced professionals in industry Especially important is 1 the need to find ways to engage users whose backgr
30. ker rendering completed project work in a compact and vivid format faithful to our century long and distinguished mapping heritage but now part of the information age using the digital electronic tools of the day The time savings is in the full sequence of activities from field mapping to final digital map by eliminating the intermediary steps of paper media and digitizing Information is not lost Access and sharing by other users is immediate once the digital records are put on line Digital mapping takes some time to reach this level of efficiency One of the most important advantages of GeoMapper supported by PenMap is in its capability of simultaneously integrating digital topographic maps ortho photo base maps and any vector map eg Geophysical data thereby providing the capability of remote sensing and geo spatial interpretation on a pen computer All things considered digital mapping skills should contribute to a mapper s professional development and make their job more efficient and their maps more readily useful Acknowledgements While many institutions wait until geological mapping software is commonplace and inexpensive the early innovator institutions who have sponsored applied research within the Berkeley Earth Resources Center Digital Mapping Lab to develop the systems incrementally deserve special recognition of the important role that they have played in assisting those of us who develop systems for mapping Furthermore rigorous
31. kes less than an hour A hard copy of the legend can be printed This Legend Maker feature of GeoMapper removes the most serious barrier to using digital mapping that of readiness to map 14 Click on the buttons below to edit their appearance _ Save Legend Print Legend Exit Legend pa con Formation Names Area Fills Layer cere Lithology Names Area Fills Layer Tertiary Bald Peak FaF LA L20 Tertiary Claremont J rario f LA LI9 E Formationi8 FaFI8 Lithology 18 sandstone _ LALI Formation FAFID Lithology 17 limestone LALIT Formations B rari Lithology 16 chert LA LI6 Figure 8 Legend Maker is shown here partially completed by a user This is where the local geology of a project is entered in terms of lithology formations and age sequence using only point and click methods The Formation buttons use the standard geological time scale symbolism with Epoch or Period in caps and subscript initials for the formation name The Lithology buttons show the pattern used for that rock type Start Mapping Once the geological legend has been made one clicks on Start Mapping on the Project Manager window figure 7 From this point on GeoMapper s visual user interface shows arrays of buttons arranged so as to provide a logical self explanatory set of features used in mapping Button Tool bars Tool bars are arrays of buttons which can be touched by the pen stylu
32. n icons in contrast to pull down menus and shows only the necessary set up commands to begin mapping with the variety of mapping tools expected in geology Furthermore the buttons are shown in the general sequence of their use so scientific logic naturally guides the selection of mapping tools as one proceeds as usual to map in a desired fashion Professional mining and exploration mapping presents challenging requirements for both software and hardware The software must be extremely user friendly and robust to the point of being nearly bullet proof as field conditions are often hard and time is of the essence Hence essentially every step in digital mapping has to be considered mission critical by eliminating the possibility of not knowing what to do next nor freezing up the computer Towards these ends GeoMapper provides a pre loaded general geology mapping legend The generic startup legend GSL of GeoMapper is language independent and contains standard structural symbols strike dip faults and contacts as well as their level of certainty lithologic patterns formation colors and ore deposit mineralization styles veins veinlets disseminations breccia and stockworks wall rock alteration facies and mineralogy in 1 both sulfide and oxide weathering zones A visual legend maker VLM is provided within GeoMapper that requires only point and click skills and facilitates immediate personalization of the generic legend by enteri
33. nd engineers to map field relationships and to produce finished maps and data bases as part of our daily workflow Fundamentally all mapping is a reasoned abstraction a simplified scaled rendering and projection of complex reality made visible through observation on the small scale of exposures which are mapped on larger scales onto a chosen plane of projection as a representation We reduce four dimensional space time to a two dimensional plane with line area and symbol attributes to convey time Orientation and numerical data are related to symbols How and what we map are determined by our purpose map scale and time frame In adapting digital tools for mapping there are advantages in retaining traditions in so far as they remain useful and provide familiarity and continuity that aid mastering a new digital system Interactive Feedback in a Continuum of Geo spatial Activity In the process of developing GeoMapper to implement mapping in a style even approaching the practicality and level of excellence developed over the twentieth century in agencies industry and academia one is forced to confront the profound complexity of what we geologists actually do in the field and call geological mapping Geological mapping is the practice of rapidly and systematically delineating classifying and recording a complex variety of natural geological features in an organized and disciplined fashion applying the scientific method of hypothesis testing usin
