Home

ZBasic Manual

1. 0010 CLS 0015 OPEN R 1 MAIL 117 0016 INPUT CREATE A NEW FILE Y N AS IF A gt lt Y THEN 22 0021 NR 1 RECORD1 0 WRITE 1 NR REM NR Number of names in list 0022 RECORD 1 0 READ 1 NR 0025 DO CLS 0030 PRINT MAIL LIST PROGRAM 0040 PRINT 1 Add names to list Number of names NR 1 0050 PRINT 2 Print list 0052 PRINT 3 Find names 0055 PRINT 4 End 0060 INPUT 0 7 Number ANSWER IF ANSWER lt 1 OR ANSWER gt 4THEN60 0075 ON ANSWER GOSUB ADD PRINT FIND 0077 UNTIL ANSWER 4 0079 0080 END CLOSE 1 END 0099 0100 ADD 101 CLS 102 PRINT MAIL LIST INPUT PRINT 0130 INPUT First Name FIRST_NAMES 0140 INPUT Last Name LAST_NAMES 0150 INPUT Address ADDRESSS 0160 INPUT City CITYS 0170 INPUT State STATES 0180 INPUT ZIP ZIP 0190 INPUT AGE AGE S 0200 INPUT Money Spent SPENT 0210 PRINT 0220 INPUT Is everything correct Y N AS IFAS lt gt Y THEN ADD 0230 RECORD 1 0 READ 1 NR DR NR NR NR 1 REM NR is incremented 0240 GOSUB WRITE A MAIL LIST ITEM REM when names added 0250 RECORD 1 0 WRITE 1 NR REM Stores records to record zero 0255 RETURN 0260 0261 0500 PRINT 0510 REM
2. TIMES FOR NI 10 TO NI PRINT SA X RE Print last to make sure SORT worked EXT END SHELL APP SHELL METZNER SORT SHELL SORT Y NI Z1 Y Y 2 IF Y 0 THEN RETURN REM Sort complete Z99 NI Y FOR K9 1 TO 299 I K9 X2 E2 I Y REM In line below change lt to gt for descending order IF SA I lt SA E2 THEN X3 ELSE SWAP SA I SA E2 L I IF I gt 0 THEN X2 X3 NEXT K9 GOTO Z1 END Note To sort string arrays instead of numeric arrays add a to the appropriate variables Also see Perpetual Sort using INDEX in the previous chapter Array Variables 7 6 ARRAY VARIABLES S QUICK APP QUICK SORT QUICK SORT REM Improve Quicksort submitted by Johan Brouwer Luxembourg REM Thanks for the submission Johan SP 0 ST 0 0 0 ST 0 1 0 ST 0 1 NI DO L ST SP 0 R ST SP 1 SP SP 1 DO LI L R1 R SA SA L R 2 DO WHILE SA LI lt SA LI LI 1 WEND WHILE SA RI gt SSA RI RI 1 WEND LONG IF LI lt RI SWAP SA LI SA RI LI LI 1 RI RI 1 END IF UNTIL LI gt RI LONG IF R LI gt RI L LONG IF L lt RI SP SP 1 ST SP 0 L ST SP 1 RI END IF LI XELSE LONG IF LI lt R SP SP 1 ST SP 0 LI ST SP 1 R END IF R R1 ENDIF UNTIL R lt L TIL SP 1 ETURN REM QUICK SORT FINISHED HERE D Note To use the QUICK SORT or SHE
3. EXAMPLE SITUATION OVERLAP Computer PIXEL resolution 256 x 258 4 io 1 Horizontal ZHasle Poshion resalutilon 1074 x 768 3 to 7 Vertical You can see that plotting coordinates 0 0 through 3 2 sets the same pixel on a screen with 256 x 256 resolution If the pixel resolution of a computer is 64 x 64 then PLOTing 0 0 or 15 11 will plot the same pixel 16 to 1 horizontal and 12 to 1 vertical Fortunately this Information is rarely Important ZBasic takes care of the tedious transformations between different graphic modes and resolutions Skills learned on one machine may be used on any other machine that uses ZBasic OFF SCREEN COORDINATES ZBasic allows coordinates to be given with graphic commands that are out of bounds of the actual screen coordinates This allows drawing lines circles or rectangles off the screen with only that part of the graphics that are within bounds to be shown on the screen ZBasic clips the rest of the drawing 191 8 COORDINATE LIMITS cor pure SIREEN Graphics wtsida ul the soreen Amity ara not visibla B192 The limits are from 8191 to 8192 Any coordinates given out of this range will cause an overflow and the actual result will be the overflowed amount without generating an error Graphics 82 GRAPHICS DIFFERENT TYPES OF GRAPHICS Graphic appearance and quality will depend on the resolution of the computer or terminal you are using Resolution is the number of graphics pixe
4. ASIC Interactive BASIC Compiler by Andrew R Gariepy Scott Terry David Overton Greg Branche and Halbert Liang Documentation by Michael A Gariepy Copyright 1985 1986 1987 ZEDCOR All Rights Reserved Zbasic is a Trademark of Zedcor Inc Fourth Edition 4 87 First Edition 8 85 Second Edition 10 85 Third Edition 5 86 TECHNICAL SUPPORT 1 602 795 3996 Support hours Monday Friday Noon to 5PM Mountain Standard Time Zedcor provides free phone support Be sure to have your invoice number and license agreement number ready You may need them to get support Also be sure you understand the problem clearly and describe it is simply as possible It is usually a good idea to test the problem a few times before calling Sometimes it s just a syntax problem Collect or toll free calls will not be accepted for technical support In addition you may contact us on the Genie Information Service by sending electronic mail EM AIL to ZBASIC We check our mailbox semi regularly and will respond to you via electronic mail We also have topics set up on the various Round Table Bulletin Boards for general information Notes on the Fourth Edition This edition of the Zbasic manual contains all the computer appendices This includes the appendix for MS DOS APPLE e c DOS 3 3 and ProDOS MACINTOSH CP M and TRS 80 Model 1 3 and TRS 80 Model 4 The appendices are at the back of the manu
5. EFFICIENT CODE Careful examination of source code may uncover ways to decrease code size by making repeated commands into subroutines or FN s or just cleaning up inefficiencies RAM DISKS Some smaller computers allow the use of RAM disks The Apple ProDOS version for example allows RAM disks up to 8 megabytes while program and variable size are limited to 40K 50K Utilizing a RAM disk to store indices large arrays or whatever is nearly as fast as having that data in direct memory USE DISK INSTEAD OF MEMORY If very large arrays or indices have been used in a large program you may have to store and access them from disk in a random file This is slower than RAM access but is usually quite acceptable on most systems TEXT WIDTHS Some computers have only 64 or 40 characters across the screen or 16 rows down the screen You may have to adjust the program to accommodate this You should think about using the PRINT or INPUT commands if you plan on porting programs often PRINT puts text at ZBasics device independent graphic coordinates not text column row coordinates This makes porting programs much simpler Here are some typical character layouts COMPUTER Columns across Rows down IBM PC and compatible 80 or 40 25 Apple series 80 or 40 24 TRS 80 Model III 64 or 32 16 TRS 80 Model 4 4p 80 64 or 32 16 or 24 CP M typical 80 24 Macintosh Almost anything See appendix Porting Programs 158 P
6. and X to filenumber one starting at the current file pointer A carriage return is written after the X This command stores data the same way it would be printed Syntax is compatible with older versions of BASIC The file pointer will point at the location in the file directly following the carriage return PRINT 1 USING 12 1 Formats output to filenumber one starting at the current file pointer stores 12 10 Functions like PRINT USING Data MUST be separated by a delimiter of a quoted comma or a carriage return if reading data back using INPUT Some systems write a carriage return and a linefeed two bytes WRITE WRITE filenumber variable variable WRITE is used for storing data in condensed format at the fastest speed WRITE may only be used with variables and data is read back with the READ statement Example WRITE 1 A 10 Z K 2 Writes 10 characters from A the value of Z and 2 characters from K to filenumber one starting at the current file pointer In the example A 10 stores A plus enough spaces if any to make up ten characters or truncates to ten characters if longer ROUTE ROUTE device ROUTE is used to route output to a specific device Device numbers are 0 video monitor default 1 99 DISK filenumber 1 99 128 PRINTER same as LPRINT 1 or 2 SERIAL port 1 or 2 Example of routing screen data to a disk file or serial port 1 Open a file for output use OPEN C and
7. 15 ABS 152 152 ABS 0 0 Returns the whole number of an expression FIX 99999 23 99999 FIX 122 6231 122 Like INT but forces floating point mode Returns the remainder of an integer divide MODulo 9 MOD 2 1 10 MOD 2 0 20 MOD 6 2 Returns a random number between 1 and expr RND 10 randomly returns 1 2 3 4 10 MAYBE Randomly returns 1 or 0 50 50 chance IF MAYBE PRINT HEADS ELSE PRINT TAILS Math Functions and Operators 40 MATH Col DERIVED MATH FUNCTIONS MATH FUNCTION TERM PI I Pl e e Common LOG 10 LOG Area of a CIRCLE R 2 Area of a SQUARE Volume of a RECTANGLE Volume of a CUBE Volume of a CYLINDER Volume of a CONE Volume of a SPHERE SECANT SEC X COSECANT CSC X COTANGENT COT X Inverse SINE ARCSIN X Inverse COSINE ARCCOS X Inverse COSECANT ARCCSC X Inverse COTANGENT ARCCOT X Hyperbolic Sine SINH X Hyperbolic Cosine COSH X Hyperbolic Tangent TANH X Hyperbolic Secant SECH X Hyperbolic Cosecant CSCH X Hyperbolic Cotangent COTH X Inverse Hyperbolic Sine ARCSINH X Inverse Hyperbolic Cosine ARCCOSH X ARCTANH ARCSECH Inverse Hyperbolic Tangent Inverse Hyperbolic Secant X X Inverse Hyperbolic Cosecant ARCCOTHIS Inverse Hyperbolic Cotangent ARCCOTH Derivative of LN X Natural LOG Derivative of SIN X Derivative of TAN X Derivative of COT X Derivative of ARCSIN X Derivative of ARCCOS X Derivative of ARCTAN X Derivative of ARCCOT X Derivat
8. AGE WRITE 1 LBS 1 PRINT NAMES AGE WRITE 1 NAMES ASC LBS AGE UNTIL A END UNTIL NAMES END CLOSE 1 AASTS END END WRITE 1 LASTS 3 CLOSE 1 END The WRITE program stores a one byte string called LB for Length Byte The ASCII of LB a number from 0 to 255 tells us the length of NAME VARIABLE STRING LENGTH WRITE This illustration shows how the data is saved to the disk when string data is saved using the variable length method LB for Tom would be 3 LB for Harry would be 5 etc FILE IMAGE CREATED USING WRITES With VAPIABLE STRING LENGTH ondensed 2 byki ifr 73 en ie ee Sequential File Method 112 SEQUENTIAL METHOD a APPENDING DATA TO AN EXISTING FILE CREATED USING THE SEQUENTIAL METHOD Sometimes it is faster and easier to append data to the end of an existing text file instead of reading the file back in and then out again This may be accomplished by using R for random access file when opening the file and keeping track of the last position in a file using REC filenumber and LOC filenumber and putting a character 26 at the end of the file To append sequentially to a text file created with other programs try using this example program The key is setting the record length to the right amount The MS DOS version uses 128 Other versions will vary This example creates a function called FN Open f F and will OPEN the file named f with file number f fo
9. LONG IF tempS y or tempS Y KILL temps END IF END FN FOR X 1 TO 100 DO G G 1 WHILE X lt 95 PRINT HELLO LONG IF J lt 4 J J 1 END IF WEND UNTIL G gt 3 5 NEXT X MULTIPLE LINE STATEMENTS ZBasic allows putting more than one statement on a line with colon While this is handy for many reasons over use of this capability can make a program line very difficult to understand UNSTRUCTURED 10 FORX 1T0100 DO G G 1 PRINT G UNTILG 99 NEXT STRUCTURED FOR X 1 TO 100 DO G G 1 PRINT G FOR V 1 TO 20 NEXT UNTIL G 99 NEXT X FOR V 1 TO 20 NEXT Note An asterisk will appear at the beginning of a line containing a complete loop if that line is not already indented In that case the line will be un indented two spaces as in the examples above 149 Structure STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING SEE eee SPACES BETWEEN WORDS To make code more readable you should insert spaces between words variables and commands just as you do when writing in English While ZBasic does not care if spaces are used unless you configure ZBasic to require spaces it is a good practice to insert spaces at appropriate places to make reading the program easier Hard to Read IFX 93 24THENGOSUB SUB5 6 ELSEEND Easier to Read IF X 93 24 THEN GOSUB SUB56 ELSE END VARIABLE NAMES To make code more readable use logical words for variables Hard to Read B OP l Easier
10. MSDOS lt BREAK gt means lt CNTR C gt CP M lt BREAK gt means lt CNTR C gt TRS 80 lt BREAK gt means the lt BREAK gt key Running ZBasic Programs 24 CHAINING as 25 Chaining CHAINING es ASIC Chaining is convenient when programs are too large for memory and must be broken into smaller programs There are three ways to chain programs CHAINING PROGRAMS TOGETHER o CHAIN WITH SHARED VARIABLES GLOBAL or COMMON VARIABLES o CHAIN WITH INDEPENDENT VARIABLES o CHAIN WITH SOME VARIABLES COMMON AND OTHERS NOT 2 Macintosh CHAIN programs are limited to 28k See SEGMENT and SEGMENT RETURN in the appendix for instructions on using the Macintosh memory manager EXAMPLES OF CHAINING PROGRAMS WITH SHARED VARIABLES Programs that will share variables must have those variables defined in exactly the same order in all the programs being chained ZBasic allows common or shared variables to be DEFINED within DIM statements even if they are not arrays CLEAR or CLEAR END should always be used to clear variables that are not shared Examples STARTB DIM A 10 100A 100 2 F5 W99 OPEN I 1 PROG1 REM Always execute this program 1st RUN 1 REM This is just a starter program CHAIN1 CHAIN2 REM THIS IS PROG1 REM THIS IS PROG2 TRONB REM ENABLE lt BREAK gt KEY TRONB DIM A 10 100A 100 2 F5 W99 DIM A 10 100AS 100 2 F5 W99 CLEAR END CLEAR END TV 23 PR 4 ZZ 99 M
11. Using the command X INDEXF A X would return 2 to show that DON is in element 2 of INDEX To FIND CHR part of CHRIS you would use the command X INDEXF CHR X would return with the value of 1 since a match was found in the first three characters of CHRIS If you tried to FIND RIS X INDEXF RIS X would return with a value of 1 negative one since the FIND command begins the search at the first character of each element which MUST be significant C must be part of the search If the command had been INDEXF CHRIS 3 X would have equaled 1 since the search began at element 3 and CHRIS is at element 1 it would never find CHRIS ariables INDEX INDEX MEMORY REQUIREMENTS INDEX variable elements use memory only if there are characters stored in that element and only as much memory as needed to hold those characters plus one for length byte CLEAR nnnnn is used to allocate memory for INDEX CLEAR INDEX will clear nullify the present contents of INDEX INDEX LIMITATIONS INDEX may not be used with SWAP USES OF INDEX INDEX is a valuable tool for disk indices in memory data bases creating word processors holding lists of strings with varying lengths and much more INDEX is especially useful anytime unknown string elements lengths are needed USING INDEX FOR AN INSERTION SORT A good example of the power of INDEX is using it to create a perpetual sort It allows you to add
12. While ZBasic is capable of configuration to extremely high accuracy you should be aware that calculation time is in direct relation to the number of digits of accuracy The following chart will clarify the relationship of processing time to accuracy ACCURACY versus PERFORMANCE Math Relative Digits of Accuracy Function Speed 4 6 6 6 14 24 36 54 INTEGER Add Subtract 1 2 3 1 1 20 1 50 250 1 77 Multiply 3 1 7 1 25 3 10 5 8 1 33 Divide 12 1 6 1 25 1 75 3 0 1 33 SOR 50 1 5 1 4 2 50 5 75 13 0 SIN 70 1 5 1 4 2 50 5 75 13 0 See USR8 0 Cos 70 1 5 1 4 2 50 5 75 13 0 See USR9 0 TAN 150 1 5 1 4 2 50 52715 13 0 EXP 100 1 5 1 4 2 50 51D 13 0 LOG 65 1 5 1 4 2 50 5 15 13 0 ATN 80 1 5 1 4 2 50 51D 13 0 X n 140 1 5 1 4 2 50 5 1 S 13 0 X integer 30 1 2 1 67 2 19 540 Shift lt lt gt gt 2 3 4 b25 AL 75 AB 1 20 EXPLANATIONS OF HEADINGS Math Function The type of math function being timed Relative Speed All speeds are relative to ADD and SUBTRACT SQR takes 50 times longer than add and subtract The numbers also correspond to the approximate time in milliseconds it takes to perform 14 digit math ona Z80 at 4 MHZ Digits of accuracy The numbers under the digits are all relative to 14 digit accuracy Examples 54 digit divide takes 3 times longer than 14 digit 6 digit divide takes 1 7th the time of 14 digit multiply INTEGER Integer calculations are relative to 14 digit processing time I
13. and tomgiled alter you type AUN SOURCE CODE Tet igp te Gor fBasic Compiler Gnevating Syaian E T RUN filename The program text is saved to disk and compiled from the disk to memory and RUN Larger programs may be compiled this way because the program to be compiled RUN filename The program is compiled from memory or disk and the resulting machine language program is saved to disk The program is executed as a machine language program is not in memory the editor and debug any mistakes and re compile COMPLE AND AUH A PROGRAM A FROM DISK OBJECT CODE and Variables compile you type RUH frl enecwe fRaale Compiler Operating Sparanr When this program is executed the program text and ZBasic are no longer resident leaving more memory for the program RUN A COMPILED PROGRAM OBJECT CODE and Variables compiled atter you type R Lh See your Computer Appendix to determine actual memory usage 23 Running ZBasic Programs RUNNING ZBASIC PROGRAMS EEN lt BREAK gt ING OUT OF RUNNING PROGRAMS To make a program STOP when the lt BREAK gt key is pressed use TRON TRONS TRONB or TRONX TRONB Checks at the start of every line to see if the lt BREAK gt key has been pressed If pressed ZBasic returns control to DOS or to the Standard line editor if in interactive mode To disable TRONB use the TROFF command TRONS Single step trace CNTR Z to eng
14. last ratio 127 2 times normal 64 1 5 times normal 32 1 25 times normal 0 0 Normal proportion 32 15 times normal 64 5 times normal 96 25 times normal 128 0 no width or height E Quickdraw circles use box coordinates to set circle shape See toolbox section of appendix Graphics 92 GRAPHICS a BOX Box is used for drawing rectangles in the current color The size of a rectangle is specified by giving the coordinates of opposing corners BOX FILL h1 v1 TO h2 v2 h1 v2 The first corner coordinate of the BOX h2 v2 The opposite corner coordinate of the BOX The BOX is plotted in the current color If FILL is used the BOX will be filled with the current COLOR BOS FILL 845 94 TO gar ead Va As with all ZBasic graphic commands the device independent coordinates of 1024 x 768 are used Notice the different quality of BOXes on various computers and different modes 2 FILL is taken from PEN pattern PEN n Where n is one of the pen patterns used under the control panel Quickdraw boxes are also available using toolbox calls See appendix 93 Graphics FILL GRAPHICS ii zs FILL Horizontal expression Vertical expression The fill command will fill a screen position from upper left most position it can reach without finding a color other than the background color and down to the right and to the left until a non background color is found This command will not fu
15. 767 2 bytes SINGLE PRECISION 6 default 4 bytes DOUBLE PRECISION 14 default 8 bytes Since single and double precision may be configured by the user use this equation to calculate the disk space required if different than above Digits of precision 2 1 number of bytes per variable 2 Longlnteger has 9 2 digits and requires 4 bytes for storage To calculate the storage needs for Macintosh Double precision Digits 2 2 space required per variable INTEGER NUMBER CONVERSIONS For those programmers that want to control conversions these commands are available They are not required with READ and WRITE since these commands do it automatically X CVI simplestring Converts the first two bytes of simple string to integer X A MKI integer Converts an integer to a 2 byte string SINGLE AND DOUBLE PRECISION NUMBER CONVERSIONS For those programmers that want to control conversions these commands are available They are not required with READ and WRITE since these commands do it automatically X C VB simplestring Converts up to the first 8 bytes of simplestring to an uncond ensed double precision equivalent and stores the value in X If string length is less than eight characters only that many characters will be converted At least two bytes are needed A MKB X Converts a Double precision number to an 8 byte string X CVB simplestring Converts the first 4 bytes of simplestring into a single precision number
16. DEBUGGING TO FIND THE SOURCE OF CRASHES Should you encounter a situation where your program goes so far and then the system hangs up or you get a system error of some kind that you just can t locate there is a simple way to find the problem First put a TRONS and TRON in the program somewhere before the crash occurs The TRON is added so that you can see a listing of the line numbers as the program executes Press the space bar a statement at a time keeping track of the line numbers as they go by When the system crashes make a note of the line number where the crash occurred and fix the problem in your program Error Messages 30 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 31 Terms and Definitions TERMS AND DEFINITIONS EE eee eae TERMS AND DEFINITIONS use terms throughout this manual that may be unknown to you The following terms are used to make reading the technical information easier IMPORTANT NOTE The Hand is pointing out something of importance for that section Read it OPTIONAL Items enclosed in brackets are OPTIONAL You may or may not include that part of a command function or statement REPETITION Three periods ellipsis mean repetition when they appear after the second occurrence of something PUNCTUATION Any punctuation such as commas periods colons and semi colons included in definitions other than brackets or periods described above must be included as shown Any text in Courier font like this COURI
17. END UNTIL NAMES END CLOSE 1 END CLOSE 1 END Type END to finish inputting names for the WRITE program The READ program will READ the names until END is encountered FIXED STRING LENGTH WRITE This illustration shows how strings saved with set lengths appear in a disk file PILE MAGE CREATED WITH WRITES With SET STRING LENGTHS Condensed 2 hyde oe integer numbers a oo a miet PET Hiedi Sets 10 charade lor amh abing Ha airg te hike Bhan 10 characters iha apstol he sring piw mih mares The reason the ages 23 45 and 17 are not shown in the file boxes is because the numbers are stored in condensed format 2 byte integer 111 Sequential File Method SEQUENTIAL METHOD eee USING READ AND WRITE with VARIABLE LENGTH STRINGS READ and WRITE offer some benefits over PRINT and INPUT in that they will read and write strings with ANY ASCII characters This includes quotes commas carriage returns or any ASCII characters with a code in the range of 0 255 The following programs will save strings in condensed format using the amount of storage required for each string variable WRITE READ OPEN 0O 1 NAMES OPEN I 1 NAMES DO INPUT Name NAMES RE INPUT Age AGE DO READ 1 LBS 1 LBSCHRS LEN NAMES READ 1 AMES ASC LBS
18. INTEGER 2 147 483 647 DOUBLE PRECISION FLOATING POINT NUMBERS E 16 383 Important Note Some versions of ZBasic offer an optional high speed binary floating point option While the speed of binary math packages is superior the accuracy range and memory requirements of binary math are much different from the standard BCD math described above See the manual provided with the binary math package for details VARIABLE TYPE DECLARATION Variable names may be followed by a type symbol STRING VARIABLE INTEGER VARIABLE SINGLE PRECISION VARIABLE DOUBLE PRECISION VARIABLE If type is not given integer is assumed unless configured differently A A A A A 2 2 A 2 2 A 2 2 and A 2 2 are considered different variables Note A and A are the same variable if ZBasic is configured to Integer E Type declaration for Longlnteger is amp Variables 50 VARIABLES SS DEFINING VARIABLE TYPES If you want to define variables beginning with a specific letter to be a specific type use the DEF statement at the beginning of a program DEFSTR A M Z Defines all variables starting with A thru M and Z as string variables M and M are the same variable DEFSNG A C Defines all variables starting with A thru C as single precision variables C and C are the same variable DEFDBL F W Defines all variables starting with F and W as Double precision variables F and F are the same DEFINT A G T W Defines all variables sta
19. LLIST LOAD MEM MERGE NEW QUIT RENUM RUN SAVE
20. READ 1 after the DO reads the data in Whenever read or write functions are executed ZBasic automatically positions the file pointer to the next position Mixing File Methods 120 DISK ERRORS 121 Disk Errors DISK ERRORS a eee ASIC If a disk error occurs while a program is running ZBasic will print a message something like this DISK ERROR MESSAGES File Not Found Error in File 02 C ontinue or S top If you type S ZBasic will stop execution of the program and return to the disk operating system or to the editor if you are in interactive mode If you press C ZBasic will ignore the disk error and continue with the program This could destroy disk data The following pages will describe how to TRAP disk errors and interpret disk errors which may occur END OF FILE CHECKING Some versions do not have and END OF FILE command because some operating systems do not have this capability Example of END OF FILE checking for some versions ON ERROR GOSUB 65535 REM Set for User Error trapping OPEN 1 DEMO IF ERROR PRINT ERRMSG ERROR STOP DO LINEINPUTH1 A UNTIL ERROR lt gt 0 IF ERROR gt lt 257 THEN PRINT ERRMSG ERROR STOP REM 257 EOF Error in filenumber 1 See error messages ERROR 0 REM You MUST reset the ERROR flag ON ERROR RETURN REM Give error checking back to ZBasic CLOSE 1 Note Many versions have an EOF function See your appendix for details
21. Zbasic runs on so many different products this manual makes reference to many manufacturers and products that are trademarks of their respective owners We acknowledge these companies and thank those that have been so helpful in making Zbasic a success Zbasic is a trademark of Zedcor Inc Apple GS e Il c Macintosh Plus MAC XL LISA and Macintosh are registered or licensed trademarks of Apple Computer IBM PC IBM PCjr IBM PC XT PC AT and PC DOS are registered trademarks of International Business Machines Corporation MSBASIC MS Xenix and MS DOS are registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation CP M is a registered trademark of Digital Research Turbo Pascal is a registered trademark of Borland International TRS 80 Radio Shack Tandy 2000 Tandy and Tandy 1000 1200 3000 are registered trademarks of Tandy Corporation Kaypro II 4 10 16 and 2861 are registered trademarks of Kaypro Corporation Amiga Commodore 64 and 128 are trademarks of Commodore International Franklin Ace 1000 is a trademark of Franklin Corporation Osborne is a trademark of Osborne Corporation Compaq and Deskpro are trademarks of Compaq Computers Panasonic Senior and Executive Partners are trademarks of Panasonic Industrial Corporation Data General One is a trademark of Data General Corporation Quadram is a trademark of Quadram Corporation VAX is a trademark of Digital Equipment Corporation Unix is a trademark of AT amp T Corporation We apologize