34. ng local formation names lithologies and desired colors of formations Besides mapping in plan view GeoMapper supports full mapping capabilities in cross section orientation For underground mine mapping base maps can be imported as ground lines with survey marker coordinates for setting up a laser For surface mapping digital topography and or high spatial resolution color ortho photos are used in combination with sub meter DGPS Numerical data base information eg strike dip and samples are exported into utility programs such as Rock Works for stereographic plotting geotechnical failure analysis or for GIS output and map production Direct real time digital mapping circumvents the need for digitizing paper maps made with traditional methods Consequently a considerable savings in time is realized in producing maps while providing immediate digital records and shared data bases to other users INTRODUCITON Currently digital mapping technology is evolving rapidly through a challenging transitional period between lingering use of paper and conversion to highly promising digital media of vector topography and raster images and electronic mapping methods using pen stylus input supported by sub meter DGPS and laser range finders Although there is widespread acknowledgement that digital methods of the Information Age will one day replace the traditional paper media relatively few groups in industry agencies or academia have entered this field
35. ns up the final set of buttons shown in Figure 15 in magenta to map in geology in section view for example when the side walls in mines or exposed cliff faces or road cuts in any orientation besides plan view This type of mapping is usually done using a digital photograph as the base map so our mapping tools can be used to trace contacts and add infill patterns With the laser set up and located using the GPS for positioning and its declination corrected for local magnetic declination the Capture Photograph button 1 can be used to download an image from a camera to register the direction of the photo the date of the snap shot and a description The next button is the Field GeoRef Points button 2 which opens an instruction window for geo referencing the photo in the field using the Laser The Plan Map View button 3 will guide you in transforming 4 the field geo reference points which are imported by the GeoReference Image button to create a section view georeference The Raster BaseMap Utility button 5 will use the section view geo reference points to create a base map of the image Finally a section view frame 6 is defined around the image base map by following the instructions of the Section View Frame button Li ti a Ee ssasssJsIgs85s Je Je TTT PPT a PEBER Figure 15 Tool Toolbar contains special features such as those necessary for mapping in section and exporting completed maps and numerical data bases Section Mapping Algor
36. nterface to manage mapping tools graphics and files for local geology in such a way that the system being used actually feels to a geologist like normal mapping and produces professional quality maps at a rate sufficient to make the system cost effective by eliminating unnecessary paper media steps Secondly the software also needs to offer a practical means of incorporating the essential stratigraphic 5 and lithological features of a wide range of geological terranes so that each geologists can begin new projects without delay using a newly created legend With respect to both challenges it is impractical to require users to know even macro language programming to create a usable visual interface for their work The visual user interface constitutes the entirety of the link between their professional scientific skills normal procedures of mapping and the new digital tools at their disposal With his interface they confront the realities of nature to be mapped therefore it must be familiar comprehensive easy to use and easy to personalize to local setting otherwise it is a formidable barrier GEOMAPPER UNIVERSAL It is essential to realize that when we geologists map we are in fact practicing our scientific discipline in the field through observation exercising reasoning and using the scientific tools intrinsic to geology A visual user interface must provide much more than graphic tools like points lines and areas colors and data bases in