22. a program using ZBasic First LOAD ZBasic according to the instructions for your computer above or in your computer appendix Some versions require that you press lt E gt to enter the editor If a prompt appears asking for input press lt E gt See CONFIGURE for more information about the options being offered z Macintosh users note that the following lessons are done in the COMMAND window Getting Started 8 GETTING STARTED es LESSON ONE TYPING IN A SIMPLE PROGRAM When you see the message ZBasic Ready you may begin entering programs So we may demonstrate the simplicity of ZBasic please type in the following program exactly as shown Always type COMMANDS in UPPERCASE and remember to press lt ENTER gt or lt RETURN gt at the end of each line 10 FOR Count 1 to 10 20 PRINT Hi I m ZBasic 30 NEXT Count Congratulations you ve just entered your first ZBasic program To see a listing of the program type LIST lt ENTERs To find out more about entering and editing programs see STANDARD LINE EDITOR Also see your computer appendix for information about using a full screen editor if your version has one LESSON TWO RUNNING THE PROGRAM To run the program you just entered type RUN The program will print the message Hi I m ZBasic ten times ZBasic actually compiles the program but does it so fast that you ll barely notice When the program is finished you re back in the edi
23. and Spaces MERGE MYPROG Merges program MYPROG MERGE MYPROG Merges ASCII program strips REM s and Spaces APPEND 2000 MYSUB Loads non line ASCII subroutine MYSUB to line 2000 APPEND 50 SORT Loads SORT to line 50 in increments of 1 strips all REM s and Spaces from the routine NOTE Only non line numbered ASCII programs may be APPENDED SAVE Only line numbered programs may be merged SAVE or SAVE When LOAD ing programs without line numbers ZBasic assumes the end of line is terminated with lt CR gt lt CRLF gt or 250 characters whichever comes first Lines are assigned line numbers starting with one in increments of one FILE DIRECTORY OR CATALOG To see the names of files on the current storage device type DIR Examples MS DOS also see PATH and CHDIR Apple DOS 3 3 andCP M DIR Lists all the files on the present drive DIR B Lists the files on drive B DIR A Lists all the files on drive A DIR C Lists all the files on drive C NOTE The Apple DOS 3 3 version of ZBasic uses A B C for drive specs instead of D1 D2 APPLE ProDOS also see PATH DIR Lists all files in current directory DIR FRED Lists all files in subdirectory FRED DIR FRED TOM Lists all files in subdirectory TOM TRSDOS DIR O Lists the files on drive zero DIR 2 Lists the files on drive two DIR 1 Lists the files on drive one Macintosh also see FILES DIR HD30 Fred Lists files in folder called Fred on root directory ca
24. and stores the value in X If string length is less than eight characters only that many characters will be converted At least two bytes are needed A MKB X Converts a single precision number to a 4 byte string Note The number of bytes of string space in the conversions depends on the precision set by the user Use the equation above for calculating the space requirements ZBasic assumes 8 bytes for double precision and 4 bytes for single precision if the user does not set precision E To manipulate LongIntegers with MKI CVI use DEFSTR LONG See Macintosh appendix Sequential File Method 110 SEQUENTIAL METHOD es SEQUENTIAL FILE METHOD USING READ AND WRITE The following programs illustrate how to use READ and WRITE using the sequential file method USING READ AND WRITE WITH SET LENGTH STRINGS The programs below create and read back a file with the sequential method using READ and WRITE String length is set to 10 characters by the 10 following NAME ZBasic adds spaces to a string to make it 10 characters in length then saves it to the disk AGE is assumed to be an integer number since it was not defined and is stored in condensed integer format WRITE READ OPEN 0 1 NAMES OPEN I 1 NAMES DO INPUT Name NAMES DO READ 1 NAMES 10 AGE INPUT Age AGE PRINT NAMES AGE WRITE 1 NAME 10 AGE AS LEFTS NAMES 3 UNTIL NAMES
25. branch off to the other program CLEARING NON SHARED VARIABLES WHEN CHAINING Always use CLEAR END to clear variables that are not common between the programs All variables that follow a CLEAR END will be unique to that program and will start out as null values 1 2 10 DIM 200A 100 65B 300 10 DIM 200A 100 65B 300 20 CLEAR END 20 CLEAR END 30 DIM FR 900 30 A9 10 Z 33 In the above examples the array variables A and B are shared and will contain the same values while all other variables in the program following the CLEAR END statement will be null or zero and unique to that program FR n is unique to program 1 and A9 and Z are unique to program 2 This statement may be used in non chained programs as well It is a handy way to null or zero out selected variables the variables still exist they are just set to zero or null CHAINING PROGRAMS WITHOUT SHARING VARIABLES This is done exactly as the same as the previous examples for shared variables except CLEAR is used on the first line of each chained program In the example programs CHAIN1 and CHAIN2 add a line 3 CLEAR Variables are not shared and CLEAR clears all variables sets them to zero or null each time a program is entered or chained To selectively share some variables and not others use the CLEAR END statement described on the previous page and in the reference section 27 Chaining ERRORS E ASIC There are different types of
26. error messages When errors are encountered during compilation compiling is stopped and the offending line is displayed This is a Compile Time error Errors encountered during execution of a program are called Runtime Errors ERRORS COMPILE TIME ERRORS After typing RUN ZBASIC compiles the program If errors are encountered ZBASIC will stop compiling and display the error on the screen along with the offending line when compiling form disk using RUN Filename or RUN ZBasic will stop compiling load the Source Code and LIST the line where the error occurred The Statement within the line and the line number will be displayed The following program would cause ZBASIC to print an error during compile 00010 CLS 00020 PRINT HELLO THERE MR COMPUTER USER 00030 PRINT I AM A COMPUTER 00040 Z Z 1 X X Z PWINTX RUN Syntax Error in Stmt 03 at Line 00040 00040 Z Z 1 X X Z PWINT X NOTE The error will be marked in some way depending on the computer system being used The error marker indicates the general error location on the line where compilation stopped To edit line 40 above type EDIT 40 or just comma Fix the spelling of PRINT ZBasic will often display the missing character it expected 00010 INPUT Enter a number AS RUN expected error in Stmt 01 at line 00010 00010 INPUT Enter a number _AS 0010 DIM A 10 10 0020 A X 100 RUN expected error in Stmt 0
27. for any unintentional omissions Zedcor Incorporated reserves the right to make changes to the specifications of Zbasic and to the Zbasic documentation without obligation to notify any persons or organization of such changes ZEDCOR INC 4500 East Speedway Blvd Suite 22 Tucson Arizona 85712 5305 602 795 3996 602 881 8101 Orders 800 482 4567 TABLE OF CONTENTS SSS eee eee Introduction 5 Getting Started 7 Configuration 11 Standard Line Editor 14 Adding Inserting and Deleting Lines 14 The Line Editor 15 Renumber Calculator SAVE LOAD DIRectory 18 Running Zbasic Programs 22 RUN RUN RUN 23 Breaking Out of Executing Programs 24 Chaining Programs 26 Compile and Runtime Errors 28 Terms and Definitions 32 Math 36 Operators 36 Expression Evaluation types 37 Other Math Functions 40 Derived Math Functions 41 Order of Precedence 42 Conditional and Logical Operators 44 Numeric Conversions 46 Constants 48 Variables 50 Integer Variables 53 Floating Point Variables REAL 54 Configuring Accuracy 57 String Variables 61 Defining String Lengths with DIM and DEFLEN 64 INDEX 67 Arrays 72 Shell and Quick Sort examples 76 Graphics 110 Table of Contents 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS ae eae Files 98 Terms 100 File Structure 106 Sequential Method 108 Random Method 115 Mixing File Methods 120 Disk Errors 122 Screen and Printer 126 Keyboard Input 130 Loops FOR NEXT WHILE WEND DO UNTIL 135 Functions and Subroutines 14
28. integer with the DEFINT statement followed by a list of characters For example DEFINT A G defines all variables starting with A B C G to be integer G and G would be the same in this case To force a specific variable to be integer even if that letter type has been DEF ined differently follow a variable with TEST A and F9 are integer variables INTEGER OVERFLOW RESULTS If a program calculation in an integer expression exceeds the range of an integer number ZBasic will return the overflowed integer remainder of that calculation The result will be incorrect ZBasic does not return an Integer Overflow Error Check program logic to insure results of an operation remain within integer range HOW INTEGER VARIABLES ARE STORED IN MEMORY Integer variables and integer array elements require two bytes of memory To find the address location in memory of an integer variable ADDRESS VARPTR IINTEGER VARIABLE SUBSCRIPT SUBSCRIPT O ADDRESS2 ADDRESS 1 The value of INTEGER VARIABLE is calculated using this equation INTEGER VARIABLE VALUE OF ADDRESS2 256 VALUE OF ADDRESS 2 Requires four bytes for Longinteger The MSB and LSB are stored in reverse order with regular integers See the Macintosh appendix for more information 53 Variables VARIABLES eee FLOATING POINT BCD VARIABLES There are three floating point precisions that may be configured by the programmer to return accuracy up to 54 signif
29. is superior the accuracy range and memory requirements of binary math are much different from the standard BCD math described above See the manual provided with the binary math package for details STRING CONSTANTS String constants are alphanumeric information enclosed in double quotes with the number of characters limited by line length 255 characters maximum This is a string of characters 12345 etc Hello there Fred Any character except quotes may be included between the quotes To include quotes in string constants use CHR 34 PRINT CHR 34 HELLO CHR 34 would print HELLO To conserve memory when using many string constants see PSTR MEMORY REQUIRED FOR STRING CONSTANTS One byte plus the number of characters including spaces within the string constant See PSTR for ways of conserving memory with string constants 49 Constants VARIABLES ee a O l ASIC The word VARIABLE describes the label used to represent alterable values ZBasic differentiates between four types of variables VARIABLES VARIABLE TYPE TYPE OF STORAGE RANGE STRING ALPHANUMERIC 0 TO 255 CHARACTERS INTEGER INTEGER NUMBERS 32 767 SINGLE PRECISION FLOATING POINT NUMBERS E 63 DOUBLE PRECISION FLOATING POINT NUMBERS E 63 E In addition to the variable types described above this version also supports LongInteger and an extended double precision range single precision is the same as above LONG INTEGER FOUR BYTE
30. middle of screen INPUT 0 0 upper left corner of screen INPUT 0 767 lower left corner of screen 2 Although all parameters above function properly EDIT FIELD MENU or BUTTON are preferable for getting user input See appendix TYPICAL VIDEO CHARACTER LAYOUTS Here are some of the typical character layouts for a few of the more popular computers COMPUTER Columns across Rows down IBM PC and compatible 80 or 40 25 APPLE series 80 or 40 24 TRS 80 Model III 64 or 32 16 TRS 80 Model 4 4p 80 or 40 24 CP M 80 computers 80 24 Macintosh Almost anything See appendix 133 Keyboard Input INKEY KEYBOARD INPUT Unlike INPUT which must WAIT for characters INKEY can receive characters from the keyboard on the fly When INKEY is encountered in a program the keyboard buffer is checked to see if a key has been pressed For computers with no buffer the keyboard is checked when the command is encountered If a key is pressed INKEY returns the key If no key has been pressed INKEY returns a null string Examples I INKEY When the program reaches the line with this command on it ZBasic checks to see if a character is in the input buffer If a key has been pressed it will be returned in I Otherwise I will contain nothing I will equal or LEN I zero IF INKEY S STOP If the capital S key is pressed the program will stop Sometimes more appropriate than using TRONB or TRONX for debugg
31. of this record would be N since zero is significant RECORD 3 23 Sets the pointer for file 3 to location zero in RECORD 23 If RECORD 23 contained JOHN the character being pointed at would be J RECORD IS OPTIONAL If the RECORD statement is not used in a program the pointer will have a starting position of RECORD 0 LOCATION 0 and is automatically incremented to the next position for reading or writing depending on the length of the data FILE SIZE LIMITATIONS The file size limitations for sequential files are either the physical limitations of the storage device or the limit of the Disk Operating system for that computer The limitation for Random access files is 65 536 records with each record containing up to 65 536 characters Maximum file length is 4 294 967 296 characters although multiple files may be linked to create larger files It is important to note that most Disk Operating Systems do not have this capability Check your DOS manual for maximum file sizes and limitations Z Macintosh RECORD length and number of records is 2 147 483 647 CONFIGURING THE NUMBER OF FILES IN A ZBASIC PROGRAM If the number of files is not configured ZBasic assumes only 2 files will be used and sets aside only enough memory for two files To use more than 2 files configure ZBasic for the number of files you need under Configure ZBasic allows the user to configure up to 99 disk files for use in a program at one time me
32. routine This comes in very handy for creating reusable subroutines that you can insert or APPEND to other programs LONG FN is similar to DEF FN except that the function being defined may be many lines long Use END FN to end the LONG FN subroutine WARNING Do not exit a LONG FN except at END FN otherwise system errors may result Example of LONG FN to remove trailing spaces from a string LONG FN Remove trailing spaces from a string WHILE ASC RIGHTS x 1 32 x LEFT x LEN xS 1 WEND END FN x Name ANDY H PRINT X FN RemoveSpace Name zS FN RemoveSpace fred Example of a LONG FN for doing a simple matrix multiplication DIM A 1000 LONG FN MatrixMult number last FOR temp 0 to last AS temp A temp number NEXT END FN A 0 1 A 1 2 A 2 3 FN MatrixMult 10 3 PRINT A 0 A 1 A 2 SYNTAX OF DEF FN AND LONG FN NAMES FN names have the same syntax as variable names A function that returns a string value should end with a A function that returns a double precision value should end with a AUTOMATIC INDENTATION ZBasic automatically indents that code between a LONG FN and END FN so programs are easier to read SAVING FUNCTIONS FOR USE IN OTHER PROGRAMS To save DEF FN S or LONG FN s or any subroutine for future use use SAVE This saves the subroutine without line numbers so it may be used in other programs by loading with the APPEND command be s
33. show how to make an entire array ARRAY 50 or ARRAY 50 5 equal to a certain value This would be convenient if you wanted to zero out an array or have all the elements start the same values One Dimension array ASSIGNMENT routine DIM ARRAY 50 FOR X 0 TO 50 ARRAY X VALUE NEXT Two Dimension array ASSIGNMENT routine DIM ARRAY 50 5 FOR X 0 TO 50 FOR X2 0 TO 5 ARRAY X X2 VALUE NEXT X2 NEXT X 75 Array Variables ARRAY VARIABLES SS USING ARRAYS FOR SORTING Arrays are also very convenient for organizing large lists of data alphabetically or numerically in ascending or descending order The first program below creates random data to sort This program is for example purposes only and should not be included in your programs These programs are included on your master disk Follow the GOSUB with the label of the sort routine you wish to use either QUICK SORT or SHELL SORT Any line numbers may be used These sort routines may be copied and saved to disk using SAVE or as a subroutine to be loaded with APPEND See APPEND SORT BAS FILL ARRAY WITH RANDOM DATA FOR SORTING DIM SA 500 ST 30 1 REM ST 30 1 FOR QUICK SORT ONLY NI 500 REM Change DIM 500 and NI if sort larger FOR X 0TO NI SA X RND 1000 RE Stores random numbers for sorting NEXT PRINT Start Time TIMES GOSUB QUICK SORT REM Or SHELL SORT PRINT Finish Time
34. syntax is CALL address Be sure the routine being called has a RETURN as the last statement if you wish to return control to your program If you wish to CALL a machine language subroutine in your program that was made with MACHLG use CALL LINE fine number or label 5 These versions have additional parameter passing capabilities See appropriate appendix under CALL for specifics Z The ProDOS version provides a special interface to the ProDOS Machine Language Interface MLI See appendix for specifics DEF USR 0 9 Allows you to set up to 10 different machine language user routines The syntax for using this statement is DEFUSR digit address This command may be used to pass parameters or registers See your computer appendix for the specifics about your computer There are also default routines See USR in the reference section INTEGER BASE CONVERSIONS ZBasic makes integer BASE conversions simple Some of the commands for converting between BASED BIN amp X UNS HEX amp H or amp OCT amp O See Numeric Conversions for specifics E See DEFSTR LONG for configuring conversions above for LongInteger and also CVI and MKI 145 Machine Language Support MACHINE LANGUAGE SUPPORT OTHER MACHINE LANGUAGE COMMANDS Other tools for machine language programmers include powerful PEEK and POKE statements that can work with 8 16 or 32 bit numbers and BOOLEAN MATH PEEK POKE In addition
35. that will take an un line numbered subroutine and insert it anywhere in an existing program The syntax for the command is APPEND line number or label filespec To save a subroutine or program without line numbers use the SAVE command MERGE is available for merging subroutines or programs with line numbers into an existing program Zbasic incorporates the DEF FN and FN statements similar to many other BASIC languages This is very handy for creating functions that may be used like commands in a program A function is given a name and may be called and passed variables FN s save program space Note that functions may utilize other functions within definitions and program code Examples of using DEF FN to create Derived Math functions DEF FN e EXP 1 DEF FN Pi ATN 1 lt lt 2 DEF FN SEC X 1 COS X DEF FN ArcSin X ATN X SQR 1 X X DEF FN ArcCos X ATN 1 2 FN ArcSin X Examples of program use PRINT FN Pi Angle SIN FN ArcSin I PRINT FN ArcCos G Note Be sure to define the function at the beginning of the program before attempting to use it otherwise an UN DEF error will result at compile time Functions and Subroutines 140 FUNCTIONS AND SUBROUTINES BESEER LONG FN Included is a sophisticated and powerful multiple line function called LONG FN LONG FN allows you to create multi line functions as large as a subroutine and allows you to pass variables to the
36. to Read Balance Old_Principle Interest ZBasic allows variable name lengths up to the length of a line but only the first 15 characters in the name are significant Do not use spaces or symbols to separate words in a name use underlines Building_Principle Freds_House Keywords may not be used in variable names unless they are in lowercase and Convert to Uppercase is NO this is the default Also see next paragraph INCLUDING KEYWORDS IN VARIABLES To allow keyword in variables configure ZBasic for Spaces Required after Keywords not available on all systems See Configure HOW CASE AFFECTS VARIABLE NAMES To make the variable FRED and fred the same variable configure ZBasic for Convert to Uppercase See Configure GLOBAL VERSUS LOCAL VARIABLES Programmers familiar with LOCAL variables in PASCAL and some other languages can structure their variable names to approximate this in ZBasic all ZBasic variables are global GLOBAL variables should start with a capital letter LOCAL variables should start with lowercase Many programmers also use and re use variables like temp or local for local variables Structure 150 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING eee eee DEFINING FUNCTIONS Use DEF FN or LONG FN to define functions and then call that function by name This is easy reading for people trying to decipher your programs It saves program space as well FN names have the same defi
37. writing Zbasic for eight years now and am very proud of what we ve accomplished It hasn t been easy but it s sure been fun How many times does a complex product like ZBasic ever make it to market Over the years have received thousands of suggestions from programmers I ve tried to implement as many of these suggestions as could still need your feedback and comments so can make ZBasic the most powerful programming tool available Send your suggestions to the ZBasic Wish List Department or to my attention Special thanks to my wife Janis for putting up with my programming late into the night and to the many ZBasic users that have taken the time to send letters of encouragement Andrew R Gariepy April 1997 5 Introduction INTRODUCTION ZBasic has come a long way since it was introduced in 1985 Many thousands of copies on many different computers have been distributed all over the planet We have accomplished what we set out out to do to provide a powerful fast interactive simple to use inexpensive BASIC compiler that works the same way on many different computers so you only have to learn a language once I ve worked hard to make the manual simple to follow and easy to understand highly recommend that you subscribe to the ZBasic newsletter Z It covers all sorts of topics about ZBasic and has listings for public domain ZBasic subroutines on diskette you can get cheap It s jammed with hi
38. your programs lt C gt onfigure Typing C allows you to configure certain parts of ZBasic Note that in most cases you will not have to change parameters See next page for options lt S gt ave Typing S allows you to save ZBasic with the configuration defaults set to your options This way you don t have to reconfigure ZBasic every time you load it lt P gt atch Type P allows you to make patches to ZBasic If we make minor changes you won t have to return you disk to us for an upgrade Not available on all versions Configuration 12 CONFIGURATION a ool CHANGING CONFIGURATION It is simple to change configurations If the default value is not to your liking simply type in the value you want Press lt ENTER3 gt to skip inputs Press lt BREAK gt or lt CNTR C gt to go back to the main menu STANDARD CONFIGURE QUESTIONS HEX Decimal INPUT 1 Double Precision Accuracy 6 54 000E 00014 ce 2 Single Precision Accuracy 2 52 0006 00006 Pr 3 Scientific Precision 2 Double Prec 0006 00006 2 4 Maximum File Buffers Open 0 99 0002 00002 PR 5 Array Base Oori 0000 00000 2 6 Rounding Number 0 99 0031 00049 P 7 Default Variable Type lt S gt ingle lt D gt ouble lt l gt nteger I a 8 Test Array Bounds lt Y N gt N an 9 Convert to uppercase lt Y N gt N Ta 10 Optimize expressions as Integer Y N Y N 2 11 Space required after Keywords Y N Not all versions DEFINITIONS OF THE STANDARD CONFIGURE QUES
39. 0 DEF FN 140 LONG FN 141 Machine Language 143 Program Structure 147 Debugging Tools 153 Porting Programs 156 Converting Old Programs 161 Keywords 168 Glossary 170 The reference section contains a complete alphabetical list of all Standard ZBasic commands statements functions and operators with cross reference to other commands and sections of the manual Also see the appropriate appendix for special commands or enhancements for a particular computer model 3 Table of Contents TABLE OF CONTENTS SSESESEsR eT eS Computer Appendices VERSION NOTES Throughout this manual are notes to different versions of ZBasic An Icon representing the various computer type is used Remember the icon for your computer type If you see the icon in the standard reference manual a note will follow it describing something of importance for that version MSDOS IBM r PC MSDOS tm PC DOS tm and compatibles A Z80 Z80 tm TRS 80 tm Model 1 3 and 4 and CP M tm 80 B Apple DOS 3 3 Apple ProDOS B Apple r Ile IIc Laser 128 tm and GS DOS 3 3 C Apple r Il e c Laser 128 tm and GS ProDOS D Macintosh 2 Macintosh tm Macintosh Plus tm MAC XL tm Macintosh SE tm Macintosh II tm and LISA tm with Macworks tm E INDEX END Table of Contents 4 INTRODUCTION As the original developer of ZBasic and the head of the programming team want to thank you for your support I ve been involved in
40. 08 VAR 0 0 2 00032 00004 00008 00016 VAR 0 1 0 00048 00006 00012 00024 VAR 0 1 1 00064 00008 00016 00032 VAR 0 1 2 00080 00010 00020 00040 VAR 0 2 0 00096 00012 00024 00048 VAR 0 2 1 00112 00014 00028 00056 VAR 0 2 2 00128 00016 00032 00064 VAR 1 0 0 00144 00018 00036 00072 VAR 1 0 1 00160 00020 00040 00080 VAR 1 0 2 00176 00022 00044 00088 VAR 1 1 0 00192 00024 00048 00096 VAR 1 1 1 00208 00026 00052 00104 VAR 1 1 2 00224 00028 00056 00112 VAR 1 2 0 00240 00030 00060 00120 VAR 1 2 1 00256 00032 00064 00128 VAR 1 2 2 00272 00034 00070 00136 Length byte adds one extra byte in front of each string element Note Arrays are limited to 32 768 0 32 767 elements 2 Longlnteger arrays are also supported Each element takes four bytes Macintosh is limited to 2 147 483 647 elements E MSDOS version 4 0 has a limit of 32 768 0 32 767 elements for integer arrays and a limit of 65 536 0 65535 for string and floating point arrays Array Variables 7 8 GRAPHICS 79 Graphics GRAPHICS GRAPHICS ASIC Graphics are an extremely important way of communicating ideas The old adage A picture is worth a thousand words is very true ZBasic offers many powerful screen imaging commands and functions to take advantage of your computer s graphics capabilities In addition to having powerful graphic commands ZBasic defaults to utilizing the same graphic coordinates regardless of the system you happen to
41. 1 at line 00020 00020 A X_ Error Messages 28 ERRORS COMPILE TIME ERROR MESSAGES A compile time error is one that ZBasic encounters after you type RUN while it is compiling your program More often than not the error is a syntax error Edit the line to fix the error an type RUN again until all the errors have been deleted COMPILE TIME ERROR MESSAGE DIM Error in Stmt No DIM Error in Overflow Error in Syntax Error in Too Complex Error Re DEF Error Variable Error in Out of Memory Error in Line Error in Mismatch error in Structure Error in Structure Error in 65535 2 Expected error in DEFINITIONS and POSSIBLE REMEDIES Only constants may be used in DIM statements DIM A X or Z A 4 are not allowed If you have a need to erase and reuse dynamic staring arrays see INDEX CLEAR INDEX MEM Array variable being used was not Dimmed Make sure variable is Dimmed correctly Most interpreters allow ten elements of an array before and DIM is required A compiler requires a DIM for every array DEF LEN or DIM string length is less than one or greater than 255 Also if CLEAR zero or CLEAR is too large Check an d adjust range Anything ZBasic does not understand Check for spelling formatting errors and syntax The offending part of the line is often highlighted String function is too complex to compile Break up complex strings An FN or LONG
42. 1 or 2 for serial ports 2 ROUTE to filenumber or serial port number that was opened all screen PRINT statements will be routed to the device specified 3 ROUTE 0 so output goes back to the video 4 Close the file or port using CLOSE n Be sure to see your computer appendix for specifics 103 Files FILES E READING FROM A FILE USING INPUT LINEINPUT AND READ INPUT INPUT filenumber variable variable INPUT is used to read text data from files normally created with PRINT The data must be read back in the same format as it was sent with PRINT When using PRINT be sure to separate data items with quoted comma or carriage return delimiters otherwise data may be read incorrectly or out of sequence Example INPUT 1 A C Z X Inputs values from filenumber one from the current RECORD and LOCATION pointer into A C Z and X In this example the data is input which was created using the PRINT example on the previous page The file pointer will be pointing to the next location after X LINEINPUT READ LINEINPUT filenumber variable One variable only LINEINPUT is used primarily for reading text files without the code limitations of INPUT Commas quotes and other many other ASCII characters are read without breaking up the line It will accept all ASCII codes accept carriage returns or linefeeds TEXT is read until a carriage return or linefeed is encountered or 255 characters whichever c
43. 63 Constants may be expressed in scientific notation and or up to 54 digits of significant accuracy Floating point constants are significant up to the double precision accuracy set by the user If the number of digits is greater than the accuracy of double precision it will be rounded to that precision If the double precision default of 14 digits is assumed a constant of 1234567890 123456 will be rounded to 1234567890 12345 Constants may be forced as double or single precision by including a decimal point in the constant or by using for double precision or for single precision MEMORY REQUIRED FOR FLOATING POINT CONSTANTS ZBasic will store floating point constants in Binary Coded Decimal format See Floating point variables memory requirements This is based on the actual memory requirement of each constant with a minimum memory requirement of 3 bytes per constant To calculate the memory requirements of a specific constant use the formula NUMBER of DIGITS in the constant 2 1 Bytes needed Minimum of 3 bytes required per Floating point constant E the range of Double precision constants is E 16 383 single precision remains the same for compatibility To calculate the memory required use the following equation Number of Digits 2 2 bytes needed single precision is the same as above Important Note Some versions of ZBasic offer an optional high speed binary floating point option While the speed of binary math packages
44. A 1 1 at 2 1 a 3 1 aoa jawn fara acs This array was DIM med A 3 3 A 1 3 represents the cell underlined above Accessing a cell only requires giving the correct coordinate after the variable name Variables constants or expressions may be used in specifying coordinates A 3 2 A X Y A 2 X A X 2 3 2 Y BASE OPTION Zero is considered an element unless you set the BASE OPTION to one when configuring ZBasic See Configure for more information about setting the Base option The default BASE is zero DEFINING THE DIMENSIONS OF AN ARRAY All variable arrays MUST be DIMensioned at the beginning of a program When you RUN a program memory is set aside for the array based on the number of elements you have DIMensioned An example of DIM DIM A 10 10 10 A 5 A 9 7 BS 10 5Cool S 20 Only numbers may be used within DIM statement parentheses The following DIM expressions are Illegal DIM A X A 2 X A FR 73 Array Variables ARRAY VARIABLES Se HOW ARRAYS USE MEMORY The following chart shows how to calculate the memory requirements of the arrays DIMensioned above with a BASE OPTION of zero default value Bytes per How to Memory ARRAY Type Element Calculate Required A 10 10 10 INTEGER 2 11 11 11 2 2662 Bytes A 5 DOUBLE PREC 8 6 8 48 Bytes A 9 7 SINGLE PREC 4 10 8 4 320 Bytes B 10 STRING 256 11 256 2816 Bytes Cool 20 STRING 6 21 6 126 Note If you use a BASE OPTION of ONE y
45. AN EXAMPLE OF ADDING A LINE 00010 THIS IS AN EXAMP_ CHANGE CHARACTER UNDER CURSOR n lt C gt To change the character under the cursor press lt C gt followed by the new character To change five characters press the lt 5 gt key first the lt C gt key then the five keys to replace the old characters ABORT UNDO CHANGES lt A gt To undo changes press the lt A gt key All changes additions and deletions will be aborted DELETE CHARACTERS n lt D gt To delete characters in a line use the lt D gt key Pressing lt D gt will delete the character under the cursor To delete five characters press lt D gt 5 times or press the lt 5 gt key and the lt D gt key ESCAPE PRESENT MODE lt ESC gt To escape from INSERT SEARCH CHANGE EXTEND or KILL modes press lt ESC gt DELETE UP TO A SPECIFIC CHARACTER n lt K gt To delete or KILL a range of characters from the cursor to a specified character use the lt K gt key INSERT CHARACTERS lt I gt To insert text in a line position the cursor where insertion is desired Press the lt l gt key Type in text or lt BACKSP gt to erase text Almost any key may be typed except lt ESC gt lt ENTER gt or lt BREAK gt lt ESC gt ape exits the INSERT mode DELETE TO END OF LINE lt H gt To delete all the characters from the cursor position to the end of the line press the lt H gt key Hacks off the remainder of the line MOVE TO END OF LINE AND ADD lt X gt To m
46. ATION IS EXPRESSED Constants and variables will be expressed in scientific notation when the value is less than 01 or exceeds 10 digits to the left of the decimal point You can force ZBasic to print all significant digits in regular notation with PRINT USING See PRINT USING in the Reference Section of this manual RANGE OF ZBASIC FLOATING POINT VARIABLES The range of floating point numbers regardless of the accuracy configured is 1E 64 to 9 9E 63 The digits of accuracy are 14 digits for double and 6 digits for single this is the default for most systems and may be set by the user 2 Double Precision exponent may range from E 16 384 to E 16 383 Single Precision exponent is the same for compatibility with 8 and 16 bit machines 55 Variables VARIABLES a OVERFLOW RESULTS If an expression results in a number greater then 9 999E 63 a result of 9 999E 63 will be returned If the number is less then 1 0E 64 the result will be zero ZBasic will not give an overflow or underflow error Check program logic so that numbers do not exceed floating point range BCD FLOATING POINT SPEED To obtain maximum speed out of BCD floating point math be sure to configure the digits of accuracy to DOUBLE PRECISION 6 SINGLE PRECISION 4 SCIENTIFIC PRECISION 4 Normally these settings are fine at 14 and 6 digits The should only be changed when speed is extremely important Converting equations to integer will greatly incre
47. BASIC You will have to make some changes to your old programs if you wish to convert them to ZBasic If file and graphic handling are not used conversion will normally be very simple If files or graphics are used the conversion will take a little more thinking The following pages will give you important insights into making the conversion process as easy as possible The following pages will give you some ideas about converting your older BASIC programs Following the paragraphs step by step will make conversion much easier SAVE YOUR OLD BASIC PROGRAM AS ASCII OR TEXT Save your old BASIC program in ASCII or TEXT format so it can be loaded into ZBasic ZBasic tokens are different from other BASIC tokens so loading them without first converting them to ASCII will make programs loaded look like random control codes or the wrong commands if the program will load at all See the owners manual for the older BASIC to determine how to save in ASCII or TEXT format for your computer The typical syntax is SAVE filename A Note When upgrading to newer versions of ZBasic programs may have to be saved in ASCII in the older version before loading into the newer version since tokens may have changed Converting old Programs 16 2 CONVERTING OLD PROGRAMS ee i CONFIGURING ZBASIC TO MAKE CONVERSIONS A LOT EASIER ZBasic has been configured to give you maximum performance When converting older BASIC programs this can be a problem
48. Basic s STANDARD GRAPHIC COORDINATE SYSTEM CENTER SCREEN POSITION 512 384 1023 767 Device independent graphics means the coordinate syntax is the same regardless of the device or type of graphics being used The ZBasic approach to graphics makes commands function the same way EVEN ON DIFFERENT COMPUTERS ZBasic handles all the transformations needed to match up the ZBasic coordinates to the actual resolution of the computer This is an ideal way of handling graphics in a standardized way 2 Anm On the Macintosh the standard coordinates apply to the current window not to the screen Macintosh and MSDOS versions of ZBasic have the extra commands COORDINATE and COORDINATE WINDOW which allow you to set relative coordinates of your own or pixel coordinates respectively See the Apple appendix for ways of configuring ZBasic to pixel coordinates Some Z80 See appendix for specifics 81 Graphics GRAPHICS SI SCREEN PIXEL versus SCREEN POSITION It is important to realize that ZBasic s standard coordinate system of 1024 x 768 has a direct relation to the screen NOT to the actual pixel resolution of the computer being used It is important not to confuse the pixel coordinate with the position coordinate How ZBasic and Pixel Coordinates May Overlap ZBasic Coordinates PLOTting any 7Haalc counsnate between 0 0 ened 37 wA pet Ube graphic pare d 0 08 A cExenpiter wit 258 2 256 pael rasoluton grapruca
49. Change LPRINT to PRINT if screen output preferred 0515 RECORD 1 0 READ 1 NR 0520 FOR X 1TO NR 1 DR X REM DR DISK RECORD 0530 GOSUB READ A MAIL LIST ITEM 0540 LPRINT FIRST_NAMES LAST NAMES 0550 LPRINT ADDRESSS 0560 LPRINT CITY STATE ZIP 0570 LPRINT AGES SPENT USING S FEH SPENT 0575 LPRINT IF FLAG 99 RETURN 0580 NEXT 0585 DELAY 3000 0590 RETURN Continued next page 117 Random Access File Method 0700 0704 0705 0710 0720 0730 0740 0750 0755 0760 0770 0780 0781 0782 1000 1001 1020 1030 1035 1040 1041 1042 1100 1101 1110 1120 1130 1135 1140 RANDOM METHOD E FIND m CLS RECORD 1 0 READ 1 NR IF NR 1 THEN PRINT No names to find DELAY 999 RETURN INPUT NAME TO FIND FS FS UCASES F FOR X 1 TO NR 1 DR X GOSUB READ A MAIL LIST ITEM TS UCASES LAST_NAME REM CASE must match IF INSTR 1 T F THEN FLAG 99 GOSUB 540 FLAG 0 NEXT INPUT LOOK FOR ANOTHER Y N A IFA Y THEN 700 ETURN READ A MAIL LIST ITEM REM This routine READS RECORD DR RECORD 1 DR READ 1 FIRST_NAMES 10 LAST_NAMES 18 ADDRESSS 35 READ 1 CITY 25 STATES 15 ZIP AGE SPENT RETURN WRITE A MAIL LIST ITEM REM This routine WRITES RECORD DR REM CALL WITH DR DISK RECORD NUMBER TO WRITE RECORD 1 DR WRITE 1 F
50. Disk Errors 122 DISK ERRORS ae ooooouUO Ol TRAPPING DISK ERRORS ZBasic provides three functions for disk error trapping ON ERROR GOSUB 65535 Gives complete error trapping control to the user User must check ERROR if ERROR lt gt 0 then a disk error has occurred and take corrective action if any disk errors occur Remember to set ERROR 0 after a disk error occurs ZBasic will not jump to a subroutine when the error occurs The 65535 is just a dummy number See the ON ERROR GOSUB line ON ERROR GOSUB line GOSUB to the line number or label specified whenever and wherever ZBasic encounters a disk error ON ERROR RETURN Gives error handling control back to ZBasic Disk error messages will be displayed if a disk error occurs When you are doing the ERROR trapping it is essential that ERROR be set to zero after an error is encountered as in line 45 and 1025 in the program example Failure to set ERROR 0 will cause additional disk errors DISK ERROR TRAPPING EXAMPLE The following program checks to see if a certain data file is there If disk error 259 occurs File Not Found error for file 1 a message is printed to insert the correct diskette 10 ON ERROR GOSUB CHECK DISK ERROR 15 REM Line above Jumps to line 1000 if any disk error occurs 20 OPEN I 1 TEST 30 IF ERROR 0 THEN 50 40 INPUT Insert Data diskette press lt ENTER gt AS 45 ERROR 0 RE You MUST reset E
51. EE eee For more control of the IF statement ZBasic provides LONG IF for improved readability and power LONG IF UNSTRUCTURED 10 IIFX ZTHENY 10 H G GtY F F RELSEGOSUB122 T T 1 STRUCTURED LONG IF X Z Y 10 H G G Y F F R XELSE GOSUB READ T T 1 END IF UNSTRUCTURED 10 FORI 3TO3 PRINT I 1 IF I gt THEN IF I gt 3 AND I lt 3 PRINT 1 gt 0 ELSEPRINT Inner If False GOTO 30 20 PRINT 1 lt 0 X 4 DO X X 1 PRINT X X UNTILX I1 30 NEXT I STRUCTURED FOR I 3 TO 3 PRINT I I1 LONG IF I gt 0 LONG IF I gt 3 AND I lt 3 PRINT I gt 0 XELSE PRINT Inner LONG IF false END IF XELSE PRINT I lt 0 X 4 DO X X 1 PRINT X X UNTIL X I END IF NEXT I Important Note Any loops enclosed in LONG IF structures must be completely contained with the LONG IF END IF construct z The Macintosh and IBM versions also support SELECT CASE a structured multi conditional LONG IF statement See appendices for syntax Structure 152 DEBUGGING TOOLS 153 Debugging Tools DEBUGGING TOOLS ee ASIC DEBUGGING TOOLS TRON TRONS TRONB To get programs running bug free in the shortest amount of time ZBasic has incorporated some powerful error catching tools Display program flow Turns on the line trace statement As the program is running ZBasic will display the line number where the pro
52. ER FONT TEXT means it is something for you to type in or a simulation of the way it will look on your screen like a program listing COMPUTER APPENDIX Refers to the appendix in the back of this manual ABOUT YOUR COMPUTER SPECIAL 32 The superscripted 32 means this command function or statement only works on 32 bit computers See you COMPUTER APPENDIX to see if your computer supports 32 bits In this edition of the manual it refers to the Macintosh computer only ABBREVIATIONS Frequently used line editor commands have convenient abbreviations USE WITH lt ENTER gt USE WITHOUT lt ENTER gt PRINT comma EDIT present line DEL DELETE period LIST present line E EDIT slash LIST next 10 lines L LIST semi colon FIND next occurrence Terms and Definitions 32 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS a DIFFERENT KEY STROKES FOR DIFFERENT FOLKS Since ZBASIC operates on many different computers reference is made to the same keys throughout this manual MANUAL USES YOUR COMPUTER MAY USE lt SPACE gt SPACE BAR lt BACKSP gt BACKSPACE DELETE LEFT ARROW lt BREAK gt CONTROL C COMMAND PERIOD lt ENTER gt RETURN CARRIAGE RETURN lt ESC gt ESCAPE CNTRL UP ARROW TAB lt UP ARROW gt CURSOR UP PLUS KEY lt gt lt DOWN ARROW gt CURSOR DOWN MINUS KEY lt gt lt letter gt Press the Key with that letter See your COMPUTER APPENDIX for variations or enhancements LABELS ON LINES A line may have a label directl
53. FALSE 0 condition SHIFT condition TRUE 1 if any non zero value returned else FALSE 0 NOT condition TRUE 1 if condition FALSE else FALSE 0 if TRUE EQV emulate with NOT condition XOR condition TRUE 1 if both conditions FALSE or both conditions TRUE else FALSE 0 IMP emulate with NOT condition OR condition FALSE 0 if first condition TRUE and second condition FALSE else TRUE 1 AND BOOLEAN 16 BIT LOGIC 1 AND 1 1 00000001 00000111 0O AND 1 0 AND 00001111 AND 00001111 1 AND 0 0 00000001 00000111 0 AND 0 0 OR 1 OR 1 1 00000001 10000101 0O 1 1 OR 00001111 OR 10000111 L OR 0 1 00001111 10000111 0 ORO 0 XOR 1 XOR 1 0 00000001 10000101 0 XOR1 1 XOR 00001111 OR 10000111 1 O0R0 1 00001110 00000010 0 XOR 0 0 SHIFT gt gt lt lt 255 gt gt 2 63 TT 00010111 23 lt lt 3 184 gt gt 00000010 lt lt 00000011 00111111 10111000 NOT _ NOT 1 0 NOT 11001100 NOT 01111011 NOT 0 1 00110011 10000100 2 With the Macintosh 32 bit integers may also be used with logical operators Longlnteger amp 45 Math Functions and Operators NUMERIC CONVERSIONS Eee ASIC INTEGER BASE and SIGN CONVERSIONS ZBasic has functions for converting integer constants to hexadecimal BASE 16 octal BASE 8 binary BASE 2 unsigned integer and back to decimal BASE 10 UNS HEX OCT and BIN are the functions used to convert an integer to the string re
54. FN was defined twice String assignment problem A 123 Change to A STR 123 Program is getting too large Check large DIM statements and defined string lengths or compile using RUN For very large programs you may wish to CHAIN programs together GOTO GOSUB ON GOTO ON GOSUB THEN or some other branching command can t find line number or a label The assignment to a variable is the wrong type FOR without NEXT DO without UNTIL WHILE without WEND LONG IF without END IF or LONG FN without and END FN Missing NEXT WEND END IF END FN or UNTIL If unable to find error quickly LLIST the program structures are indented two spaces backtrack from the end of the program until the extra indentation is located ZBasic expected some form of punctuation that was not provided Check cursor position in displayed line for error NOTE Each ZBasic loop command must have one and only one matching partner Each FOR need a NEXT each WHILE needs a WEND each LONG FN needs and End FN each LONG IF needs an END IF and each DO needs an UNTIL 29 Error Messages ERRORS E RUN TIME ERRORS A Run Time execution error is an error that occurs when the compiled program is running Object Code The only Run Time error messages produced are DISK ERRORS Unless trapped by the user See Disk Errors in the FILES section of this manual OUT OF MEMORY ERROR when loading a compiled program saved to disk that is too large to execute in m
55. Formats LINES PER PAGE for printer 1 Desired lines printed per page 2 Actual lines per page 3 Top Margin An example of using these commands for printer listings To set the top and bottom margins to 3 lines each to skip perforations and the printer width to 132 type WIDTH LPRINT 132 PAGE 60 66 3 NOTE WIDTH WIDTH LPRINT and PAGE may also be used from within a program Check the reference section for specifics In a program the PAGE function returns the last line printed The PAGE statement will send a form feed to the printer A ZERO value disables all the functions above AUTOMATIC LOOP AND STRUCTURE INDENTING For readability loops are automatically indented two spaces When WIDTH is set lines that wrap around will be aligned for readability as in line 10 Completed loops on the same line will show an asterisk at the beginning of the line as in line 120 LIST without line numbers LIST with line numbers CLS REM THIS IS A LONG 00010 CLS REM THIS IS A LONG STATEMENT THAT CONTINUES STATEMENT THAT CONTINUES FOR X 1 TO 10 00020 FOR X 1 TO 10 DO G G 1 00025 DO G G 1 GOSUB Graphics 00030 GOSUB Graphics UNTIL G 3 00035 UNTIL G 3 NEXT 00040 NEXT MENU 00050 MENU CLS 00060 CLS END 00070 END Graphics X 0 00080 Graphics X 0 DO X X 16 00090 DO X X 16 PLOT X 0 TO X 767 00100 PLOT X 0 TO X 767 UNTIL X gt 1023 00115 UNTIL X gt 1023 FOR X 1 TO 100 NEXT 00120 FOR X 1 TO 100 NEXT RETURN 00125 RE
56. IPT SUBSCRIPTI Single and Double precision variables are stored in Binary Coded Decimal format BCD Bit 765 0 ADDRESS aoaaa Bit7 Mantissa sign O POSITIVE 1 NEGATIVE Bit6 The exponent sign 0 E 1 E Bit 5 0 The exponent value 0 to 64 ADDRESS2 Digit 1 and 2 Four bits for each digit ADDRESS3 Digit 3 and 4 ADDRESS4 Digit 5 and 6 Single precision default ADDRESS5 Digit 7 and 8 ADDRESS6 Digit 9 and 10 ADDRESS7 Digit 11 and 12 ADDRESS8 Digit 13 and 14 Double precision default ADDRESS28 Digit 53 and 54 Limit of significant digits B Single precision defaults to 4 bytes six digits and Double precision defaults to 8 bytes 12 digits Macintosh computers use two bytes for mantissa and exponent for its high precision double precision variable type ADDRESS1 amp 2 Bit 15 TA Ss ie 10 Bit 153 antissa sign Bit 14 Exponent sign Bit 13 0 Exponent value 0 16383 Range of 32 bit double precision is 1 0E 16 383 to 9 999E 16 384 Note Single precision range is the same on all machines Important Note Some versions of ZBasic offer an optional high speed binary floating point option While the speed of binary math packages is superior the accuracy range and memory requirements of binary math are much different from the standard BCD math described above See the manual provided with the binary math package for details 59 Variables VARIABLES ee ACCURACY VERSUS PROCESSING SPEED
57. IRST_NAMES 10 LAST _NAMES 18 ADDRESSS 35 W R RITE 1 CITY 25 STATES 15 ZIP AGE SPENT ETURN END Random Access File Method 118 MIXING FILE METHODS 119 Mixing File Methods MIXING FILE METHODS ESS ae ASIC MIXING SEQUENTIAL AND RANDOM FILE METHODS Since ZBasic stores data as a series of bytes whether sequential methods or random methods are used these methods may be intermixed The following program uses both methods The program reads files from the mail list program created with the random access method earlier in this chapter The second and third lines read the number of records in the file Then the list is read off the disk sequentially using the DO UNTIL loop To read and print the mail list in sequential order OPEN I 1 MAIL 117 RECORD 1 0 READ 1 NR REM Gets a number of records to read RECORD 1 1 REM Set the pointer to the first record RE Change LPRINT to PRINT if screen output preferred DO NR NR 1 REM Counts down the number of names READ 1 FIRST_NAMES 10 LAST _NAMES 18 ADDRESSS 35 CITYS 25 STATES 15 ZIP AGES SPENT LPRINT FIRST_NAMES LAST NAMES LPRINT ADDRESS LPRINT CITYS STATES ZIP LPRINT AGES SPENT USING S SPENT LPRINT UNTIL NR 1 REM Until the last name is read CLOSE 1 END The
58. If is not used lt ENTER gt ends input Positions the INPUT message to appear at character coordinates horiz characters over amp vert lines down Positions the INPUT message to appear at the closest graphic coordinates horiz pixels over amp vert pixels down Prints a message in front of the input The variable s to receive the input Using more than one variable at a time is allowed except with LINEINPUT Important Note When using strings with INPUT make sure that you define the length of the string at least one character more than will be input Keyboard Input 130 KEYBOARD INPUT EXAMPLES OF REGULAR INPUT EXAMPLE INPUT A INPUT NAME A INPUT A RESULT Wait for input from the keyboard and store the input in A Quotes commas and control characters cannot be input lt ENTER3s to finish A carriage return is generated when input is finished cursor moves to beginning of next line Prints NAME before input A semi colon must follow the last quote A carriage return is generated after input cursor moves to next line Same as INPUT A above only the semi colon directly after INPUT disables the carriage return cursor stays on the same line EXAMPLES OF LIMITING THE NUMBER OF CHARACTERS WITH INPUT EXAMPLE INPUT amp 10 A INPUT amp 10 1 INPUT amp 10 A INPUT amp 10 NAME A LINEINPUT amp 5 NAME A RESULT Same as INPUT A only a maximum o
59. L 0 312 275 BOX 500 590 TO 130 3800 CIRCLE 1023 767 687 As with all ZBasic graphic commands the Device Independent Coordinates of 1024 x 768 are used 89 Graphics GRAPHICS SEGMENT OF A CIRCLE ARC 1023 SEGMENT OF A CIRCLE PIE 512 2 1023 CIRCLE 512 383 320 TO 60 32 CIRCLE 512 383 320 TO 192 64 SEGMENT OF A CIRCLE PIE To draw an enclosed segment of the circumference of a circle PIE use this syntax CIRCLE h v radius TO starting BRAD degree number of BRADs counter clockwise CIRCLE draws with the last color defined by COLOR COLOR 0 is the background color of most computers while COLOR 1 is the foreground color If you have a system with a black background COLOR 1 is white and COLOR 0 is black See COLOR in this chapter SEGMENT OF A CIRCLE ARC To draw a segment of the circumference of a circle an ARC use the syntax CIRCLE h v radius PLOT starting BRAD degree number of BRADs counter clockwise CIRCLE draws with the last color defined by COLOR COLOR 0 is the background color of most computers while COLOR 1 is the foreground color If you have a system with a black background COLOR 1 is white and COLOR 0 is black See COLOR in this chapter Note 256 BRADS 360 DEGREES See the BRAD chart on the next page As with all ZBasic graphic commands the standard coordinates of 1024 x 768 are used FILL may be used with the CIRCLE FILL x y r TO s n statement on this v
60. LL SORT with STRING variables use DEFSTR with the appropriate variables on the first line of the program or put a after all variables that are strings AWG Be sure to use DEFLEN or DIM to define the length of the string variables If each element needs 50 characters then set the length of SA to 50 The default is 256 bytes per element for string variables if you do not define the length HINTS ON TYPING IN THE PROGRAM First of all use line numbers of your own choosing Indentation in this program is the way ZBasic shows the loops or repetitive parts of the program You do not need to type in spaces Make everything flush left ZBasic will indent the listing automatically when you type LIST or LLIST Also see Perpetual Sort using INDEX in the previous chapter 77 Array Variables ARRAY VARIABLES SS ARRAY ELEMENT STORAGE The following chart illustrates how array elements for each type of variable are stored in memory Assumptions 1 Memory starts at address zero 0 2 Strings were dimmed DIM 15 VAR 1 2 2 Each element uses 16 bytes 3 Other arrays dimmed DIM VAR 1 2 2 VAR 1 2 2 VAR 1 2 2 SINGLE and DOUBLE precision assumed as 6 and 14 digit accuracy 4 BASE OPTION of ZERO is assumed RELATIVE ADDRESSES Array SINGLE DOUBLE ELEMENTS STRING INTEGER Precision Precision VAR 0 0 0 00000 00000 00000 00000 VAR 0 0 1 00016 00002 00004 000