37. ot Soil Sample 52 Plot Water Sample 53 Plot Infra Red Sample 54 Plot Notes reference 55 Plot Point graphic 56 Plot Polyline graphic 57 Plot Text graphic w settings 58 Save Map file and Legend changes 59 Export Map for Compilation 60 Setup Printer and Paper size 61 Print Map file 62 Exit Map file 16 In the GeoMapper button interface shown referenced to numbered buttons in parentheses a mapper begins using the buttons located in the upper left corner and proceeds across this row towards the right and eventually onto the second row In support of the sequence logic features that are essential to a mapping project including data entry are color coded with green buttons The save and exit features are colored red as they are crucial steps when working with digital map files and must be implemented before exiting The most frequently used buttons from the editing and zooming feature groups are color coded yellow The base map preparation sequence group of buttons are color coded cyan and the instrument communications group GPS and Laser is colored magenta The initial map file preparation runs through a sequence of buttons beginning with opening up a map file 1 loading the mapping legend configuration 2 compiling and selecting base maps and setting their display parameters such as using a digital topographic base map either with or with an ortho photo show 3 7 loading survey points 8 setting the automatic saving tim
38. ounds in computing is limited although they may be excellent experienced mappers This work also revealed 2 a number of distinct barriers to acceptance of digital mapping that are surprisingly similar to those recognized for acceptance of mobile computing in the healthcare industry in daily practice Stetson 2001 Acknowledgement and resolution of shortcomings is essential to advancement and acceptance of new technology Learning From Mapping Experience Geological mapping has many similarities to medical practice both in terms of technical issues in map production in the office and performance in the field Highly trained scientists and engineers conduct their professional discipline by actively seeking information making instantaneous interpretations and decisions Contrary to common perceptions the gravity of the interpretation by field mappers is often no less than in medicine Our scientific conclusions often can affect the lives of numerous people and the efficacy of financial investment in the billions of dollars as in construction water resource management mining environmental applications and emergency intervention and planning for natural hazards like earthquakes floods and landslides Consequently a digital mapping system must meet the workflow needs of this user group if they are to work with confidence and facility and to supply vitally important geo spatial 4 information and interpretations Software systems designed largely
39. plications areas in industry and academia we approach digital mapping from the standpoint of knowing what has to be done to make a useful map and implementing those steps using portable computers and digital devices We know that time in the field is limited and hence every step must produce useful lines areas symbols notes and numerical data on a map We also know how we geologists want to map the sequence in activities and priorities in making decisions the flow of the work Our training in field mapping has many common attributes which we do not wish to lose We do not want to have to yield to awkward computerized mapping steps just because a computer program would like us to work a certain way In short we already have a procedural system in place The training of geologists with computers usually focuses on using programs rather than on programming Hence the mapping software used must conform to our traditional ways of mapping and not require knowledge of programming In order to produce a viable user friendly mapping system compatible with geologist s training and professional needs we have designed GeoMapper from the field requirements backwards rather from commercial graphics capabilities forward In fact in our latest version of GeoMapper Universal we have eliminated the need for a user to know programming at all Furthermore rather than reinvent the wheel GeoMapper combines our own mapping protocols visual user interface and new comp
40. ronment as we proceed across the landscape or work in an underground drift 12 In the transition from paper to digital records the continuum of mapping has been to some extent disintegrated into separate component parts so that each component can take advantage of a specific digital tool some in the office and others in the field In making a digital mapping field system however all the parts need to function together in harmony and be readily accessed and implemented in the routine that mappers deem convenient and essential to workflow and throughput The problem is that while technological adaptation and substitution can mimic and replace certain traditional mapping procedures we need to reintegrate the component parts of the new digital technology around the actual activities of the scientist in the field using the visual user interface and pen stylus as the sole control Our focus has been on finding the most direct means of mapping using digital technology with as few interruptions and departures from how we normally map Digitizing Tools GeoMapper uses a variety of digital tools including Strata Software s PenMap as a digital graphical tool implementing powerful components of mapping in the style of an electronic plane table In computer usage these tools are points lines symbols and areal pattern and color attributes which are located graphically as geo spatial features Through the GeoMapper visual user interface we organize s