61. M Apple DOS 3 3 and TRS 80 versions may not have the last two options offered Check the appropriate appendix for specifics 13 Configuration STANDARD LINE EDITOR EEE ASIC STANDARD EDITOR ZBasic comes with a Standard Editor that works the same way on all computers While most versions of ZBasic now come with a full screen editor which is easier and faster to use the Standard Editor allows you to do quick and dirty editing and direct commands like an interpreter Learning the Standard Editor will allow you to jump from one version of ZBasic to another without having to re learn the full screen editor for that particular machine ENTERING THE EDITOR Load ZBasic When the screen says ZBasic Ready you have entered the ZBasic Interactive Programming Environment a fancy name for the Standard Editor and may enter programs and type direct commands The Standard Line Editor requires each line of a program to have a line number for editing and reference purposes labels are available too Line numbers may range from 0 65534 Each line can be up to 250 characters long To add a line type a line number and the text or use the AUTO command to have ZBasic assign line numbers automatically some versions of ZBasic will allow you to enter programs without using line numbers Check your appendix If you are loading a program without line numbers they will be added automatically Line numbers are used for editing in the Standard Line Edit
62. NG IMPORTANT FILE INFORMATION LOF LOC REC 2 S32 Be sure to read the appendix for your computer Many versions have extra commands that take advantage of a particular system Files 100 FILES CREATING AND OPENING FILES OPEN O or R filenumber filename record length All ZBasic files must be opened before processing OPEN O Opens a file for O utput only If the file does not exist it is created If it does exist all data and pointers are erased and it is opened as a new file OPEN I Opens a file for I nput only If the file does not exist a File Not Found error is generated for that file number OPEN R Opens a R andom access file for reading and or writing If the file does not exist it is created If the file exists it is opened as is for reading or writing filenumber ZBasic may be configured to have from 1 to 99 files open at one time in a program depending on the DOS and available memory for that computer Files are assigned numbers so ZBasic knows to which file it is being referred The original copy of ZBasic is configured to allow up to two open files at a time If you wish to have more files open you may configure ZBasic for up to 99 open files See Configure record length Record length is optional If it is omitted a record length of 256 characters is assumed Maximum record length is 65 535 characters or bytes check appendix for variations EXAMPLES OF OPENING FILES
63. NG STRING LENGTHS WITH DEFLEN Another command for DEF ining the LEN gth of string variables is DEF LEN NUMBER No expressions In the range of 1 to 255 Each string variable located AFTER the statement will have that length unless another DEFLEN or DIM statement is used DIM AS 9 9 X 99 H 999 4Bull DEF LEN 50 BS HOPE CS HELLO DEF LEN 100 ARTS COOL DIM Coolness 9 AS ARTS In the example A 9 9 allocated 255 characters for each array element ZBasic automatically allocates 255 if length has not been defined Bull allocated 4 characters B and C allocated 50 characters each ART allocated 100 characters Coolness allocated 100 characters for each element A allocated 100 characters Note The actual memory required for each string each string element in an array is the defined length plus one byte for the length byte 65 Variables VARIABLES eee HOW STRING VARIABLES ARE STORED IN MEMORY ADDRESS VARPTR STRING VARIABLE SUBSCRIPT SUBSCRIPTI O ADDRESS Length Byte Holds number of characters in the string ADDRESS 1 First character of the string variable ADDRESS 2 Second character ADDRESS n Last character of the string variable ADDRESS 255 Last address available for undefined string variable ADDRESS Defined Length Last address available for defined string variable WARNING 1 Strings should never be assigned a character length longer than the assigned length If t
64. OPEN O 2 NAMES 99 Opens filenumber 2 as NAMES with a record length of 99 characters for OUTPUT only If NAMES doesn t exist a file named NAMES is created If a file called NAMES exists all data and pointers in it are deleted and it is opened as a new file OPEN I 1 A Opens filenumber 1 whose filename is the contents of A with assumed record length of 256 for INPUT only If A doesn t exist a File Not Found error is generated for filenumber one See Disk Error Trapping for more information OPEN R 2 BIGFILE 90 Opens filenumber 2 named BIGFILE with a record length of 90 for Reading and Writing 2 OPEN IR OR RR for resource forks OPEN A for append also supported Volume number is used after record number i e OPEN R 1 Fred 99 vol A number of other enhancements are covered in the appendix 101 Files FILES CLOSING FILES CLOSE filenumber filenumber All files should be closed when processing is finished or before ending a program Failure to close files may result in lost data CLOSE without a filenumber closes all open files STOP and END will also CLOSE all files It is very important to close all opened files before exiting a program When a file is closed the end of file marker is updated and any data in the disk buffer is then written to the disk After you close a file that filenumber may be used again with another OPEN DELETING FILES KILL filenam
65. ORTING PROGRAMS a CHARACTER SETS Screen and printer characters vary form one computer to the next Check the ASCII chart in the owners manuals to see the differences Most between 32 127 are the same KEYBOARD JOYSTICK AND MOUSE Keyboards vary from computer to computer so be sure the target computer has the same keys available If not make changes in the program to use other keys Joystick and MOUSE devices vary considerably Test the controls on the target computer and make adjustments for the hardware SOUND Sound tone may vary from machine to machine Check program and make any adjustments needed Some machines may not have this capability at all DEVICE INDEPENDENT GRAPHICS ZBasic makes use of very powerful and simple graphic commands that work the same way regardless of the graphic capabilities of the target computer or lack of You will have to determine if the graphic hardware on the target computer is of sufficient quality to display the graphics of your program Note Colors and grey levels may have to be adjusted Here are some of the typical graphic types available for some major computers COMPUTER Horizontal x Vertical pixels IBM PC and compatibles CGA 640x200 3 color or 320x200 8 color EGA 640x348 many colors HERCULES and HERCULES PLUS 720x348 MDA 80x25 text simulation Apple e c GS Hi Res 280x192 6 color Apple e c GS Double Hi Res 560x192 16 color Macintosh 512 340 larger
66. Often they are configured for ease of use instead of performance ZBasic allows you to configure options so that converting your programs is simpler Setting some of the options below will also make ZBasic more like BASIC you may be used to like MSBASIC and BASICA Be sure to see Configure in the main reference section and in your appendix for details about other ways of configuring ZBasic To solve many of the problems encountered in converting we suggest setting the following options when converting other programs Be sure to set these options BEFORE LOADING your program CONFIGURE OPTION SET TO 1 Double precision digits of accuracy 6or8 2 Single precision Accuracy 4or6 3 Array bounds checking Y N Y 4 Default Variable type lt S gt ingle lt D gt ouble lt l gt nteger S 5 Convert to Uppercase Y N Y 6 Optimize expressions for Integer Y N N 7 Spaces Required between Keywords Y N Y 1 Since ZBasic does all floating point operations in double precision it is important to configure ZBasic for the speed and accuracy that you need In most cases the configuration above will be suitable but not in all cases If you wish disk files and memory requirements to be the same as MSBASIC leave the digits of accuracy at 14 and 6 as they take up 8 bytes of Double and 4 bytes for single the same as MSBASIC 2 Set to two digits less than Double precision 3 Sets array bounds checking to give runtime errors Set to N
67. Old UNTIL I 0 PRINT 2 Lines WEND Done changing RROR 0 OSE RINT All Ol1dS have been converted to NewS NPUT Rename OLD file Y N AS AS UCASES A F AS Y THEN KILL OLDFILES ENAME NEWFILE TO OLDFILES END DISK ERROR PRINT ERRMSGS ERROR CLOSE STOP HHUVOW Important Practice on a dummy file until you are sure the program is working properly 167 Converting old Programs STANDARD STATEMENTS ABS AND ASC ATN BINS BOX CALL CHR CIRCLE CLEAR CLOSE CLS COLOR COS CVB CVI DATA DATE DEF DEFDBL DEFINT DEFSNG DEFSTR DELAY DIM DO ELSE END ERRMSG ERROR EXP FILL KEYWORDS LONG LPRINT MACHLG MAYBE MEM MID MKB MKI ASIC FUNCTIONS AND OPERATORS MOD MODE MOUSE NEXT NOT OCT SIN SOUND SPACE SQR STEP STOP STR STRING SWAP TAB TAN THEN TIME TROFF TRON UCASE UNS UNTIL USING USR VAL VARPTR WEND WHILE WIDTH WORD WRITE XELSE XOR IMPORTANT See your computer appendix for other keywords that pertain to your version of ZBasic Most versions of ZBasic offer more and also use two word keywords like LONG FN POKE WORD etc Keywords 168 KEYWORDS STANDARD COMMANDS APPEND AUTO DELETE or DEL DIR EDIT E or comma FIND or semicolon 169 Keywords HELP LIST L or period
68. PEN C in the main reference section of this manual Serial RS 232 Transfer Transfer files over the Serial RS 232 ports of the two computers using a good communication software package like Crosstalk or SmartCom Crosstalk is available at computer or software stores nationally Diskette File Transfer Utility Programs Use Diskette file transfer utility programs like Uniform or Interchange These programs will convert a file from one disk format like from a TRS 80 diskette to another disk format like MS DOS or CP M These programs are available from computer or software dealers nationally Re type the Program Type the program into the other computers This may be acceptable for small programs but you will save plenty of time by using one of the options above See OPEN C in the reference section for a ZBasic terminal routine that may be used to transfer files Important Note Always transfer files in ASCII Tokens are not necessarily the same from one version of ZBasic to another and from old versions to newer versions on the same machine Porting Programs 160 CONVERTING OLD PROGRAMS 161 Converting old Programs CONVERTING OLD PROGRAMS eS ASIC CONVERTING PROGRAMS WRITTEN IN OTHER VERSIONS OF BASIC ZBasic is a very powerful and improved version of BASIC Many of the traditional BASIC commands have been retained to make conversion as easy as possible Nevertheless ZBasic is not 100 compatible with every
69. PSTR INDEX I n A INDEX D n X INDEXF A X INDEXF END 950 CLEAR nnnnn CLEAR INDEX sets the string variable A to a length of ten Sets the following strings to 20 character length W 3 characters from the left of A W 1 character from the right of A B 2 characters from A beginning at position 4 Puts first 3 characters of B into A starting at position 2 C the character represented by ASCII 65 letter A X the ASCII code of A 65 Looks for B in A starting at position 2 and makes X equal to the position if found otherwise X zero Makes A equal 2345 Makes X equal the VALue of A 2345 if above X the number of characters in A Gets input from the keyboard and stores it in A Accepts any keyboard characters stores them in A and terminates input only with the lt ENTER gt key Makes A the last key pressed without using lt ENTER gt Converts A to UPPERCASE A now equals HELLO X the memory address of the variable A Writes 20 characters of A out to the disk file 1 Reads 20 characters off the disk into A Makes A equal to H HHHHHH PRINTs 4 spaces Make A equal B and B equal A Prints A out to the printer Prints A to the screen Prints A to disk file 2 Opens the random access file named F Erases the file specified by A off the storage device Puts the date into A MM DD YY Most systems Puts the time into A HH MM SS Most systems M
70. RACTER RRR KK Piel za Graphics 8 4 GRAPHICS a MODE ZBasic offers different modes of text and graphics output depending on hardware and model The ability to change modes allows you to simulate the output for different machines Syntax MODE expression The following chart gives the modes for some popular microcomputers and illustrates how modes are grouped according to resolution MODE CHART MSDOS type APPLE e c TRS 80 W Text Graphic Text Graphic J Text Graphic character ff 40 x 24 32x16 40x25 40x40 64x16 80x25 character 32x16 80x25 64x16 80x25 character 32x146 320x200 64x16 character 32x16 640x200 64x16 character 32x16 40x40 64x16 character 32x16 80x25 64x16 80x25 character 32x16 320x200 64x16 character 32x16 640x200 64x16 MACINTOSH Many Font SEE styles and Macintosh sizes here APPENDIX character 40x48 character 80x48 character 280x192 character 560x192 character 40x48 character 80x48 character 280x165 character 560x165 character 128x48 a Q x N an none 80x24 none 40x24 40x24 80x24 80x24 40x24 character 128x48 character a Qo x nN wn ow x th an 128x48 character 128x48 640x240 Bottom 128x48 80x24 Bottom 80x24 character 128x48 character 128x48 character 128x48 wo NS an Bottom 80x24 Bottom _ 2s D M ra ga 5 CP M 80 Be sure to read Graphic
71. RIABLE DOUBLE or SINGLE PRECISION VARIABLE will convert correctly if the double or single precision variables are within the integer range of 32 768 to 32 767 unsigned 0 to 65 535 Any fractional part of the number will be truncated Results outside integer range will be the rounded integer result which is incorrect and no error will be generated SINGLE PRECISION VARIABLE DOUBLE PRECISION VARIABLE conversions will be exact to the number of significant digits set for single precision since the calculations are done in double precision If the single precision default is 6 digits and double precision is 14 digits the 14 digit number would be rounded down to 6 digits in this example precision is configurable by the user STRING VARIABLE STR INTEGER DOUBLE OR SINGLE PRECISION VARIABLE will convert exactly The first character of the string produced is used for holding the sign If the number is positive or zero the first character of the string produced will be a SPACE otherwise the first character of the string will be a minus INTEGER VARIABLE VAL STRING VARIABLE will convert correctly up to the first non numeric character if the string variable represents a number in integer range Fractional portions will be ignored Zero will be returned if not convertible DOUBLE OR SINGLE PRECISION VARIABLE VAL STING VARIABLE will convert correctly within the range of floating point precision set by the user rounding will occur if it is mo
72. ROR returns a number between 0 and 32 767 IF ERROR does not equal zero than a disk error has occurred The disk error code of the value returned in ERROR is deciphered by using one of the following equations or statements IF ERROR 515 calculate the disk error type by ERROR AND 255 3 File Not Found Error in File ERROR gt 38 2 File Number is 2 ERRMSG ERROR File Not Found Error in File 02 Also See ERROR and ERRMSG in the reference section Important Note To avoid getting the same error again ALWAYS set ERROR back to zero after and error occurs ERROR 0 Also see SYSERROR in the Macintosh appendix Disk Errors 124 SCREEN AND PRINTER 125 Screen and Printer Control SCREEN AND PRINTER SCREEN AND PRINTER ASIC ZBasic has several functions and commands for screen and printer control PRINT or LPRINT are the most frequently used The following syntax symbols are used to control the carriage return and TAB for either PRINT or LPRINT PRINT SYNTAX Semi Colon Comma DEF TAB n PRINT EXAMPLES PRINT HI PRINT HI PRINT HI PRINT TAB 20 HI PRINT HI PRINT USING 523 2 POS 0 POS 1 RESULT Suppress Carriage return and linefeed after printing subsequent prints will start at the cursor position TAB over to the next TAB stop The default is 16 TAB stops are 16 32 48 64 25 also see DEF TAB below Defines the spac
73. RROR to zero 46 GOTO 20 REM Check diskette again 50 ON ERROR RETURN REM ZBASTC DOES DISK ERROR MESSAGES NOW 1000 CHECK DISK ERROR 1003 REM ERROR 259 is File Not Found Error in File 01 1005 IF ERROR 259 RETURN 1010 PRINT ERRMSGS ERROR REM Prints error if not 259 1015 INPUT C ont or S top AS 1020 AS UCASES AS IFAS lt gt C THEN STOP 1025 ERROR 0 REM You MUST reset ERROR to zero 1030 RETURN Note This method may not work on some Disk Operating Systems like CP M Check your computer appendix for specifics 123 Disk Errors DISK ERRORS ee DISK ERROR CODES AND MESSAGES If you wish to do the disk error trapping yourself using ON ERROR GOSUB ZBasic will return the ERROR CODE in the reserved variable word ERROR For instance if a File not Found Error in file 2 occurs then ERROR will equal 515 To decode the values of ERROR follow this table DISK ERROR CODES amp MESSAGES ERROR ERROR CODE No Error in File 0 End of File Error in File 1 257 file 1 513 file 2 769 file 3 etc Disk Full Error in File 2 File Not Found Error in File 3 File Not Open Error in File 4 Bad File Name Error in File 5 Bad File Number Error in File 6 Write Only Error in File 7 Read Only Error in File 8 Disk Error in File 9 255 ERROR CODE ERROR AND 255 FILE NUMBER ERROR gt gt 8 ERROR FUNCTION ER
74. T a program Since ZBasic automatically indents loops just read back from the end of the LISTing looking for the extra indent to find the unmatched statement COMPLEX STRINGS Complex strings may have to be converted to simple strings some machines Improper B LEFT Right A 12 13 Proper B RIGHT A 12 B LEFT B 13 IF THEN statements may have only one level of complex string Improper IF B LEFT A 5 THEN GOSUB END Proper C LEFT A 5 IF B6 C THEN GOSUB END 165 Converting old Programs CONVERTING OLD PROGRAMS Eee eae LONG LINES Multiple statement lines with over 253 256 characters depending on computer will automatically be shortened by ZBasic when loading That part of the line longer than 253 will be added to a new line number Most programs do not have lines of that length TIMING LOOPS Timing loops may have to be lengthened to make up for ZBasic s faster execution time For some BASIC Languages a FOR NEXT loop of 1000 would take second or two About 1 1000 of a second in ZBasic Replace these types of delay loops with the ZBasic DELAY statement STRING MEMORY ALLOCATION Important Note ZBasic assumes a 255 character length for every string and string array element and allocates 256 bytes for each 255 1 for length byte unless string length is defined with DIM or DEF LEN Many versions of BASIC like BASICAtm MSBASICtm APPLESOFTtm and others allocate string memory as a progra
75. TIONS 1 Ny on 10 11 Set from six to 54 digits of precision for Double Precision math Defaults to 14 Set from four up to two digits less than Double precision Defaults to 6 Digits of math precision for Scientific functions ATN COS etc Set the number of files you want OPEN at one time Up to 99 Two is the default Array Base 0 or 1 Set zero or one as ARRAY start Zero is default Rounding Factor Sets rounding for PRINT USING and other things Set variable default to Integer Single or Double precision Press S or D key Same as DEFDBL DEFSNG DEFINT A Z Check the runtime program object code for array values going out of DIM bounds Slows the program down but is very good for debugging purposes Tells ZBasic to convert all lowercase entries to UPPERCASE The variable FRED is the same as the variable Fred if this is done Two ways to evaluate expressions Integer or Floating Point Defaults to integer for speed and size Set to NO if you want defaults as real Forcing a space after keywords allows you to embed keywords in variables IMPORTANT NOTE If you change configuration make sure all CHAINED programs have EXACTLY THE SAME CONFIGURATION Otherwise unpredictable results may occur Anm Macintosh Select the Configure menu item to change or save configuration options MSDOS and ProDOS versions of ZBasic have a CONFIG command that allows resetting the options from the Standard line editor CP
76. TRING VARIABLES Use a symbol following a variable name to make it a string variable A will always be a string variable because of the To define a range of variables beginning with a certain character to be string variables so you do not have to use every time use the statement DEFSTR DEFSTR A M Makes all variables starting with A B C up to M as string variables A is the same as A DEFSTR X Y Z Makes all variables starting with X Y and Z as string variables Z is the same as Z STRING VARIABLE ASSIGNMENTS String variables are assigned alphanumeric values like this 61 Variables AS Hello there ARTS VanGogh DaVinci connects the strings concatenates ZS B Z B C Z Hello C TESTS MIDS A 2 3 YES Puts YES into A starting at position 2 VARIABLES ee STRING FUNCTIONS AND RELATED COMMANDS String variables are used for storing and manipulating character information Here are some examples of ZBasic s string capabilities STRING FUNCTIONS DEFINITION DIM 10 A DEF LEN 20 W LEFT A 3 W RIGHTS A 1 B MID A 4 2 MID A 2 3 B C CHR 65 X ASC A X INSTR 2 A B A STR 2345 X VAL A X LEN A INPUTA LINEINPUTA A INKEY A UCASE Hello X VARPTR A WRITE 1 A 20 READ 1 A 20 A STRING 10 PRINT SPACE 4 SWAP A B LPRINTA PRINT A PRINT 2 A OPEN R 1 F 129 KILL A A DATE A TIME A B C A HI THERE
77. TURN Note LLIST may also be used to do program listings to the Imagewriter or Laserwriter without line numbers and with keywords highlighted as above 21 Interactive Programming Environment RUNNING ZBASIC PROGRAMS eee ASIC There are a number of ways to compile your programs with ZBasic The most commonly used is a simple RUN This lets you compile and debug interactively Definitions RUNNING ZBASIC PROGRAMS RUN COMPILE PROGRAM IN MEMORY AND EXECUTE The interactive mode is the easiest and fastest way to write and debug your programs In many ways it is similar to a BASIC interpreter since you may 1 RUN a program to check for errors 2 BREAK out of a running program by pressing lt BREAK gt 3 Return to ZBasic to re edit the program Interactive compiling is limited to available memory If a program gets too large you will have to use one of the methods below ZBasic will tell you when this is necessary with and Out of Memory message RUN filename COMPILE PROGRAM FROM DISK AND RUN If a program gets too large for interactive compiling using just RUN the program text may be saved not in ASCII compiled and executed This is possible because the text to be compiled is no longer resident and frees up memory for the compiled program RUN COMPILE PROGRAM IN MEMORY AND SAVE TO DISK RUN filename COMPILE FROM DISK AND SAVE TO DISK Compiles the program from memory RUN or disk RUN filename and saves it
78. YVAR 9191 CLS PRINT THIS IS PROGRAM 1 PRINT THIS IS PROGRAM 2 PRINT 2 2 F5 F5 PRINT Z 2 F5 F5 Z RND 10 F5 RND 10 Z RND 10 F5 RND 10 PRINT 2 2 F5 F5 PRINT Z 2 F5 F5 PRINT JUMPING TO PROGRAM 2 PRINT JUMPING TO PROGRAM 1 DELAY 2000 DELAY 2000 OPEN I 1 PROG2 OPEN I 1 PROG1 RUN 1 REM RUNs Prog2 RUN 1 REM RUNs Progl Chaining 26 CHAINING SS COMPILING THE EXAMPLE PROGRAMS 1 N RUN STARTB and save as START Always RUN a START program This is a dummy program and is used only to get the chained programs started and contains the runtime routines Any filename will do RUN CHAIN1 and save as PROG1 RUN CHAIN2 and save as PROG2 NOTE Always compile a START program using the RUN command so that the chained programs have a runtime package All chained programs must be compiled using RUN USE DIM TO DEFINE SHARED OR COMMON VARIABLES When chained together both PROG1 and PROG2 will share variables defined on line 10 after the DIM If F5 equals 10 in PROG it will still equal 10 when you RUN PROG2 Because variables TV and PR are unique to PROG1 and the variables ZZ and MYVAR are unique to PROG2 CLEAR END must be used to initialize them they must be assigned values Otherwise false values will be passed from other CHAIN programs The example programs PROG1 and PROG2 will chain back and forth until you press lt BREAK gt Lines 80 and 90 are where the programs
79. acters ADDRESS STRING 35 characters CITY STRING 25 characters STATE STRING 15 characters ZIP DOUBLE PRECISION 8 bytes holds up to 14 digits AGE INTEGER 2 bytes Holds up to 32 767 MONEY SPENT SINGLE PRECISION 4 bytes Holds up to 6 digits Totals 8 VARIABLES 117 bytes per RECORD The following illustration illustrates how the mail list data is stored within each RECORD LOCATION numbers are shown by position MAIL LIST RECORD LAYOUT My TOTAL LE onno D jG Le o o7 LOCATIONS A H JERMAN 10 reta Hnng 13 sets mont amj pale Lircation TE We boo e 110 did 113 108 a BOHEECI EEE T ae eat oF Money Spani h Hrg A byta Dawa pec A Dylo Sige precii 115 Random Access File Method RANDOM METHOD MAIL LIST PROGRAM The following program will READ and WRITE mail list data as described on previous pages The names are input from the user and a mail list record is created for each name You will be able to retrieve print and search for names in the mail list and with some simple modifications like using the sort routines in the ARRAY section of this manual you will have a complete mail list program ready to use EXPLANATIONS OF THE MAIL LIST PROGRAM BY LINE NUMBER 10 21 22 25 77 80 100 210 220 230 255 500 590 700 780 1000 1040 1100 1140 Asks if you want to create a new file If you say yes the old data is written over If old data is being used the data
80. age disengage any other key to single step through the program a statement at a time TRON Displays line numbers during runtime TRONX Checks for the lt BREAK gt key at the beginning of that line only NOTE TRONX TRON TRONS and TRONB may cause INKEY to miss keys TROFF turns all the TRON functions off All TRONs will slow down programs AND increase size USING INKEY TO SET BREAK POINTS You may also use INKEY to break out of a program Put the following line in a program loop or wherever you may want to escape IF INKEY S THEN STOP Program will stop if the S key is pressed any key could have been used CASES WHERE BREAK WILL NOT FUNCTION Since ZBasic compiles your programs into machine language there occurs certain situations where the lt BREAK gt key will be ignored Remember the lt BREAK gt key is checked only at the beginning of a line The following example will not break TRONB FOR X 1 TO 10 X 1 NEXT This is obviously and endless loop X never gets to 10 One obvious way around this is to avoid putting the entire loop construct on one line Examples of other cases where the lt BREAK gt key is ignored INPUT LINE INPUT DELAY and SOUND statements 2 32s Macintosh lt BREAK gt lt COMMAND Period gt lt CNTR Z gt lt COMMAND lt Z gt Most people use BREAK ON instead of TRONB with the Macintosh See Appendix Apple lt BREAK gt means lt CNTR Cs lt CNTR RESET gt may be preferable
81. akes A equal to B plus C Concatenates Makes A equal to HI THERE Special command to avoid duplication of string constants SPECIAL INDEX COMMANDS INDEX n simple string INDEX Simple string INSERT A at INDEX n moves up all other elements DELETE element n of INDEX and move up other elements Looks for A in INDEX all X equals element if A found Else equals 1 Look for END in INDEX starting at the 950th element Set aside nnnnn bytes for INDEX Nullify the contents of the entire INDEX array Variables 6 2 VARIABLES SS STRING CONDITIONALS Strings may be compared using conditional operators just like numbers The difference is that they are compared by the value of the ASCII code for that number For instance the ASCII code for A is 65 and B is 66 Therefore the expression A lt B would be true 1 See ASCII Chart in your computer manual ASCII characters may vary from computer to computer and from printer to printer Be aware that ZBasic differentiates between upper and lowercase characters a is greater than A because the ASCII code for a is 97 and the ASCII code for A is 65 If you want ZBasic to look at a string variable as uppercase only use the UCASE function to convert it ZBasic looks at all the characters in a string when doing comparisons Aa is greater than AA AAAAAAa is greater than AAAAAAAA etc ZBasic will compare characters in a string to the las
82. al and the new index includes entries for both the reference section and the appendices It is important to study the appendix for the computer you are using since there are usually enhancements and variations that are important to note Acknowledgements Special thanks to John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz for creating BASIC the easiest and most powerful of all the general purpose languages To Joanne Gariepy for many late hours of editing An extra special thanks to the programming teams that have meant so much to the success of the product Scott Terry Dave Overton Greg Branche and Hal Liang and to Thomas Dimitri and David Cooper for their help with the MSDOS version Special thanks to Karen Moesh and Leyla Blisard for making sure Zbasic gets mailed as fast as it does and to Apple Computer Inc for the Macintosh Laserwriter MacDraw and MacPaint graphic software and to Microsoft for Word on which this entire manual was composed and printed both text and graphics Many thanks to the multitudes of Zbasic users who provided helpful suggestions for this fourth edition Copyright Notice The Zbasic software and manual are Copyright 1985 1986 1987 Zedcor Inc All Rights Reserved It is against the law to copy the Zbasic software or Documentation on cassette diskette tape listing or any other medium for any purpose other than the purchaser s archival use without the express written permission of Zedcor Inc Trademarks Because
83. all variables beginning with A G as Double precision A and A would be the same variable in this case DEFSNG C Makes all variables beginning with C as Single precision C and C would be the same variable Note Some versions of BASIC default to single precision variables instead of integer Use DEFSNG A Z in programs being converted or configure to assume Floating Point Also see Optimize Expression Evaluation as Integer under Configure Variables 54 VARIABLES ee SCIENTIFIC EXPONENTIAL NOTATION ZBasic expresses large numbers like 50 000 000 000 like this 5E 10 or 5E10 The plus sign after the E indicates the decimal point moves to the right of the number Ten places in this example Technically 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 or 5 10 10 ZBasic expresses very small numbers like 000005 like this 5E 06 A minus sign after the E indicates the decimal point is moved to the left of the number that many places six in this example Technically 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 or 5 10 6 STANDARD NOTATION SCIENTIFIC NOTATION 9 123 000 000 000 000 9 123E 15 or E15 3 400 002 000 000 000 000 3 400002E18 or E 18 000 000 000 000 000 000 01 1 1 1E 20 000 012 1 2E 05 Note Some BASICs use scientific notation with a D instead of an E like 4 23D 12 instead of 4 23E 12 ZBasic will read old format values correctly but will use the more common E when printing scientific notation WHEN SCIENTIFIC NOT
84. argest line in the program Interactive Programming Environment STANDARD LINE EDITOR EESE a HOW TO EDIT TEXT ON A LINE The Standard Line editor is used to edit lines in a program and to give commands directly to the compiler Deleting inserting changing or adding new text is easy and fast EDIT ANYTHING ON A LINE EVEN LINE NUMBERS Unlike most BASICs ZBasic allows you to edit anything on a line even the line number When a line number is edited ZBasic creates a new line with that line number The old line will not be deleted or changed Very handy for avoiding redundant typing The ZBasic line editor functions the same way on all versions of ZBasic Here are ALL the line edit keys you need to remember STANDARD LINE EDITOR KEYS CURSOR MOVEMENT DELETE TEXT INSERT TEXT lt SPACE gt Move RIGHT lt D gt elete one character lt I gt insert characters lt BACKSP gt Move LEFT lt K gt ill Delete up to lt letter gt e lt X gt tend line lt S gt earch for lt letter gt lt H gt ack to end of line lt ESC gt ape Insert mode OTHER lt A gt bort changes lt C gt hange character under the cursor lt ENTER gt Keep changes lt BREAKs Abort changes CTRL C on some systems CURSOR ARROW keys are often used instead of lt SPACE gt and lt BACKSP gt 2 S32 Macintosh lt ESC gt lt TAB gt lt COMMAND Period gt lt BREAK gt MSDOS and Apple Cursor keys lt SPACE gt and lt BACKSPs gt Delete key al
85. ase speed as well These settings are important because ZBasic does all calculations in Double precision Single precision is used for saving memory only Important Note Some versions of ZBasic offer an optional high speed binary floating point option While the speed of binary math packages is superior the accuracy range and memory requirements of binary math are much different from the standard BCD math described above See the manual provided with the binary math package for details SINGLE AND DOUBLE PRECISION DIGITS OF ACCURACY The only difference between Single and Double Precision is that Single Precision holds fewer significant digits than Double Precision ALL ZBASIC FLOATING POINT CALCULATIONS ARE PERFORMED IN DOUBLE PRECISION The default digits of accuracy are 6 digits for Single Precision and 14 digits for Double Precision The accuracy is configurable from 6 to 54 digits for Double and 2 to 52 digits for Single Precision ACTUAL SINGLE DOUBLE NUMBER PRECISION PRECISION 12 000 023 12000000 120000023 009 235 897 4 9 2359E 03 9 2358974E 03 988 888 988 888 988 888 235 023 912 323 436 129 235024 23502391232344 9 999 999 999 900 001 51 10000000 99999999999 88 000 000 912 001 51 88 88 000000912002 12 34147 12 3415 12 34147 2 Defaults are 8 and 12 digits for the Macintosh Both are configurable up to 240 digits Variables 56 VARIABLES a ROUNDING If the digit just to the right of the least
86. ation you are more used to See OPTIMIZE EXPRESSIONS FOR INTEGER MATH above Math Functions and Operators 38 MATH a INTEGER AND FLOATING POINT DIVIDE SYMBOLS It should be noted that the Divide symbols and take on different meanings depending on the type of expression evaluation being used Optimized for Integer YES Optimized of Integer NO Integer Divide Floating Point Divide Floating Point divide Integer Divide SCIENTIFIC FUNCTIONS ZBasic offers several scientific and trigonometric math functions for making many calculations easier SQR expression SQUARE ROOT of expression Returns the number multiplied by itself that equals expression SQR 9 3 LOG expression Natural LOGARITHM if expression sometimes referred to as LN n Common LOG10 LOG n LOG 10 EXP expression Natural logarithm base value e 2 718281828459045235602874135266249775724 TO THE POWER of EXPRESSION Inverse of LOG LOG and EXP may speed up calculations dramatically in certain situations Some comparative equalities using LOG and EXP X Y EXP LOG X LOG Y X Y EXP LOG X LOG Y XAY EXP LOG X Y CONFIGURING SCIENTIFIC ACCURACY Scientific function accuracy may be configured up to 54 digits of accuracy 32 bit machines may be higher Default accuracy is 6 digits Scientific accuracy may be configured from two digits of accuracy up to Double Precision accuracy not necessarily the same as Single or Do
87. be programming on This is ideal for moving programs from one machine to another without having to make changes to the graphic commands or syntax Quite a change from the old days Definitions of some commonly used graphic terms PIXEL RESOLUTION COORDINATE positions The smallest graphic point possible for a given system Some systems allow you to set the color of a pixel Refers to the number of pixels dots of light on a screen A computer with a resolution of 400 x 400 has 160 000 pixels high resolution A computer with 40 x 40 resolutions has only 1600 pixels low resolution By giving a horizontal and vertical coordinate you can describe a specific screen location easily With ZBasic the origin 0 0 is the upper left hand corner of the screen or window With a standard device independent coordinate system you can specify a location on the screen without worrying about pixel Graphics 80 GRAPHICS a ZBASIC S DEVICE INDEPENDENT GRAPHIC COORDINATE SYSTEM ZBasic uses a unique DEVICE INDEPENDENT COORDINATE SYSTEM to describe the relative positions on a video screen instead of a pixel system which describes specific graphic dots on the screen The standard coordinate system is 1024 points across 0 1023 by 768 points down 0 767 The width is broader to be in proportion to a normal video monitor This approach allows writing graphic programs the same way regardless of a computer s graphic capabilities Z
88. be the same variable you must configure Convert to Uppercase to yes See Configure If you do not set this parameter or do not have this option for your version of ZBasic you must match case when using variables i e TOM and tom are different variables 51 Variables VARIABLES MEMORY REQUIRED FOR VARIABLES VARIABLES INTEGER STRING SINGLE PRECISION DOUBLE PRECISION ARRAY VARIABLES ARRAY VARIABLES INTEGER STRING INDEX element SINGLE PRECISION DOUBLE PRECISION MEMORY REQUIRED 2 bytes 256 bytes default String variable length is definable from 1 to 255 characters plus one for length byte 4 bytes default 8 bytes default If Single or Double precision digits of precision is changed use this equation to calculate memory requirements DIGITS of ACCURACY 2 1 BYTES REQUIRED MEMORY REQUIRED PER ELEMENT 2 bytes per element 256 bytes default per element String variable length is definable from 1 to 255 characters per element Add one byte per element to the defined length of the string for the length byte DEFLEN 200 201 bytes required per element 1 byte plus the number of characters in an element 4 bytes default per element 8 bytes default per element If FLOATING POINT digits of precision are changed use this equation to calculate memory requirements NUMBER OF DIGITS 2 1 BYTES REQUIRED Note Remember to count the zero element if BASE zero is u
89. ble Single or Double precision MATH Functions COS SIN ATN SQR LOG EXP TAN VAL CVB FRAC AND FIX Floating point math symbols or Note One expression may be made up of other expressions within parentheses Each expression is evaluated separately and must meet the criteria above 35 Terms and Definitions MATH OPERATORS _ orl MOD lt lt gt gt NEGATION ASIC ADDITION SUBTRACTION MULTIPLY DIVIDE DIVIDE Floating point Divide or Integer Divide If configured as Optimize Expressions as Integer the is forced floating point divide otherwise it is forced integer divide EXPONENTIATION raise to the power REMAINDER OF INTEGER DIVIDE MODulo SHIFT LEFT BASE2 MULTIPLY SHIFT RIGHT BASE2 DIVIDE Negation will reverse the sign of an expression variable or constant Examples A 12 32 X B 3 7 ABS Z R SHIFT binary multiply and divide Since computers do internal calculations in binary BASE 2 SHIFT is used to take advantage of this computer strength Multiply or divide SHIFTS are faster than floating point multiply or divide and may be used when speed is a factor Integer Shift Right loses sign A good example ATN 1 lt lt 2 pi instead of the slower ATN 1 4 gt gt n Shift right Divide by 2n lt lt n Shift left Multiply by 2 n n Truncates to an integer number SHIFT BASE 2 DECIMAL FUNCTIONS Equivalent Equivalent RESULT 4
90. ces to the end of the LINE or to the end of the PAGE screen STRING Qty ascii or string Used to print STRINGS of characters STRING 10 X prints 10 X s to the current cursor position STRINGS 25 32 will print 25 spaces SPACE n or SPC n Prints n spaces from current cursor position COLOR n Sets the color of Graphics output and sometimes text 0 background color usually black 1 foreground usually white MODE n Sets screen attributes Some computers allow 80 character across or 40 characters across etc Graphics may also be definable ROUTE byte integer Used to route output to the screen printer or disk drive See Computer Appendix for specifics 127 Screen and Printer Control PRINT SCREEN AND PRINTER The PRINT command functions exactly the same way as PRINT except the X Y coordinate specifies a screen graphic position instead of a character position Since ZBasic utilizes device independent graphics this is a handy way of making sure the text goes to the same place on the screen regardless of the computer being used Use MODE to set certain character styles for some computers Examples PRINT 512 383 Print to middle of screen PRINT 0 0 Upper left corner of screen PRINT 0 767 Lower left corner of screen 2 Same as the toolbox MOVETO function ZBasic coordinates unless COORDINATE WINDOW is used TYPICAL VIDEO CHARACTER LAYOUTS Here are some o
91. characters and or numbers bytes The order and type of characters or numbers depends on the program that created the file FILE STRUCTURE OPEM R 1 TE TFILE 30 RECORD S wah lenahe of 39 _ iia te 85 495 RECORIXs in a DBesle ille Filet LTDA TT Tiel of PET UT TY OB eee fie The d Is at LOCATION 2 in AECORG 6 to GSES Coane bn 6 Riak RECORD In the illustration the name Fred Stein was stored in RECORD six of TESTFILE To point to the d in FILENUMBER 1 RECORD 6 LOCATION 3 use the syntax RECORD 1 6 3 The location within a record is optional zero is assumed if no location is given If RECORD 1 6 had been used without the 3 the pointer would have been positioned at the F in Fred which is LOCATION zero If RECORD is not used reading or writing starts from the current pointer position If a file has just been OPEN ed the pointer is at the beginning of the file RECORD n 0 0 After each read or write the file pointer is moved to the next available position in the file 2 Macintosh RECORD length and number of records is 2 147 483 647 105 Files FILES CE a POSITIONING THE FILE POINTER RECORD filenumber RECORD number LOCATION number To point to any LOCATION in any RECORD in any FILE use RECORD 3 23 3 Sets the pointer of filenumber 3 to RECORD 23 LOCATION 3 If RECORD 23 contained JOHN then LOCATION 3
92. d or to utilize special features of the hardware of that machine ZBasic incorporates a number of special commands to integrate machine language subroutines into your programs CAUTION Unless you have a working knowledge of the machine language of the source computer and target computer use extreme caution when porting programs with machine language commands or subroutines This statement allows you to put bytes or words directly into your program CALL LINE Machlg END Machlg REM EXAMPLE ONLY gt DO NOT USE MACHLG 10 23 233 12 0 B A 34 12 amp EF MACHLG 23 123 222 123 2332 GameScore amp AA Hex Binary Octal or Decimal constants Integer variables or VARPTR may be used Be sure to put a machine language RETURN at the end of the routine if using CALL Be sure you understand the machine language of your computer before using this command This gives you the address of a specific line as it appears in the object code This allows you to CALL machine language programs starting at specific line numbers or labels Syntax is LINE label or LINE line number 2 Since the Macintosh is a 16 bit machine MACHLG code is stored in WORDS not BYTES The code above would be stored in every other byte With LINE parentheses are required because it is also a toolbox call i e LINE n Machine Language Support 144 MACHINE LANGUAGE SUPPORT SE _ CALL Allows you to CALL a machine language program The
93. ded to teach you BASIC programming from scratch If you lack programming experience we suggest picking up some of the BASIC tutorials for the IBM PC CP M systems or the TRS 80 available from most major bookstores and libraries Once you learn the beginning concepts of BASIC programming like GOSUB FOR NEXT and that type of thing this manual should be all you need ZBasic is very similar to the IBM PC TRS 80 MSBASIC and GW BASIC interpreters however most Graphic commands and Random File commands are different sequential file commands are very similar For those with some experience this section and the section Standard Line Editor are written in a tutorial format Be sure to examine the appendix in the back of this manual for your computer It will tell you about any differences and enhancements that are important to know before you start Getting Started 10 CONFIGURATION 11 Configuration CONFIGURATION ASIC CONFIGURATION OPTIONS Since no two programmers are alike we allow you to configure your version of ZBasic Most versions start with a screen something like this phi bee tte PPP Pe ee weteie bieb i E ll eyotend Later Opiini As you can see below configuring your version of ZBasic is simple Simply set the parameters the way you want then save the reconfigured ZBasic lt E gt dit Type E to enter the Standard Line Editor Once in the editor you may LOAD TYPE RUN EDIT SAVE or DEBUG
94. dix for your version of ZBasic for specific information APPLE GRAPHICS B Double Hi Res with 16 colors is supported for the Apple e c and GS with 128k or more Text and graphic may be integrated on the screen and customizable character sets are also supported LONG FN s for DRAW BLOAD and BSAVE are on the master disk IBM PC MSDOS GRAPHICS Version 4 0 supports most of the graphic modes of IBM PC s and compatibles including Hercules Monochrome Graphics Hercules PLUS Enhanced Graphics Adaptor EGA Color Graphics Adaptor CGA Monochrome and all other graphics modes Also supported are GET and PUT graphic commands PLOT USING COORDINATE and COORDINATE WINDOW See appendix for specifics MACINTOSH GRAPHICS E The master disk contains examples of printing and displaying MacPaint graphics and TIFF bit images Also supported is GET and PUT graphics PICTURE TEXT Apple s QuickDraw and toolbox routines PEN and many more See appendix for specifics TRS 80 CP M 80 GRAPHICS Most TRS 80 graphics are supported including Radio Shack s Hi Res and Micro Lab s Hi Res boards on the Model 4 in MODE 8 and 15 text and graphic integration is not supported with the Radio Shack Hi Res board Hi Res is not supported on the model one or three Because of the diversity of machines for CP M systems and because of a lack of common interface graphics are not supported with CP M systems although we have special graph
95. e Files may be deleted from the disk from within a program or from the editor with the KILL command From the editor the filename must be in quotes on Macintosh and Z80 versions Filename is a simplestring and may be represented by a string constant or variable TRONB INPUT FILE TO INPUT ARE YOU IF AS lt gt yY KILL SURE KILL FILES END RENAMING FILES Me PELE WeAS ES THEN END RENAME oldfilename TO or comma newfilename Files may be renamed on the disk from within a program or directly using RENAME Filenames may be a string constant or variable Example ES TRONB INPUT FILE TO RENAME OLDFIL INPUT NEW NAME NEWFILES RENAME OLDFILES TO NEWFILES a The TRS 80 Model 1 3 version does not support RENAME 5 52 Macintosh Both KILL and RENAME also use Volume number See appendix for syntax MSDOS CHDIR and Pathnames may be used APPLE ProDOS Pathnames may be used Files 102 FILES as WRITING TO A FILE USING PRINT WRITE AND ROUTE PRINT PRINT filenumber variables constants or equations PRINT is used for writing data in TEXT format It is saved to the disk quite like an image is saved to paper using LPRINT PRINT is useful for many things but it is not the fastest way or most efficient way to save data See WRITE below Examples PRINT 1 A C Z X Prints A C Z
96. e between the TAB stops for comma Any number from 1 255 If 10 is used then positions 10 20 30 250 are designated as TAB stops RESULT Screen PRINT HI to the current cursor position and move to the beginning of the next line lt CR gt Screen PRINT HI and DON T move to next line the semi colon suppresses the carriage return Screen PRINT HI and move over to next TAB position Print HI at the 20th position over from the left or at the current position if past column 20 Print HI at the next TAB stop position See DEF TAB PRINTS 23 20 and moves to the next line See USING in the reference section for further information Returns the horizontal cursor position on the screen where the next character will be printed Returns horizontal cursor position of the printer where the next character will be printed Screen and Printer Control 126 SCREEN AND PRINTER eS oo PRINTING AT A SPECIFIC SCREEN LOCATION PRINT H V HI Start print H characters over horizontally and V lines down vertically from the upper left hand corner of the screen then move to the beginning of the next line Use a SEMI COLON or COMMA to control the carriage return PRINT Ghoriz m Gvert Position the print output to be at the graphics coordinates specified by Ghoriz Gvert or as close as possible for that computer Great for easy porting of programs CLS ASCII Fill Screen with spa
97. e commands work almost exactly the same way from one computer to the next The areas to be aware of when porting code from one machine to another are covered in the following two paragraphs Porting Programs 156 PORTING PROGRAMS a DISK CAPACITIES Make sure the target machine has enough storage space to accommodate the program and program files being ported COMMON DRIVE CAPACITIES IBM PC XT jr 5 25 320K 360K 3 50 780K IBM PC AT 5 25 360K 3 50 780K variable density 1200k Apple series 5 25 143k 3 50 800k Macintosh single sided 400K Macintosh Plus double sided 800K Other SSSD 5 25 80K SSSD 8 00 200 500K SSDD 5 25 160K DSDD 5 25 320K DSDD 8 00 600 2000K SSSD Single sided Single density SSDD Single sided Double density DSDD Double sided Double density FILESPECS ZBasic filenames filespecs work within the limitations of the disk operating system When porting programs make sure the filespecs are corrected For instance if porting a program from a TRS 80 Model 3 to an IBM PC you must change all references to a file like FRED 1 to A Fred Some computers cannot do RENAME or EOF Others are incapable of certain DISK ERRORS Be sure to study the DOS manual of the target machine for variations MEMORY Memory is another area of importance when porting programs from one machine to another Porting from smaller machines to machines with larger memory should not be a problem as long as
98. e shorter than the specified length ZBasic will add spaces to the string to make it equal to that length If the string is longer than the length specified it will be Chopped off If the length of A is 20 and you WRITE 1 A 10 the last 10 characters of A will not be written to the file Normally you will READ strings back exactly the same way you WRITE them Notice that the spaces become a part of the string when they are READ back If you WRITE A 5 and A HI when you READ A 5 back A will equal HI three spaces at the end of it The length of A will be 5 To delete the spaces from the end of a string A in this example use this statement directly following a READ statement WHILE ASC RIGHTS A 1 32 ASLEFTS A LEN A 1 WEND You can use READ and WRITE using variable length strings as well See the two format examples on the following pages 109 Sequential File Method SEQUENTIAL METHOD a eee READ AND WRITE IN CONDENSED NUMBER FORMAT Numbers are stored in condensed format when using READ and WRITE This is done to conserve disk space AND to make numeric space requirements more predictable ZBasic automatically reads and writes condensed numbers in this format Just be sure to read the data in exactly the same order and precision with which it was written Space requirements by numeric variable type are as follows PRECISION MAXIMUM DIGITS SPACE REQUIRED INTEGER 4 3 32
99. emory ARRAY BOUNDS ERROR will be shown if the user configures ZBasic to check for this This will slow down a program execution but is extremely handy during the debug phase of programming You may turn this off after the program is completely tested If access to an array element out of bounds is made the program is stopped and the line number with the error printed STRING LENGTH ERROR Some versions of ZBasic have a configure option that tells ZBasic to check for string assignments greater than the length allowed This does slow execution speed and add memory overhead so you may want to remove this error checking after the program is debugged See your appendix for specifics If an attempt is made to assign a string a value longer than its length the program is stopped and the line number with the error is printed RECOVERING FORM FATAL RUNTIME ERRORS Since ZBasic is a compiler and converts your code into machine language there is always a risk that you may unintentionally enter an endless loop or hang up the system the computer will not respond to anything In these instances you may not be able to get a response form the computer or be able to lt BREAK gt out o f the program The system may have to be reset or turned off and back on again to regain control To avoid losing valuable time it is very important that you SAVE PROGRAMS and MAKE BACKUPS FREQUENTLY See you computer appendix for possible alternatives USING SINGLE STEP