41. s to implement mapping steps A combination of color coding grouping sequential ordering and button design make it possible to begin mapping in a very short time often less than a few hours The organization of the visual interfaces is designed around the requirements of mapping practice The structure of the files created within project areas is consistent with extraction of information to solve real geological problems Immediate results are accomplished by provision of user protocols offering the basic geological formalisms organized into like features lithology structure formations mineralization alteration and sampling sites that collectively constitute the essential and complex geo spatial and temporal features contained in geological maps Toolbars increase the speed of mapping considerably Logic behind Color Coded Button Mapping GeoMapper s architecture implements mapping tools with buttons in contrast to pull down menus which can interrupt the thought process of mapping and leave you stranded as to what to do next GeoMapper includes only the commands necessary for preparing a map file in which mapping can be accomplished with the variety of mapping tools expected in geology Furthermore the buttons are shown in the general sequence of their use so that scientific logic guides the selection of mapping tools Button color 15 coding facilitates eye and hand coordination when selecting frequently used buttons from a feature gro
42. uch raw graphic tools and file structures into geological formalisms such as lithology formations structures samples mineralization and alteration around mapping procedures Device drivers for using digital GPS and laser equipment in surveying are also an integral part of the PenMap tool package GEOMAPPER UNIVERSAL S ARCHITECTURE GeoMapper uses several computer programs to execute the mapping process in a manner consistent with established procedures preferred work sequences and efficiency sufficient as to be considered practical Since the earth is complex and geology enormously varied organization is the critical issue to rapid startup workflow compilation data management and map production GeoMapper Universal provides users a range of organizational features which 1 simplify personalization for local geology around a project orientation 2 implement geological mapping in either plan and arbitrary section views 3 separate common mapping activities used most frequently from those that are used only occasionally and 4 export and manage data files Project Manager The GeoMapper visual user interface is logical and largely self explanatory from the standpoint of a geologist The first activity in starting a new mapping project is to investigate and define the local geological stratigraphic column Once a digital mapping legend is created a user does not need to go back though this step whenever they start a new days mapping
43. up or to point out important buttons in a sequence group We use a stop light method with green yellow and red phases of activity Green buttons refer to the most commonly used buttons in geological mapping Yellow buttons refer to procedures that are used only rarely for example if you need to erase or undo the last work Red buttons refer to procedures that are essential to do before you stop mapping for example saving your files or doing export of critical files Other colors refer to special use functions Light blue buttons refer to a sequence of steps to map base maps These buttons are used only once in a project Purple buttons group instruments like GPS and lasers into setup buttons to select the instruments and turn them on and finally turn them off Magenta buttons manage section view mapping functions and all algebraic transformations done in GeoMapper Button Mapping Starting With the Master Toolbar GeoMapper tool bars contain both the geological features needed to map the earth as well as a visual interface to use all the digital electronic equipment a user selects The first tool bar which appears Master Toolbar manages maps and instruments and the taking of rock soil and water samples and infrared spectra Figure 9 PCE Cee ee Peper es ae amoris 5 So E i i i vee ee ee Sees el a T EE 5 Layer Detault Figure 9 Master Toolbar Numbered buttons are 1 Open Map file 2 Load a Legend Toolbar configuration 3
44. uter programs with the most powerful digitizing tablet available PenMap by Strata Software which also handles device drivers for lasers and GPS units data base files and primitive graphics line points areas Most importantly we have added in GeoMapper a geological legend maker anyone can understand use and start mapping without having to know even macro language programming History of Digital Mapping The term digital mapping has referred to a variety of activities involved in map production cataloging existing maps in digital form for retrieval Soller et al 2000 devising a lexicon of geological names Stamm et al 2000 GIS information management Brodaric 2000 cartographic symbolization Soller and Lindquist 2000 production of final maps after scanning paper based maps Stanford and MacKubbin 2000 compilation and digitization Furr 2000 retrieving information using GIS Fryer 3 et al 2000 and visualization Morin 2000 Progress has been faster in developing digital technology to support office map production than in actual mapping in the field Our work is an effort to help close the gap between the obvious promise and the practicality of digital mapping The status of field data collection using digital mapping systems as opposed to digitization of paper maps was summarized by Kramer 2000 including our progress developing GeoMapper within the Earth Resources Center of the University of California Ber
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