100. ersion The FILL pattern is taken from PEN pattern PEN n Where n is one of the pen patterns used under the control panel Quickdraw arcs are also available using toolbox calls Graphics 9 0 GRAPHICS BRADS Brads are used with ZBasic CIRCLE commands to determine a position on the circumference of a circle Instead of DEGREEs of zero to 359 BRADs range from zero to 255 Starting at 3 O clock going counter clockwise ZBasic BRAD CHART Degrees INSIDE circle Brads OUTSIDE circle Methods of Measuring Angles and Circles RADIANS DEGREES GRADS BRADS ETZ Total Radians Total Degrees Total Grads Total Brads 6 2831852 360 DB DA DA cE G gt CONVERSIONS FROM ONE TYPE TO ANOTHER RADIANS DEGREES ATN 1 45 GRADS 10 DEGREES 9 RADIANS 9 GRADS 10 GRADS RADIANS 63 66197723 RADIANS BRADS 40 7436666 GRADS BRADS 1 5625 DEGREES RADIANS 45 ATN 1 BRADS DEGREES 1 40625 DEGREES BRADS 1 40625 BRADS GRADS 1 5625 DEGREES GRAD 63 66197723 BRADS RADIANS 40 743666 Also see USR8 and USR for high speed Integer SIN and COS 91 Graphics RATIO GRAPHICS ZBasic allows you change the aspect ratio of any CIRCLE ARC or PIE with the graphic statement RATIO RATIO Width 128 thru 127 Height 128 thru 127 See CIRCLE Ratio RATIO RATIO 0 0 Ratio 0 64 0 32 50 127 RATIO 127 100 z RATIO 64 0 Examples Ratio settings are executed immediately and all CIRCLE commands will be adjusted to the
101. f ten characters may be input amp 10 A carriage return is generated after input cursor moves to the beginning of the next line The limit of input is set for ALL variables not each Same as INPUT amp 10 except the SEMI COLON following INPUT stops the carriage return cursor stays on line Same as INPUT amp 10 except INPUT is terminated as soon as 10 characters are typed or lt ENTERs is pressed Same as INPUT amp 10 A except no carriage return is generated semi colon INPUT is terminated after 10 characters amp 10 and Exclamation pint and the message NAME is printed first LINEINPUT A until 5 characters or lt ENTER gt is pressed no carriage return after lt ENTER gt or after the 5 characters are input Accepts commas and quotes Note 1 Wherever INPUT is used LINEINPUT may be substituted when commas quotes or some other control characters need to be input except with multiple variables Note 2 If more than one variable in INPUT commas must be included from the user to separate input If all the variables are not input the value of those variables will be null E In certain cases EDIT FIELD MENU or BUTTON may be preferable See appendix 131 Keyboard Input KEYBOARD INPUT INPUTTING FROM A SPECIFIC SCREEN LOCATION if rye A iT A l HE qe i INPUT H V A INPUT gH gV A INPUT H V 10 AMT D the next line INPUT H V 10 AMT D INPUT O
102. f the typical character layouts for a few of the more popular computers COMPUTER Columns across Rows down IBM PC and compatible 80 or 40 25 APPLE E C 80 or 40 24 TRS 80 Model III 64 or 32 16 TRS 80 Model 4 4p 80 or 40 24 CP M 80 computers 80 24 Macintosh Almost anything See appendix Will also run TRS 80 models 1 3 version Screen and Printer Control 128 KEYBOARD INPUT 129 Keyboard Input KEYBOARD INPUT ee KEYBOARD INPUT ASIC ZBasic utilizes the INPUT and LINEINPUT statements of getting keyboard data from a user There are many options allowed so that input may be configured for most input types Parameters may be used together or by themselves in any order Syntax for INPUT and LINEINPUT LINE INPUT or horiz vert amp n string constant ar var LINEINPUT horiz vert horiz vert string constant var var Optional use if INPUT Allows inputting quotes commas and some control characters A semi colon directly following INPUT disables the carriage return cursor stays on same line after input amp directly following INPUT or semi colon sets the limit of input characters to n Length of strings used in INPUT must be one greater than n An exclamation point used with amp terminates the INPUT when the character limit defined by amp is reached without pressing lt ENTERs gt
103. formation Converting old Programs 166 CONVERTING OLD PROGRAMS ae l OTHER INFORMATION Check your appendix for more information about converting programs A good resource for information about converting from one version of BASIC to another is David Lien s The BASIC Handbook CONVERTING OLD COMMANDS Some BASIC s have commands that may be converted over quickly using a word processing program Simply load the BASIC ASCII file into the word processor and use the FIND and REPLACE commands You may also use ZBasic FIND command if you choose A good example would be converting Applesofttm s HOME commands into ZBasic s CLS command Have the word processor FIND all occurrences of HOME and change them to CLS If you don t have a word processor try using this simple ZBasic convert program to change commands in a BASIC file quickly file MUST have been saved in ASCII using SAVE SINGLE COMMAND CONVERSION PROGRAM ERROR GOSUB DISK ERROR REM Trap Disk Error PUT Command to Change Olds PUTS Change to New LS PRINT Changing File One Minute please FILES 0ldfile NEWFILES newfile REM lt Change to correct filenames T 1 OLDFILES 0 2 NEWFILES E ERROR 0 JINEINPUT 1 Line Z ZZ SBODOOCQAHHO ineS LEFTS Line I 1 New RIGHTS LineS LEN LineS I 1 LEN OldS I INSTR 1 LineS
104. g RECORD and tells you where the file pointer is currently positioned by using REC filenumber and LOC filenumber COMPATIBILITY WITH MSBASICTM Experienced BASIC programmers will like the power and simplicity of ZBasic file commands For the first time BASIC file handling commands have been made compatible and portable All ZBasic disk commands function the same way regardless of the computer being used Sequential file commands are very similar The main difference being that items written with PRINT should be separated with quoted commas in ZBasic if being read back with INPUT Random file commands have been made simpler yet just as powerful Those experienced with MSBASIC file commands should find the conversion painless ZBASIC COMMANDS MSBASIC EQUIVALENTS READ WRITE RECORD FIELD GET PUT MKI CVI MKS CVS MKD CVD LSET RSET PRINT INPUT LINEINPUT PRINT INPUT LINEINPUT 99 Files FILES E FILE COMMANDS COVERED IN THIS SECTION This outline gives an overall perspective of file commands available in this section and groups commands in logical order This section of the manual provides lots of examples and a tutorial for the file commands of ZBasic OPENING AND CLOSING FILES OPEN CLOSE DELETING OR ERASING FILES KILL RENAMING A FILE RENAME POSITIONING THE FILE POINTER RECORD WRITING TO A FILE WRITE PRINT PRINT USING ROUTE READING FROM A FILE READ INPUT LINEINPUT GETTI
105. gram is being executed on the screen A Also see TRON 128 for sending the line numbers to the printer so the display is not affected Single Step SINGLE STEP line trace debugging Allows you to single step through that part of a program To activate single step mode press CTRL Z To single step press any key To return to regular mode press CTRL Z again To single step and display line numbers use TRONS TRON Note CTRL S and CTRL Z will function during any TRON type Check for lt BREAK gt key Sets a break point on that line and all the following lines of that program until a TROFF is encountered As each line is executed the program will check if CTRL C or lt BREAK gt is being pressed If lt BREAK gt is pressed the program will return to the edit mode the operating system if RUN was used Without a break point the program will not respond to the lt BREAK gt key No line numbers are displayed unless TRON was also used 2 BREAK ON is often preferable as a check for lt COMMAND PERIOD gt See appendix Debugging Tools 154 DEBUGGING TOOLS a ool TRONX Check for lt BREAK gt on that line only Sets a break point only on that line If CTRL C or lt BREAK gt is pressed as that line is executed the program will return to the edit mode if interactive or to the operating system TROFF Disable all TRON modes Turns off TRON TRONB TRONX and TRONS Line number display and lt BREAK gt points will be disabled
106. gt gt 1 Divide 4 2 4 2 2 4 lt lt 1 Multiply 4 2M 4 2 8 89 34 lt lt 2 89 34 22 89 34 4 357 36 008 gt gt 1 008 2 1 008 2 4E 3 999 gt gt 7 999 27 999 128 7 8046875 21 2 23 is the same as 2 2 2 2 7 is the same as 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 With 10 gt gt 8 231 or 10 lt lt 8 231 the 8 231 would be converted to integer 8 Math Functions and Operators 36 MATH a REGULAR MATH EXPRESSIONS AND ZBASIC EQUIVALENTS Regular math and algebraic expressions are quite similar to ZBasic expressions The user should however be aware of some important differences As in regular algebraic expressions parentheses determine the part of the expression that is to be completed first Examples Regular Math ZBasic Equivalent A 2 B41 A C B A B T A C H 2 A BAZ C TAG A B FORCING EXPRESSION EVALUATION TO DEFAULT TO FLOATING POINT ZBasic normally optimizes expression evaluation by assuming integer if no floating point types are seen in the expression This can cause confusion for those used to MSBASIC or other languages without this capability Setting OPTIMIZE EXPRESSIONS FOR INTEGER MATH to NO sets the expression evaluator to interpret expressions as most other computer languages do that is all expressions will default to floating point if parentheses or any part of the expressions contain a floating point operator While this makes it easier to follow the logic in an expression the speed of execution time will suffer g
107. h a carriage return PRINT USING USING is used to format the PRINT data See PRINT USING COMMAS IN PRINT AND INPUT It is important to remember when using PRINT with more than one data item that quoted commas must be used to set delimiters for data being written If commas are not quoted they will merely put spaces to the disk as to the printer and INPUT will not be able to discern the breaking points for the data Sequential File Method 108 SEQUENTIAL METHOD Es SEQUENTIAL METHOD USING READ AND WRITE Other commands which may be used to read and write sequential data are READ and WRITE The main difference between READ WRITE and PRINT INPUT is that the latter stores numeric data and string data much the same way as it appears on a printer READ and WRITE store string and numeric data in a more condensed and predictable format In most cases this method is also much faster VARIABLES MUST BE USED WITH READ AND WRITE READ and WRITE require that variables be used for data Constants or expressions may not be used with these commands except the string length which may be an expression constant or variable HOW STRINGS ARE STORED USING WRITE When using WRITE or READ with strings you must follow the string variable with the length of the string WRITE 1 A 10 B LB READ 1 A 10 B LB An expression may be used to specify the string length and must be included When WRITE ing strings that ar
108. haracters to any LOCATION in a file RANDOM ACCESS EXAMPLE USING A ONE BYTE RECORD LENGTH OPEN R 1 DATA 1 REM RECORD LENGTH 1 character Get record number DO INPUT Record number RN INPUT lt R gt ead lt W gt rite lt E gt nd AS IF AS R GOSUB Read ELSE IF AS W GOSUB Write UNTIL AS E CLOSE 1 END Write INPUT Enter character A RECORD 1 RN WRITE 1 A 1 RETURN Read RECORD 1 RN R READ 1 A 1 PRINT Character in RECORD RN was AS RETURN Point at record RN Gl To change this program to one that would read or write people s names merely change the RECORD LENGTH to a larger number and increase the number after the A in the READ and WRITE statements The following pages will demonstrate a more practical use of the Random Access method by creating a mail list program in easy to understand step by step procedures Random Access File Method 11 4 RANDOM METHOD E l CREATING A MAIL LIST USING THE RANDOM ACCESS METHOD This mail list uses First and Last name Address City State Zip Age and Money spent The first thing to do is calculate the record length for the mail list file This is done by calculating the space requirements for each field in a RECORD FIELD VARIABLE TYPE SPACE NEEDED FIRST NAME STRING 10 characters LAST NAME STRING 18 char
109. he label FRED LIST 100 200 Lists lines from 100 200 LLIST 100 Lists lines up to 100 to printer LIST 100 or L100 Lists lines from 100 on lt period gt Lists the last line listed or edited lt UP ARROW gt Lists previous line or plus lt gt key lt DOWN ARROW gt Lists next line or minus lt gt key L Lists program without line numbers LLIST Lists to printer without line numbers L 100 Lists up to line 100 without showing line numbers lt SPACE gt Single steps long listings lt ENTER gt continues listing lt gt Lists PAGE of lines 10 lines to screen LIST Some systems Highlights keywords on screen while listing DELETING LINES Deleting lines is accomplished in a number of ways Examples YOU TYPE ZBASIC RESPONDS 1000 lt ENTER gt Deletes line 1000 DEL 1000 Delete line 1000 DEL 10 50 Delete lines 10 through 50 DELETE 50 Delete line 50 DELETE 50 Delete line 50 and all lines after NEW Delete the entire program Careful NOTE Labels may be used in place of line numbers except first example ADDING OR INSERTING A NEW PROGRAM LINE Add or insert a line by typing in a new line number followed by text be careful not to use the number of a line already being used unless you want to replace it To insert a line between line 10 and line 20 assign a number such as 15 to the new line or another number between 10 and 20 To add a line at the end of the program assign the line a number greater than the l
110. he length of A is 5 and a program line is executed that has A 1234567890 the characters 6 through 0 will overwrite the variables following A possibly causing system errors or faulty data WARNING 2 If using INPUT to input strings with set length always make sure the string length is at least one longer than the length being used for input For most versions of ZBasic no error is generated if string assignments exceed the length of the string E See Configure in the Macintosh appendix for setting string length error checking Variables 66 INDEX ae 67 INDEX Variables INDEX e SEE ASIC INDEX is a special ZBasic string array with some powerful and unique capabilities SPECIAL INDEX STRING ARRAY The following commands work with INDEX variables only INDEX COMMAND MEANING INDEX n simple string Assigns a value to INDEX n INDEX I n simple string Move element n and all consecutive elements up one and INSERT simple string at element n the value in element 3 moves up to element 4 Actually inserts the value into the array without destroying any other elements INDEX D n DELETE element n and move all consecutive elements back down to fill the space value in element 4 moves down to element 3 X INDEXF simple string start FIND simplestring in INDEX Begin looking at element START If found X element number If not found X 1 USING INDEX INDEX array variables ma
111. iT PUT Ap 0 5 Mae 5 Wait for input at TEXT screen POSITION defined by Horizontal and Vertical coordinates No is printed A carriage return is generated Input from a graphic coordinate Syntax is the same as Very useful for maintaining portability without having to worry about different screen widths or character spacing Prints AMT at screen position H characters over by V characters down D is input until 10 characters or lt ENTER gt are typed in and the input is terminated without generating a carriage return the cursor DOES NOT go to the beginning of Prints AMT at Graphic position H positions over by V positions down D is input until 10 characters or lt ENTER gt are typed in and the input is terminated without generating a carriage return the cursor DOES NOT go to the beginning of the next line Note Replace INPUT with LINEINPUT whenever there is a need to input quotes commas and control characters except with multiple variables Keyboard Input 132 KEYBOARD INPUT SS EE INPUT The INPUT command functions exactly the same way as INPUT except the X Y coordinate specifies a screen graphic position instead of a character position Since ZBasic utilizes device independent graphics this is a handy way of making sure the INPUT goes to the same place on the screen regardless of the computer being used Use MODE to set certain character styles for some computers Examples INPUT 512 383
112. icant digits ZBasic does all BCD calculations in DOUBLE PRECISION This is extremely important when speed is a factor If you only need 6 or 7 digits of precision and speed is important be sure to CONFIGURE DIGITS OF ACCURACY AS FOLLOWS DOUBLE PRECISION 6 SINGLE PRECISION 4 SCIENTIFIC PRECISION 4 This setting will give you maximum speed in BCD floating point See the appendix for your computer for variations or enhancements This is not a factor for the optional binary math package available for some version of ZBasic n The Macintosh accuracy can be configured up to 240 digits Optimum BCD speed is realized by configuring double precision to 8 single and scientific precision to 6 Important Note Some versions of ZBasic offer an optional high speed binary floating point option While the speed of binary math packages is superior the accuracy range and memory requirements of binary math are much different from the standard BCD math described above See the manual provided with the binary math package for details DEFINING VARIABLES AS SINGLE OR DOUBLE PRECISION To force the precision of a specific variable to be single precision follow every occurrence of that variable with an exclamation point To force a variable to be double precision follow the variable name with a pound sign To force ZBasic to define a range of variables as double or single precision use the DEFDBL or DEFSNG statement DEFDBL A G Makes
113. ics versions for Kaypro 4 and 10 with graphics capabilities 97 Graphics FILES FILE HANDLING ASIC ZBasic file commands are the same on all versions This section explains file commands and statements ZBasic file concepts are similar to a file cabinet EVERYDAY TERMS FILE CABINET Holds files in drawers FILE Contains data for a mail list or inventory control system among other things RECORD One logical part of a file All the data for Mr Smith in a mail list name address PARTS OF A RECORD One part of a Record The address or the City in a mail list record tRecoRD i hhi amit Firat Namig Last Neme Address t Tiai galwent pve Cipy Bante State MA zip AOT Age 34 Money Speni Be 22 ZBASIC TERMS DISK OPERATING SYSTEM Holds files on diskettes cartridges etc FILENAME FILENUMBER Contains data for a mail list or inventory control system among other things RECORD One logical part of a file All the data for Mr Smith in a mail list file name address LOCATION One part of a RECORD The address in a mail list record or even one character in the address Files98 FILES GLOSSARY OF ZBASIC FILE TERMS DOS The Disk Operating System is a program residing in a computer s memory which takes care of the actual reading writing and file control on a storage device such as floppy drives hard drives tape backup devices etc ZBasic works with the formats and
114. ics of your machine 87 Graphics CIRCLE GRAPHICS iS CIRCLE FILL horizontal vertical radius CIRCLE draws a circle in the currently defined COLOR and RATIO COLOR 0 is the background color of most computers while COLOR 1 is the foreground color If you have a system with a black background COLOR 1 is white and COLOR 0 is black See RATIO for ways of changing the shapes of circles Also see CIRCLE TO and CIRCLE PLOT for creating PIES and ARCS lf FILL is used the circle will be a solid ball in the current color CIRCLE As with all ZBasic graphic commands the Device Independent Graphic Coordinates of 1024 x 768 are the default E FILL is taken from PEN pattern PEN n Where n is one of the pen patterns used under the control panel Quickdraw circles are also available using toolbox calls See appendix Graphics 88 GRAPHICS GRAPHICS THAT EXTEND OFF THE SCREEN CLIPPING If coordinates are given that exceed the limits of the ZBasic screen coordinates that part of the image exceeding the limits will be CLIPPED It is still permissible to use these numbers and in many cases it is important to have them available for special effects CIRCLE or other graphic commands like PLOT BOX PRINT etc with coordinates that are off the screen but are within the limits of 8192 to 8192 are permissible and that part out of range will be clipped GRAPHICS THAT EXTEND OFF THE SCREEN CIRCLE FIL
115. ified by many as a programmer s nightmare If you want programs that are easy to read do not use this command If you must use GOTO do not use line numbers use labels to make the code easier to follow LINE NUMBERS VERSUS LABELS The standard line editor command mode uses line number for three reasons 1 Remain compatible with older versions of BASIC 2 For the Standard line editor commands 3 To give more easily understandable error messages To make programs easier to read you should use alphanumeric labels for subroutines or any other area of a program that does a specific function It is much easier to follow the flow of a program if GOSUB GOTO and other branching statements use labels instead of line numbers To LIST programs without line numbers use LIST Many versions of ZBasic now use full screen editors that don t require line numbers See your appendix for specifics Structure 148 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING a eee a INDENTATION OF LOOPS LONG FN and LONG IF Some versions of structured languages require that you manually indent nested statements for readability ZBasic does all the indenting automatically Each nested portion of a program will be indented 2 spaces when the program is listed Program statements like FOR NEXT WHILE WEND DO UNTIL LONG FN LONG IF etc will be indented Example using LIST LONG FN KillFile files PRINT 0 10 Erase fileS Y N DO temp INKEYS UNTIL LEN tempS
116. in RECORD zero is READ to find out how many names are on the disk NR holds the number of records on the disk Puts a menu on the screen and awaits user input END routine Closes file and exits the program ADD names to mail list Gets data from user checks if OK If not OK starts over Note that the spaces in the input statements are for looks only Space may be omitted If not OK then redo the input Gets the disk record DR from NR Saves the variables to disk then increments the number of records NR NR 1 and saves it to disk record zero PRINT s all the names in the file to the printer Change LPRINT to PRINT for screen output FIND all occurrences of LAST NAME or PART of a LAST NAME To find all the names that start with G just type in G To find SMITH type in SMITH or SMIT or SM READ A MAIL LIST ITEM READ s RECORD DR from the disk into the variables FIRST_NAME LAST_NAME ADDRESS WRITE A MAIL LIST ITEM WRITES the variables FIRST _NAME LAST_NAME ADDRESS out to the RECORD specified by DR HINTS Spaces are not important when typing in the program except between double quotes if you have set Spaces required between keywords they will be required Random Access File Method 116 RANDOM METHOD eS l MAIL LIST PROGRAM EXAMPLE
117. in the program flow following this statement ARRAY BOUNDS CHECKING Set Check Array Bounds to YES when configuring ZBasic to make sure you do not exceed DIM limits This is a RUN TIME error check and is very important for use during the debug phase Exceeding array limits could cause overwriting of other variables and faulty data After you have finished debugging your program disable this function since it will slow execution speed and increase program size STRING LENGTH CHECKING not all versions check your appendix Set String Length Checking to YES when configuring ZBasic to make sure you do not exceed defined string length limits This is a RUN TIME error check and is very important for use during the debug phase Exceeding string lengths could cause overwriting of other variables and or faulty data After you have finished debugging your program you may wish to disable this function since it will slow execution speed and increase program size COMPILE TIME ERROR CHECKING ZBasic compile time error messages help you pinpoint the cause of the problem immediately by highlighting the error on the line and printing a descriptive message instead of an error number Unlike BASIC interpreters ZBasic will not execute a program with syntax errors in it If the program compiles without an error you can be sure it is at least free of syntax errors DISK ERROR CHECKING ZBasic gives the programmer a choice of tra
118. ing purposes DO UNTIL LEN INKEY Wait for any key press then continue DO UNTIL LEN INKEY 0 Clears characters out of INKEY buffer Note TRONX TRON or TRONB may cause INKEY to function improperly z Macintosh If doing EVENT Trapping or any TRON type the INKEY function may operate incorrectly Use DIALOG 16 instead See appendix for examples MSDOS See appendix for special ways of getting function keys INKEY returns two characters INKEY EXAMPLE The program below will wait awhile for a key to be pressed If you make it wait to long it will complain loudly If you do press a key it will tell you which key was pressed If you press S or s the program will stop WStartk 2 iCLS DO ASINKEYS REM Check if a key has been pressed X X 1 IF X gt 3000 THEN GOSUB YELL FOR INPUT REM Timer UNTIL LEN AS REM If a key is pressed then LEN AS 1 PRINT You pressed A X 0 RE Reset timer IF AS S OR AS s THEN STOP REM PRESS S to STOP GOTO Start REM Go look for another key YELL FOR INPUT RE This routine complains PRINT HURRY UP AND PRESS A KEY I M TIRED OF WAITING X 0 REM Reset Timer RETURN Keyboard Input 134 LOOPS 135 Loops ASIC Loops are sections of a program that repeat over and over again until a condition is met LOOPS Loops are used to make programs easier to read by avoiding IF THEN and GOTO altho
119. inting to the ImageWriter II with a color ribbon See appendix for details CLSLINE CLSPAGE CLS is used to clear the entire screen of graphics or text quickly Optionally the text screen may be filled with a specific ASCII character in most modes Check your computer appendix for variations CLS ASCII code 0 255 CLS LINE is used to clear a text line of text and graphics from the current cursor position to the end of that line CLS LINE CLS PAGE is used to clear a text screen of text and graphics from the current cursor position to the end of the screen CLS PAGE See Computer Appendix 95 Graphics GRAPHICS aa BUSINESS GRAPHS CHARTS ETC Business graphs and charts are easily accomplished with ZBasic graphics An added benefit is that the graphs are also easily transported to different computers HIGH RESOLUT KIN Lore BESLUT On CHARACTER To further assist you in porting graph programs ZBasic has two text commands that correspond to the graphic position on the screen instead of the text position PRINT h v Prints from the position specified by the ZBasic graphic coordinates INPUT h v Positions the input to be from the graphic position specified by h v The syntax of these commands is the same as PRINT and INPUT Also see PRINT Graphics 96 GRAPHICS SPECIALIZED GRAPHICS The Apple MSDOS Macintosh and some Z80 versions of ZBasic have some added powerful features for graphics See the appen
120. ion is done first an order of precedence is used The following math operators are performed in the this order 1 1st 2nd 3rd Innermost expressions within parentheses always performed first 2 Negation not subtraction 3 NOT Logical operator 4 or Exponential 5 MOD Multiply Divide Floating point Divide MODulo 6 Addition Subtraction 7 gt gt lt lt Conditional operators gt lt lt gt gt lt gt gt lt lt Shifts 8 AND OR XOR Logical operator ZBasic will calculate each operation of an expression in order of precedence as defined by the table above The final result of an expression depends on the order of operations If there are items of equal precedence in a n expression ZBasic will perform those operations from left to right A 2 5 3 6 1 4 This expression is performed in the following order 3 6 1 4 2 5 2 5 3 6 2 5 3 6 1 4 REONE A 10 75 Important Note If expressions are optimized for Integer Math the decimal point after the 4 forces the result of the expression to be floating point If the decimal point had been omitted the result would be 11 See CONFIGURE Math Functions and Operators 42 MATH OoOO USING PARENTHESES TO FORCE PRECEDENCE Parentheses are used in math expressions to force ZBasic to calculate that part of an expression first If a math operation is enclosed in parentheses which in turn is enclosed within parentheses
121. ions TERMS AND DEFINITIONS VARIABLE TYPES A A A A and A n n represent different variables If no type is given integer is assumed unless configured differently by the user or changed with DEF DBL DEF SNG or DEF STR A and A would be the same variable Types Integer variable amp 4 byte Integer 32 bit machines only Single precision variable Double precision variable String variable EXPRESSIONS Le a Throughout this manual reference is made to expressions There are different types of expressions and the following words will be used to refer to specific expressions DEFINITION OF EXPRESSION EXPRESSION refers to a combination of constants variables relational operators or math operators in either integer floating point or string used to yield a numeric result The following UNDERLINED examples are EXPRESSIONS CLEAR 2000 A T 1 TEST X 2 23 5 1 IF X 3 4 lt Y 98 3 THEN Z 45 84 R IF A gt B AND B lt gt C THEN GOTO 1000 Terms and Definitions 34 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS eee BYTE EXPRESSION ABYTE EXPRESSION always results in a number from 0 to 255 The expression may be floating point integer or string but if the actual result is more than 255 or less than 0 the final result will return the positive one byte remainder ZBasic will not return an error if the calculation result is out of this range INTEGER EXPRESSION AnINTEGER EXPRESSION
122. items to a list instantly and always have the list in order CLEAR 10000 TRONB DO INPUT Input String A GOSUB INSI UNT GOT RE R ES RE B N DO H XE D ZuHG ry H PR FOR D sa O PRINT LIST INSERTION SORT Number of items AS New to string to insert S 0 B S 1 gt gt 1 LONG IF AS lt INDEX B H B B H SE S S H END IF TIL B S EX I B AS N 1 URN INT LIST X 1 TO PRINT INDEXS X EXT ERTION SORT IL AS END lt Type END to end inserting INDEX Variables 70 INDEX as HOW INDEX ARRAY VARIABLES ARE STORED IN MEMORY The INDEX array is stored in memory in one contiguous block The distance between each element is the number of characters in the string plus one byte for the length byte of the string WARNING It is suggested that strings in INDEX not be manipulated with PEEK and POKE Note CLEAR is used on some computers to allocate memory for INDEX CLEAR INDEX is used to nullify the contents of INDEX B This version has the ability to use up to ten INDEX arrays at the same time See appendix for details Also see MEM 1 for determining memory remaining for INDEX 71 INDEX Variables ARRAY VARIABLES ASIC An Array variable is a multi celled variable followed by coordinates for specifying which cell is to be used The following is an exa
123. ive of ARCSEC X Derivative of ARCCSC X Derivative of ARCSINH X Derivative of ARCCOSH X Derivative of ARCTANH X Derivative of ARCCOTH X Derivative of ARCSECH X Derivative of ARCCOSSECH X ZBasic EQUIVALENT EQUATION ATN 1 lt lt 2 accurate to double precision EXP 1 LOG X LOG 10 Y ATN 1 lt lt 2 Radius Radius Y Length Width Y Length Width Height Y Length length length Y ATN 1 lt lt 2 Height Radius Radius Y ATN 1 lt lt 2 Height Radius Radius 3 Y ATN 1 lt lt 2 Radius Radius Radius 4 3 Y 1 COS X Y 1 SIN X Y 1 TAN X Y ATN X SQR 1 X X Y ATN 1 2 ATN X SQR 1 X X Y ATN 1 SQR X X 1 X lt 0 ATN 1 lt lt 2 Y ATN 1 2 ATN X Y EXP X EXP X 2 Y EXP X EXP X 2 Y EXP X EXP X XP X EXP X Y 2 EXP X EXP X Y t 2 EXP X EXP X Y EXP X EXP X EXP X EXP X Y LOG X SQR X X 1 Y LOG X SQR X X 1 Y LOG 1 X 1 X 2 Y LOG 1 SQR 1 ees Y LOG 1 SGN X ys QR 1 X X X Y LOG X 1 X 1 2 Y3 1 X Y COS X Y 1 TAN X 2 Y 1 1 TAN X 2 Y SQR 1 X X Y SQR 1 X X Y 1 1 X X Y 1 X X 1 Y 1 X SQR X X 1 Y 1 X SQR X X 1 Y 1 SQR 1 X X Y 1 SQR X X 1 Y 1 1 X X Y 1 X X 1 Y 1 X SQR 1 X X Y 1 SQR 1 X X aa SS See DEF FN and LONG FN for adding these math functions to your programs 41 Math Functions and Operators MATH ORDER OF PRECEDENCE In order to determine which part of a math express
124. ll HD30 LDIR HD30 Fred Lists all files to the printer Be sure to see your COMPUTER APPENDIX for variations 19 Interactive Programming Environment STANDARD LINE EDITOR THE MINI COMPILER Direct mode similar to an interpreter The Mini compiler permits compilation of one line programs while in the standard editor This is very convenient for testing logic or math without having to run the entire program You are limited to one line but may use a colon to divide a line into multiple statements Remember to use or PRINT to see the results Examples YOU TYPE ZBASIC RESPONDS PRINT LEFT HELLO 2 HE PRINT CHR 65 A PRINT ASC A 65 FOR X 1 TO 500 X NEXT 12345 500 ABS TAN 1 EXP 2 LOG 9 13 704997622614 LPRINT HELLO Prints HELLO to the printer PLOT 0 0 TO 1024 767 Plots a line across the screen amp AB 171 HEX to decimal Note A Mini Compiler line may not start with an E or L since these are used for abbreviations for EDIT and LIST To do a command that starts with E or L use a colon first LPRINT THE FIND COMMAND ZBASIC will FIND variables quoted strings labels line numbers and commands within a program quickly and easily In most cases simply type FIND followed by the text you want to find The only two exceptions are 1 To find quoted strings use one leading quote FIND HELLO Note 1 First characters in quoted string are significant Note 2 A and a are conside
125. ls on a screen A computer with a resolution of 40 x 40 has 1600 different pixels This is low resolution graphics because the graphic pints pixels are very large For computers without graphics ZBasic will simulate the graphics as closely as possible using an asterisk The resolution would be the number of characters across by characters down See MODE GRAPHICS TYPE RESOLUTION HIGH RESOLUTION about 200 x 150 or More LOW RESOLUTION about 150 x 100 or Less CHARACTER TEXT graphics simulation A COMPARISON OF LOW AND HIGH RESOLUTION IMAGES HIGH RESOLUTION LOW RESOLUTION CHARACTER MENOSAN pi F i F i i Pi SSR Ra oder som pI nxa x xuka RAN XXX x xg Rx dd E EE ae Sess Notice the variation in quality Programmers porting programs over to other machines should keep the resolution of the target computer in mind when creating programs 83 Graphics GRAPHICS eee MORE GRAPHIC EXAMPLES AT DIFFERENT RESOLUTIONS Quality deteriorates as graphic complexity increases and screen resolution decreases although usually the lower the resolution the faster the execution speed this line example you can see the variation of quality The ZBasic statement to create all the lines in the first example was the same PLOT 60 660 TO 1000 10 HIGH RESOLUTION LOW RESOLUTION CHARACTER Additional examples of more complex graphics forms in different resolutions HIGH RESOLUTION LOW RESOLUTION CHA
126. m needs While this may seem efficient on the surface immense amounts of time are wasted in String Garbage Collection Garbage Collection is what happens when your program suddenly stops and hangs up for two or three minutes while BASIC rearranges strings in memory This makes this method unusable for most serious programming HOW DIMMING STRING ARRAYS AFFECT PROGRAM CONVERSION MSBASIC CLEAR 10000 Sets aside 10 000 bytes for ALL strings DIM A 1000 Uses memory allocated with CLEAR plus 3 8 byte pointers per element ZBASIC DIM A 1000 256 256 bytes allocated 100x256 ZBASIC DIM 10 A 1000 10 010 bytes allocated 1001x10 Many BASICs use CLEAR to set aside memory for strings Each string in ZBasic is allocated memory at compile time A problem you may encounter while converting Out of Memory Error from DIMension statements like the ones above just define the length of the string elements ZBasic allows you to define the length of any string with DEFLEN or DIM statements Check the string requirements of the program you wish to convert and set the lengths accordingly If you have large string arrays that must have elements with wide ranging lengths constantly changing from zero to 255 characters use ZBasic s special INDEX string array Like other BASIC s CLEAR is used to set aside memory for this array no Garbage collecting here either See INDEX DEFLEN DIM and String Variables for more in
127. mand TO the point on the screen 12 positions over by 40 positions down Plots a triangle in the upper left corner of the screen Note All the examples above will plot in the current COLOR Graphics 86 GRAPHICS a POINT POINT horizontal coordinate vertical coordinate Returns the COLOR of the pixel at the ZBasic coordinate Point is available on many computers to inquire about the COLOR of a specific screen graphic position some computers do not have the capability to see pixels As with other commands ZBasic Device Independent Graphic coordinates may overlap pixels The following illustration shows the pixels and color types associated with them In this example O BACKGROUND WHITE 1 FOREGROUND BLACK POINT h v EXAMPLES POINT 0 0 1 POINT 1 0 1 POINT 0 2 0 POINT 2 1 0 POINT 2 2 1 Screen Pixel Note Point returns COLOR of coordinate As with all other ZBasic graphic commands the standard device independent coordinate system of 1024 x 768 is used Note The ZBasic device independent coordinate system specifies positions on the screen not pixels See below for ways of setting your system to actual pixel coordinates if needed 2 S282 Macintosh and MSDOS systems can be set to use pixel coordinates with COORDINATE WINDOW See Apple appendix for ways of configuring to pixel coordinates Z80 see your hardware technical manual and the Z80 appendix for specif
128. ments of 10 RENUM 100 5 Lines start with 100 Increments of 5 RENUM 100 20 5 Renumber From line 20 Start with 100 Increments of 5 RENUM 100 Renumbers all lines by 100 THE CALCULATOR DIRECT MODE ZBasic has a built in calculator Use or PRINT in front of a calculation to see the results You may also convert number bases like HEX Binary Octal and Unsigned Integer See BASE CONVERSIONS Examples YOU TYPE ZBASIC RESPONDS PRINT 123 2 51 3 6320 16 2SQR 92 1 9 5968745 PRINT 3 2 6 6 Calculated in INTEGER 23 2 6 9 Calculated in FLOATING POINT 2320 0001 3200000 NOTE Unless you have configured ZBasic to default to floating point Integer is assumed If configured for Optimize expressions as Integer use a decimal point in an expression to force the result of a calculation to be floating point see CONFIGURE Interactive Programming Environment 18 STANDARD LINE EDITOR E l SAVE LOAD APPEND and MERGE ZBASIC uses the LOAD and SAVE commands to load and save programs Subroutines saved in ASCII without line numbers may be inserted in your program with APPEND To SAVE in ASCII use To SAVE ins ASCII without line numbers use Examples SAVE MYPROG Saves in tokenized format SAVE CHECKERS 2 Saves tokenized to TRS 80 drive 2 SAVE MYPROG Saves MYPROG in ASCII SAVE TEST Saves TEST without line s in ASCII LOAD CHECKERS Loads Checkers LOAD CHECKERS Loads Checkers but strips REMarks
129. monitors also supported TRS 80 Model III 128x48 TRS 80 Model 4 4p 160x72 RS and Micro Lab s hi res boards 640 240 CP M 80 typical 80x24 text simulation KAYPRO with graphics 160x100 MACHINE DEPENDENT SUBROUTINES If the program being ported contains machine language subroutines you will need to rewrite those routines in the machine language of the target computer Watch out for DEFUSR USR OUT INP MACHLG LINE CALL PEEK PEEKWORD PEEKLONG POKE POKEWORD POKELONG Unless you completely understand the machine language of both the target and source computer use extreme caution when porting programs with these commands 159 Porting Programs PORTING PROGRAMS ES eee MACHINE SPECIFIC COMMANDS METHODS In order to take advantage of unique or special features of some computers ZBasic offers special commands that will not work or function on others Be sure the program you are porting contains only commands from the reference section of this manual Special ZBasic commands may have to be rewritten for the target computer Be sure to read the ZBasic appendices for both the Target and Source computers They will explain in detail the special commands for each system you must purchase a version of ZBasic for each computer you wish to compile from OF TRANSFERRING SOURCE CODE FROM ONE MACHINE TO ANOTHER Telephone Modem Transfer Transfer files using a Modem and simple communications software routines like the ones under O
130. mory and disk operating system permitting Each type of computer requires a different amount of buffer memory space for each file used so check your computer appendix for specifics usually there are 256 1024 bytes allocated per file 10 files would require between 2 560 10 240 bytes See computer appendix for variations Files 106 SEQUENTIAL METHOD 107 Sequential File Method SEQUENTIAL METHOD ASIC This section covers some of the methods that may used when reading or writing files sequentially It covers the use of READ WRITE PRINT INPUT and LINEINPUT SEQUENTIAL METHOD SEQUENTIAL METHOD USING PRINT AND INPUT These two programs demonstrate how to create write and read a file with PRINT and INPUT using the Sequential Method PRINT INPUT OPEN O 1 NAMES OPEN I 1 NAMES DO INPUT Name NAMES DO INPUT 1 NAMES AGE INPUT Age AGE PRINT NAMES AGE PRINT 1 NAMES AGE UNTIL NAMES END UNTIL NAMES END CLOSE 1 END CLOSE 1 END Type END to finish inputting names in the PRINT program The INPUT program will INPUT the names until END is read FILE IMAGE CREATED WITH PRINTS Fer PEGHE RPE PEGS TELE REEL bt Pet F Garinge raban and sometimes nobeni depending on tha Dek Dearating Sreema DIE Unless a semi colon is used after the last data being printed to the disk the end of each PRINT statement is marked wit
131. mple of a one dimension string array with 101 elements ARRAY VARIABLES ARRAY ELEMENT VALUE NAME 0 ABE NAME 1 ADAM NAME 2 ALEX NAME 3 AMOS NAME 100 ZORRO Separate variables could be used for each value like NAME1 ABE NAME2 ADAM O but typing a hundred different variables would become very tiring Array variables are much easier to use when inputting saving loading printing long lists moving data around in a list sorting lists of information etc This example shows how easy it is to print a complete list of the names in the array of variables FOR X 0 TO 100 PRINT NAMESS X NEXT Computers are very good at manipulating large amounts of data and using regular variables to do this is very impractical MULTI DIMENSIONED ARRAYS ZBasic will allow arrays of 1 2 3 or more dimensions depending on the amount of memory available on your computer Array Variables 7 2 ARRAY VARIABLES E l TWO DIMENSION ARRAY EXAMPLE The following chart shows a two dimensional integer array A 3 3 The number of elements are determined by the BASE OPTION that was configured when loading ZBasic The default is Base 0 A 3 3 BASE 0 dimensions are 4 elements down 0 1 2 and 3 and 4 elements across 0 1 2 and 3 Base zero utilizes all the elements including the italicized A 3 3 BASE 1 dimensions are 3 elements down 1 2 3 and 3 elements across 1 2 3 not the italicized A 0 1
132. mportant Note ZBasic does not necessarily store data in disk files in the same way or format as other versions of BASIC You may have to convert existing BASIC files to ZBasic format Converting old Programs 16 4 CONVERTING OLD PROGRAMS aaa CONVERTING GRAPHIC COMMANDS ZBasic s Device Independent Graphics are very powerful and simple to understand Conversion should be painless in most cases ZBASIC GRAPHICS MSBASIC equivalent PLOT LINE PSET PRESET CIRCLE CIRCLE BOX LINE with parameters COLOR COLOR PSET PRESET black and white MODE SCREEN POINT POINT GET PUT some systems GET PUT some systems RATIO aspect parameter of CIRCLE FILL PAINT PLOT USING DRAW ZBasic defaults to a relative coordinate system of 1024x768 This system does not pertain to pixels but to imaginary positions on the screen Most older versions of BASIC use pixel coordinates 5 22 Macintosh and MSDOS Use COORDINATE WINDOW at the beginning of program to set a program to pixel coordinates Apple See appendix for ways of using POKE to set system to pixel coordinates LOOP PAIRS All ZBasic FOR NEXT WHILE WEND and DO UNTIL loops must have matching pairs Some BASIC interpreters allow the program to have two NEXTs for on FOR or two WENDs for one WHILE Since ZBasic is a compiler it will not allow this A STRUCTURE ERROR will be generated when you compile a program with unmatched LOOP pairs Another way to find unmatched pairs is to LIS
133. n the FOR instruction See WHILE WEND for immediate exiting To count backwards in a FOR NEXT loop set STEP to a negative number Note 1 STEP zero will cause and endless loop Note 2 With integer loops be sure the maximum number is less than 32 767 otherwise an endless loop may occur for some systems The reason for this is that the sign of the number increments to 32768 after 32767 which restarts the loop all over again Endless loop example FOR X 1 TO 32767 lt Endless loop NEXT X Note 3 STEP number must stay within the integer range STEP 32767 would create an endless loop Note 4 Unlike most other languages FOR NEXT loops may be entered or exited in the middle with no ill effects 2 The same problem arises with four byte integers when the maximum Longlnteger number in the FOR loop exceeds 2 147 483 647 137 Loops DO UNTIL LOOPS R DO Program flow UNTIL conditional expression is TRUE DO X X 2 PRINT X UNTIL X gt 19 program continues LINE 1 Start of the DO loop LINE 2 Make X X 2 LINE 3 PRINT the value of X each time the loop is executed LINE 4 If X lt 20 then go back to the beginning of the loop When X gt 19 program falls through to the next statement line 4 in example A DO loop will execute at least once In contrast to WHILE WEND which checks the condition at the beginning of the loop DO UNTIL checks the condition at the end of the loop Use WHILE WEND when you need t
134. nction on computers lacking the capability to read screen pixel coordinates See computer appendix Example FILL BEFORE FELL 0 364 2O FILL 2th 354 FHA 1000 200 As with all ZBasic graphic commands the Device Independent Coordinates of 1024 x 768 are used Also see CIRCLE FILL and BOX FILL 2 FILL pattern is taken from PEN pattern PEN n Where n is one of the pen patterns used under the control panel A much faster way to fill screen segments is using Quickdraw FILL with polygons circles and rectangles See appendix Graphics 9 4 GRAPHICS a COLOR CLS COLOR is used to signify the color to be used with PLOT CIRCLE BOX and FILL All systems support zero and 1 for background and foreground colors BLACK and WHITE respectively on most systems COLOR expression The following chart represents the color codes for IBM PC and compatible systems with color graphics Colors codes vary significantly from system to system so check your computer appendix for variations IBM PC and Compatible COLOR codes 0 BLACK 8 GRAY 1 BLUE 9 LIGHT BLUE 2 GREEN 10 LIGHT GREEN 3 CYAN 11 LIGHT CYAN 4 RED 12 LIGHT RED 5 MAGENTA 13 LIGHT MAGENTA 6 BROWN 14 YELLOW 7 WHITE 15 BRIGHT WHITE Color intensities will vary depending on the graphics hardware and monitor being used Check your computer appendix for variations 2 While most Macintoshes are black and white COLOR is useful when pr
135. nition as variable names Passing values to functions in variables is also very easy LONG FN may be used when a function the size of a subroutine is needed One FN may call previously defined functions LOADING PREVIOUSLY CREATED SUBROUTINES To insert subroutines you have used in previous programs use the APPEND command This will append or insert a program saved with SAVE a non line numbered program or subroutine into the current program starting at the line number you specify APPEND linenumber or label filename Be sure to avoid the use of line numbers or GOTO statements in your subroutine to make then more easily portable If using variables that are to be considered LOCAL we recommend keeping those variables all lowercase characters to differentiate them for GLOBAL variables all ZBasic variables are GLOBAL Sometimes LONG FN may be more appropriate for re usable subroutines LISTINGS WITHOUT LINE NUMBERS To make program listings easier to read use LIST or LLIST to list a program without line numbers ZBasic automatically indents nested statements with LIST for even more readability n Macintosh Listings can be sent to the Screen m LaserWriter or ImageWriter without linenumbers and with keywords boldfaced by using LLIST MSDOS Screen listings with highlighted keywords and no linenumbers are accomplished with LIST no printer support for highlighted keywords 151 Structure STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING S
136. nteger add and subtract operations take 1 77th the time of 14 digit operations 4 6 Scientific Accuracy operations were set for LOG TAN EXP SIN COS and ATN only Other functions remain at double precision SPEED To obtain maximum speed with BCD floating point calculations configure the digits of precision to DOUBLE PRECISION 6 SINGLE PRECISION 4 SCIENTIFIC PRECISION 4 ZBasic does ALL calculations in DOUBLE PRECISION Important Note Some versions of ZBasic offer an optional high speed binary floating point option While the speed of binary math packages is superior the accuracy range and memory requirements of binary math are much different from the standard BCD math described above See the manual provided with the binary math package for details Variables 60 VARIAB LES STRING VARIABLES STRING String variables are used for storing alphanumeric symbol and control characters ZBasic string variables may hold up to a maximum of 255 characters Any character with an ASCII code in the range of zero to 255 may be used ASC A will return zero if A is a null string IF LEN A gt 0 AND ASC AS 0 THEN ASCII CODE 0 NUMBER CONVERSIONS VAL Converts a string to a number X VAL A STR Converts a number to a string A STR 43 CVI CVB Converts a condensed string to a number MKI MKB Converts numbers to condensed strings E See DEFSTR LONG for using CVI and MKI with LongIntegers DEFINING S
137. nts and tricks from other ZBasic users all over the world and from the ZBasic programmers themselves Call 800 482 4567 to order Thank you for your support of ZBasic Please let us know if you have any ideas of how to improve the product Michael A Gariepy April 1987 Introduction 6 GETTING STARTED 7 Getting Started GETTING STARTED a eae ASIC ZBasic is provided on a diskette for your computer Before loading ZBasic do the following GETTING STARTED 1 Read sign and return the License agreement in the front of this manual Keep track of your serial number you may need it for support 2 Read the Appendix for your computer It will explain any variations or enhancements for your version of ZBasic and also has important information about hardware requirements or limitations 3 MAKE A BACKUP COPY OF THE ORIGINAL ZBasic DISKETTE Never use the original diskette If you do not know how to make backups refer to your DOS or User Manual 4 Using the BACKUP load ZBasic according to the instructions for your computer below MS DOS From A gt ZBASIC CP M 80 From A gt ZBASIC TRS 80 FromDOS READY ZBASIC Apple DOS 3 3 From FP prompt BRUN ZBASIC Apple ProDOS From FP prompt ZBASIC ZBASIC SYSTEM Macintosh Using the mouse Double Click ZBasic Icon HOW TO BE A ZBASIC EXPERT IN TEN MINUTES OR LESS The following is a quick and dirty course that teaches you how to TYPE RUN SAVE QUIT and LOAD
138. o Less Than Greater Than Greater Than OR Equal To Less Than OR Equal To Examples A HELLO AND A 2000 CONDITIONAL EXPRESSION RESULT X 12 lt 20 X 1 PRINT 23 45 0 IF 10 gt 5 THEN PRINT SURE IS SURE IS IF A 2000 gt 100 99 PRINT A Nothing IF VAL A 0 THEN PRINT A HELLO PRINT 2 gt 5 3 lt 5 5 gt 5 0 1 0 IF A gt 120 THEN PRINT OK OK IF A 5 gt 10000 THEN STOP IF A PRINT YES Program STOPs YES Non zero is True PRINT 50 gt 50 0 PRINT 50 gt 50 1 IF A gt 30000 THEN PRINT OK Nothing X 1 IF X THEN PRINT YEP YEP X 0 IF X THEN PRINT YEP Nothing X 77 321 gt 77 320 1 0 X HELLO HELLO X 1 IF A HELLO PRINT YES YES IF A HELLLO PRINT YES Nothing IF A gt HEL THEN PRINT A HELLO IF A lt gt GOON THEN PRINT NO NO IF STR A 2000 PRINT YES YES Math Functions and Operators 44 MATH LOGICAL OPERATORS Zbasic makes use of the logical operators AND OR NOT SHIFTS and XOR These operators are used for comparing two 16 bit conditions and binary operations except on 32 bit computers which can compare 32 bits When used in comparative operations a negative one 1 is returned for TRUE and a zero 0 is returned for FALSE RETURNS TRUE 1 if both conditions TRUE else FALSE 0 Logical Operators condition AND condition condition OR condition TRUE 1 if either or both is TRUE else FALSE 0 condition XOR condition TRUE 1 if only one condition is TRUE else
139. o check the condition at the beginning Note Unlike most other languages the loop may be entered or exited in the middle with no ill effects For instance in line 2 above you could used IF X gt 10 then RETURN This would not cause any problems in the program Loops 138 LOOPS E WHILE WEND WHILE conditional expression Program flow WEND end loop here when condition of WHILE is FALSE WHILE X lt 20 X X 2 PRINT X WEND program continues LINE 1 Continue the loop while X is less than 20 LINE 2 Make X X 2 LINE 3 Print the value of X each time the loop is executed LINE 4 If X is less than or equal 20 then go back to the WHILE and do the loop again otherwise continues at the first statement after WEND In contrast to DO UNTIL and FOR NEXT which check the condition at the end of a loop WHILE WEND checks the condition at the beginning of the loop and will exit immediately if the condition is not met Note Unlike most other languages a WHILE WEND loop may be entered or exited in the middle with no ill effects For instance in line 30 above you could have used IF X gt 10 then RETURN This would not cause any problems in the program 139 Loops FUNCTIONS AND SUBROUTINES See ee ASIC FUNCTIONS AND SUBROUTINES APPEND DEF FN ZBasic contains some powerful tools for creating re usable subroutines and appending or inserting them into other ZBasic programs that you create APPEND is a command
140. oint force REAL B 23 230 INTEGER B 23 230 FLOATING POINT forces Double Precision B 32000 11264 INTEGER Overflow error B 32000 320000 FLOATING POINT Decimal point SIN B 54402111 FLOATING POINT Scientific Function B 0 65535 1 INTEGER UNS 1 65535 B 4800 17536 INTEGER UNS 17536 48000 Note You may configure ZBasic to assume floating point by setting Optimize expressions for integer math to NO See Configure in the beginning of this manual PARENTHESES IN OPTIMIZED INTEGER EXPRESSION EVALUATION Parentheses are used to force an expression to be evaluated in a certain order See ORDER OF PRECEDENCE ZBasic evaluates an expression by examining the outermost portions In the expression X 2 4 03 4 5 the innermost portion of 4 03 4 is floating point but since the outermost portions of X and 5 are integer the whole expression is returned as an integer B 10 in examples EXPRESSION RESULT EXPRESSION EVALUATED AS B 32000 1 7670 INTEGER Out of range error B 32000 1 0 320010 FLOATING POINT forces REAL B 23 1200 1210 INTEGER B 23 1200 1210 23 FLOATING POINT period forces REAL B 200 001 2 10 INTEGER B 200 00142 10 0002 FLOATING POINT B ATN 2 11 107149 FLOATING POINT Scientific Function The expression within each level of parentheses is still evaluated according to the precision in that level NOTE Newer versions of ZBasic may be configured to expression evalu
141. oint variable DIGITS of DISK FILE AND ACCURACY VARIABLE MEMORY REQUIREMENTS 2 digits 2 bytes 4 digits 3 bytes 5 digits Will round odd digits UP to the next even number 6 here 6 digits 4 bytes Single precision default if not configured by user 14 digits 8 bytes Double precision default if not configured by user 52 digits 27 bytes 54 digits 28 bytes 2 The Macintosh defaults to 8 digits for single four bytes and 12 digits for double eight bytes Digits of accuracy are configurable in multiples of four instead of two as above To figure memory Digits of Accuracy 2 2 bytes required WARNING Different ZBasic programs sharing files and CHAINED programs MUST be set to the same accuracy Failure to do this will result in program errors faulty data reads or program crashes Important Note Some versions of ZBasic offer an optional high speed binary floating point option While the speed of binary math packages is superior the accuracy range and memory requirements of binary math are much different from the standard BCD math described above See the manual provided with the binary math package for details Variables 5 8 VARIABLES HOW BCD FLOATING POINT VARIABLES ARE STORED IN MEMORY Single precision default is 6 digits 4 bytes Double precision default is 14 digits 8 bytes To locate the address memory location of either a Single or Double precision variable ADDRESS1 VARPTR FLOATING POINT VARIABLE SUBSCR
142. omes first LINEINPUT 5 A Inputs a line into A from filenumber five from the current file pointer Accepts all ASCII codes including commas and quotes except linefeed chr10 and carriage return chr 13 Terminates input after a chr 13 chr 10 End of file or 255 characters READ filenumber variable variable READ is the counterpart of WRITE It is used to read back data created with WRITE in condensed high speed format This is the most efficient way of reading files Example READ 1 A 10 Z K 2 Reads 10 characters into A an integer number into Z and 2 characters into K from filenumber one from the current file pointer The file pointer will be pointing to the location directly following the last character in K includes trailing spaces if string was less than ten GETTING IMPORTANT INFORMATION ABOUT A SPECIFIC FILE Syntax Description REC filenumber Returns the current RECORD number location for filenumber LOC filenumber Returns the current location within the current RECORD for filenumber the byte offset LOF filenumber Returns the last RECORD number of filenumber If there are one or zero records in the file LOF will return one Due to the limitations of some disk operating systems this function is not always exact on some systems Check the COMPUTER APPENDIX for specifics Files 104 FILES __ lt _ lt _ lt ny ZBASIC FILE STRUCTURE All ZBasic files are a contiguous string of
143. or only Important Note Always type keywords and commands in uppercase Select Convert to Uppercase under Configure if you don t want to worry about it Important Note This entire section deals with commands that are to be executed from the Standard Line Editor If you are in the full screen editor you will need to switch to the Standard Editor See your computer appendix for Specifics E This section of the manual refers to the COMMAND window Switching between the COMMAND and EDIT windows is accomplished with COMMAND E Interactive Programming Environment 14 STANDARD LINE EDITOR Eee ENTERING AND DELETING LINES Type in the following example Enter it exactly as shown as we will use this text to illustrate the use of the line editor Remember to use lt ENTER gt at the end of each line This is how ZBasic recognizes a line and stores it in memory 10 THIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF ADDING A LINI 20 THIS IS THE SECOND LINE 30 THIS IS THE THIRD LINE Gl If you make a mistake use lt BACKSP gt or lt DEL gt to delete it If you lt ENTER gt a line incorrectly just type it over again To see the complete program type LIST LISTING A PROGRAM To list a line or range of lines use LIST or just L YOU TYPE ZBASIC RESPONDS LIST or L Lists the complete program to the screen LIST SUBROUTINE Lists the line with that label LIST FRED List all lines after and including the line with t
144. or string array variables may require the user to define string lengths to avoid running out of memory Note Some BASIC s have what is referred to as Garbage collection ZBasic s method of storing strings NEVER creates time wasting Garbage Collection DEFINING THE LENGTH OF STRING VARIABLES ZBasic strings have a default length of 255 characters This can cause excessive memory usage To obtain maximum memory efficiency there are two ways of defining the length of string variables and string array variables DEF LEN number Numbers only No expressions DIM number STRING VARIABLE or number STRING ARRAY DEFINING STRING LENGTHS WITH DIM DIM X 10 20 AS ZS 5 45 TESTS 10 MDS 20 20 In this example the strings are allocated X 10 255 each element 255 is the default 2816 bytes A 20 21 bytes Z 5 each element of Z as 20 21 6 105 total bytes of memory used TEST 45 46 bytes MD 20 20 each element of MD 20 20 as 10 21 21 11 4851 total bytes of memory used If no length is defined the last given length in that DIM statement is used 20 for A in this example If no length was defined in that DIM statement then the DEFined LENgbth is assumed 255 if the string length has not been previously defined Note Add one to the defined length of each string to determine the actual memory requirement of the string PLUS ONE for the LENGTH BYTE Variables 6 4 VARIABLES a ol DEFINI
145. other hardware is similar Programs from TRS 80 MODEL Ill 4 Apple e and c and CP M 80 machines should port over to an IBM PC or Macintosh with little or no changes Porting a large program 128K or more from a larger machine like an IBM PC or Macintosh to a smaller machine will require a number of memory saving measures covered in the following paragraphs CHAINING PROGRAMS TOGETHER If a 128K program is being moved to a 64K system you will have to split it up into two or more separate programs and CHAIN them together Since ZBasic allows sharing variables while chaining this should solve most problems 157 Porting Programs PORTING PROGRAMS eS eee eae CHECK STRING MEMORY ALLOCATION ZBasic allows the user to change the size of strings Since some programmers on larger machines may not be concerned with creating efficient code or keeping variable memory use down check if string size has been set Setting string size from the 256 byte default to 32 or 64 will reduce string variable memory requirements dramatically See DEFLEN DIM and String Variables in this manual for more information about allocating memory for strings QUOTED STRINGS Excessive use of quoted strings often occurs on larger computers because there is so much free memory Shortening quoted strings may save memory Also see ZBasic PSTR function for an extremely efficient way of utilizing string constants in DATA statements and in regular statements
146. ou will not need to add one to the dimension For instance in the first example the way to calculate the memory required would be 10 10 10 2 Also see DEF LEN and DIM under STRING VARIABLES for info about defining sting lengths Macintosh also has Longlnteger arrays Each element takes 4 bytes ARRAY BOUNDS CHECKING During the initial stages of writing a program it is a good idea to configure ZBasic to check array bounds in runtime See Configure for more information OUT OF MEMORY ERROR FROM DIMMING It is necessary to have an understanding of how arrays use memory DIMensioning an array larger than available memory will cause ZBasic to give an OUT OF MEMORY error at Compile time or RUN time When calculating large arrays be sure to check if memory is sufficient Array Variables 7 4 ARRAY VARIABLES a PRINTING ARRAYS Arrays were designed to make manipulating large lists of data easy The following routines print the values of ARRAY 50 and or ARRAY 50 5 to the screen Substitute LPRINT for PRINT or use ROUTE 128 to print to the printer Use AUTO or make your own line numbers It does not matter which numbers are used One Dimension array PRINT routine DIM ARRAY 50 FOR X 0 TO 50 PRINT ARRAY X NEXT Two Dimension array PRINT routine DIM ARRAY 50 5 FOR X 0 TO 50 FOR X2 0 TO 5 PRINT ARRAY X X2 NEXT X2 PRINT NEXT X MAKING AN ENTIRE ARRAY ONE VALUE The following examples
147. ove the Cursor to the end of the line and enter the INSERT MODE press the X key For eXtend lt ESC gt will return to the regular line editor mode EXIT THE LINE EDITOR lt ENTER gt or lt BREAK gt lt ENTER gt Exit the line edit mode and ACCEPT all changes and additions lt BREAK gt To exit the line edit mode and IGNORE all changes and additions n is a number If you type 4D four characters are deleted n nth occurrence or n times 17 Interactive Programming Environment STANDARD LINE EDITOR USING OTHER EDITORS OR WORD PROCESSORS Most versions of ZBasic now come with a Full Screen Editor Check your computer appendix to see if you have one for your version If you choose you may also edit ZBasic programs with a word processor or some other editor You will need to save the ZBasic program in ASCII using the SAVE or SAVE commands before editing In order for ZBasic to load a text file it requires that Line lengths must be less that 250 characters Every line must be followed by a Carriage Return If the text file does not contain line numbers ZBasic will assign line numbers to the program starting with one in increments of one Use RENUM to renumber a program ASCII text takes longer to LOAD and SAVE RENUMBER PROGRAM LINES ZBasic renumbers lines in a program using the RENUM command Format RENUM NEW LINE NUMBERI OLD START INCREMENTI YOU TYPE ZBASIC RESPONDS RENUM Lines start with 10 Incre
148. pping disk errors themselves or letting ZBasic display the disk error See Disk Error Trapping for more information 155 Debugging Tools PORTING PROGRAMS PORTING PROGRAMS ASIC Porting means taking a program from one computer and moving it to another computer of different type or model As from an Apple to an IBM Because most ZBasic commands contained in the reference section of this manual except USR OUT INP PEEK POKE VARPTR CALL and MACHLG function the same way it is very easy to move the source code from one machine to another The following pages will describe some of the problems and solutions of porting programs OBJECT CODE AND SOURCE CODE There are two separate types of programs created with ZBasic and you should understand the differences SOURCE CODE OBJECT CODE FILE COMMANDS This is the text part of a program you type into the computer and looks like the commands and functions you see in this manual In order to turn SOURCE CODE into OBJECT CODE ZBasic compiles it when you type RUN or RUN or RUN The OBJECT CODE is what ZBasic creates from the SOURCE CODE after you type RUN Object code is specific to a certain machine i e an IBM PC uses an 8088 CPU and an Apple uses a 6502 CPU The ZBASIC OBJECT CODE for each of these machines is different and cannot be ported Port the SOURCE CODE to the target machine and then recompile it into the OBJECT CODE of that computer ZBasic fil
149. presentation of that SIGN or BASE DECIMAL TO BASE CONVERSION HEX OCTAL BINARY HEXS 48964 OCTS 54386 BINS 255 BF44 152162 0000000011111111 HEXS 32 OCTS 8 BINS 512 0020 000010 0000000100000000 BASE TO DECIMAL CONVERSION HEX OCTAL BINARY VAL amp 0030 VAL amp 0000011 VAL amp X0000000001100011 48 9 99 DISPLAYING UNSIGNED INTEGERS To display or print an unsigned integer number use UNS UNS returns the unsigned value of the number by not using the leftmost bit as a sign indicator UNS 1 65 535 UNS 2311 63 225 ZBasic interprets the integers 1 and 65 535 as the same value In BINARY format they are both 1111111111111111 The left most bit sets the sign of the number to positive or negative This is the same unsigned integer format used by many other languages E The same holds true with LongIntegers only 32 bits are used instead of 16 bits The signed range is 2 147 483 647 The unsigned range is 0 to 4 294 967 293 See DEFSTR LONG in the appendix for ways of using 32 bit HEX OCT UNS and BIN Numeric Conversions 46 NUMERIC CONVERSIONS a l CONVERSION BETWEEN DIFFERENT VARIABLE TYPES ZBasic will convert variables from one type to another as long as the conversion is within the range of the target variable DOUBLE or SINGLE PRECISION VARIABLE INTEGER VARIABLE will convert exactly unless single precision is set less then 6 digits INTEGER VA
150. quivalents OPEN R OPEN R or OPEN FOR RANDOM READ WRITE RECORD FIELD GET PUT LSET RSET CVS CVD MKS MKD CVI MKI Note While ZBasic also supports MKI CVI and MKB CVB they are not necessary for use n Random files since ZBasic s READ and WRITE automatically store and retrieve numeric data in the most compact format ZBasic s MKI CVI MKB and CVB are most useful for condensing numbers for other reasons Since ZBasic allows using any variable type in READ and WRITE statements the user is not faced with complicated conversions of strings to numbers and numbers to strings CONVERTING SEQUENTIAL FILES Most ZBasic Sequential file commands are very similar or the same to MSBASIC ZBASIC statements MSBASIC equivalents OPEN or OPEN O OPEN OPEN O or OPEN A or OPEN FOR INPUT OPEN A some versions OUTPUT or APPEND some versions EOF n some versions EOF n some versions LINEINPUT INPUT PRINT LINEINPUT INPUT PRINT Note The biggest difference when converting sequential file statements is that ZBasic s PRINT statements should have quoted commas MSBASIC PRINT 1 A B C or PRINT 1 A BS C ZBASIC PRINT 1 AS BS CS DISK ERROR TRAPPING ZBASIC statement MSBASIC equivalent ON ERROR GOSUB ON ERROR GOSUB Read ON ERROR and Disk Error Trapping in this manual for detailed information ZBasic error codes are much different from MSBASIC I
151. r appending The RECORD pointer will be positioned to the next available space in the file To close a file properly for future appending use the function called FN Close f f LONG FN Open f f REM FN OPEN f S OPEN R f 128 REM Change 128 to correct for your DOS Filelen S LOF NextRec FileLen S NextLoc 0 LONG IF FileLen gt 0 xtRec S NextRec 1 RECORD NextRec NextLoc READ NextRec 128 REM Change this 128 too ext Loc INSTR 1 NextRec CHRS 26 REM zero on Apple IF NextLoc S gt 0 THEN NextLoc S NextLoc 1 ELSE NextRec S NextRec 1 END IF RECORD f NextRec NextLoc END FN LONG FN Close f F RE CLOSE the file correctly with an appended chr 26 PRINT CHR 26 CLOSE END FN Note This method will work with ASCII text files ONLY E See Open A in the appendix for opening files for Append 113 Sequential File Method RANDOM METHOD EE Eee ASIC CREATING FILES USING THE RANDOM ACCESS METHOD Random access methods are very important in disk file handling Any data in a file may be stored or retrieved without regard to the other data in the file A character or field from the last record in a file may be read or written without having to read any other records A simple example of the Random access method is the following program that reads or writes single c
152. re digits than the set precision Z LongInteger conversions are the same as regular integers with the exception that the range is much larger Since all internal integer calculations are done in Longlnteger conversions are simple See DEFSTR LONG in the Macintosh appendix 47 Numeric Conversions CONSTANTS EEE ASIC Constants are values used in expressions variable assignments or conditionals In the following underlined program lines the constants values remain constant while values of A Z and T are variable CONSTANTS 10 PRINT HELLO THERE PRINT AS Z Z T 2322 12 ZBasic users both string alphanumeric and numeric constants INTEGER CONSTANTS An integer constant is in the range of 32 768 to 32 767 or unsigned integer in the range of 0 to 65 535 The BASE of an integer may be represented in Decimal Hexadecimal Octal or Binary See Numeric Conversions for information about converting integers to and from HEX OCTAL BINARY and DECIMAL MEMORY REQUIRED FOR INTEGER CONSTANTS Two bytes each in the same format as integer variables E The Macintosh also has LongInteger constants with a range of 2 147 483 647 LonglInteger constants require four bytes memory each Macintosh format of integer is the opposite of other versions i e MSB is first and LSB is last Constants 48 CONSTANTS ol FLOATING POINT CONSTANTS The range of floating point constants is 1 0E 64 to 9 999E
153. reatly It should be noted that a compiler cannot determine if an expression like C A B returns a floating point number If A 20000 and B 20000 an overflow will occur NOTE Some versions of ZBasic most notably versions older than 4 0 will not allow you to configure the expression evaluator Older versions default to optimized integer math as described below WHY OPTIMIZE EXPRESSIONS FOR INTEGER MATH ZBasic defaults to a unique way of interpreting math expressions Under CONFIGURE you are given the option of setting expression evaluation to optimized integer or regular floating point The default is INTEGER This requires some extra thought on the part of the user but forces programs to execute much faster and much more efficiently 37 Math Functions and Operators MATH Ss UNDERSTANDING EXPRESSIONS THAT ARE OPTIMIZED FOR INTEGER MATH Optimized Integer Expressions return the final result of an expression in integer or floating point depending on how the expression is evaluated To optimize program speed and size integer is assumed UNLESS one of the following is found in an expression decimal Point scientific function floating point divide SEE NEXT PAGE DEFINITIONS OF DIVIDE SYMBOLS or a constant gt 65 535 The following examples will give you an idea how ZBasic evaluates expressions as Integer or floating point B 10 EXPRESSION RESULT EXPRESSION EVALUATED AS B 123 1 23 FLOATING POINT Decimal p
154. red different characters 2 Use in front of a line number reference FIND 1000 YOU TYPE ZBASIC FINDS FIND HELLO 01010 A 20 PRINT HELLO THERE FIND A 01022 Z 1 A B PRINTA B Or 01333 ABA goodbye FIND 99 05122 F 2 X X 2 F 999 FIND 12345 line number 08000 GOTO 12345 FIND 100 not a line number 02000 X 100 FIND X C 03050 A 1 T ABS X C 9 293 F or 03044 ZX C 4 FIND PRINT 00230 A 92 PRINTA FIND SUB5 00345 SUB500 CLS Or 03744 GOSUB SUB500 FIND OPEN 03400 OPEN R 1 FILE54 23 FIND X X 2 09922 F 2 X X 2 F 999 FIND lt ENTER gt Finds next occurrence lt gt semi colon key Finds next occurrence To FIND data in remarks or DATA statements use FIND REM FIND DATA Note If your version of ZBasic comes with a full screen editor you may have other FIND or REPLACE options See your computer appendix for specifics Interactive Programming Environment 20 STANDARD LINE EDITOR ee SETTING CHARACTER WIDTH AND MARGINS FOR PROGRAM LISTINGS WIDTH ZBasic has powerful formatting commands for making program listings to the screen or printer easier to read WIDTH LPRINT AN DPAGE Since screen and printer widths vary depending on the hardware the user may set the width of listing to either the printer or the screen COMMAND RESULT WIDTH 0 THROUGH 255 Sets Screen width for listings WIDTH LPRINT 0 THROUGH 255Sets the printer width for listings PAGE 0 255 1 0 255 2 0 255 3
155. results in an integer number form 32768 to 32767 The expression may be floating point integer or string but if the actual result is more than 32767 or less than 32768 the final result will return the integer remainder which is incorrect ZBasic will not return an error if the calculation result is out of integer range Note 32 bit computers have a Longlnteger range of 2 147 483 647 UNSIGNED INTEGER EXPRESSION AnUNSIGNED INTEGER EXPRESSION always results in an unsigned integer number from 0 to 65535 The expression may be floating point or integer but if the actual result is more than 65535 or less than 0 the final result will return the remainder which will be incorrect See UNS for displaying signed integers as unsigned Note 32 bit computers have an unsigned LongInteger range of 0 to 4 294 967 300 CONDITIONAL EXPRESSION Conditional expressions like A B A gt B A lt B etc will return negative one if TRUE 1 and zero 0 if FALSE It should be noted that a condition like IF X THEN would be TRUE if X is non zero and FALSE if X zero IMPORTANT NOTE ABOUT MATH EXPRESSIONS If you have configured numeric expressions to be optimized as integer the final result of an expression will be evaluated by ZBasic as integer UNLESS one of the following conditions is found within that expression Constant with a type of or exponent D or E Constant with a decimal point period Example 34 or 1 92 Non integer varia
156. rting with A G and T thru W as integer variables No needed A and A are considered the same variable Note Even if a range of letters is defined as a certain type a declaration symbol will still force it to be that type For instance if A Z are defined as integer using DEFINT A is still considered a string and A is still considered a double precision variable DEFDBL INT A M _ Defines variables starting with A thru M as Longlntegers No amp needed A and A amp are the same variable VARIABLE NAMES Variable names must have the following characteristics o Variable names may be up to 240 characters in length but only the first 15 characters are recognized as a unique variable o First character must be in the alpha range of A Z or a z o Additional characters are optional and may be alphanumeric or underline o Symbols not allowed gt lt etc SPACE REQUIRED AFTER KEYWORDS Many versions of ZBasic have this as a configure option See Configure If you don t want to worry about embedding keywords in variables set Space Required after Keywords option to yes It will require that keywords be followed by spaces or non variable symbols This allows variable names like FORD or TOM If you do not set this parameter or do not have this option for your version of ZBasic you must not embed keywords in variables UPPER LOWERCASE WITH VARIABLES If you want the variable TOM and the variable tom to
157. sed Important Note Some versions of ZBasic offer a high speed binary floating point option While the speed of binary math packages is superior the accuracy range and memory requirements of binary math are much different from the standard BCD math described above See the manual provided with the binary math package for details 2 Longlnteger variables and arrays use four bytes each To determine double precision memory requirements for the Macintosh version DIGITS 2 2 BYTES REQUIRED per variable or per double precision array element Variables 52 VARIABLES a INTEGER VARIABLES Because ZBasic always attempts to optimize execution size and speed it will always assume a variable is integer unless the variable is followed by a type declaration amp or that range of letters has been defined DEFSTR DEFDBL DEFDBL INT or DEFSTR Although it will slow down program performance you may force ZBasic to assume floating point variables under configuration See Configure Integer calculations may be 100 to 200 times faster than floating point INTEGER RANGE 32 768 to 32767 E LongInteger range is 2 147 483 647 Speed is as fast as regular integers DEFINING VARIABLES AS INTEGER ZBasic assumes all unDEFined variables or variables without type declarations amp are integer unless configured differently by the user DEFINT may be used to force a range of variables starting with a certain letter to be
158. significant digit is greater than 5 it will round up adding one to the least significant digit In the example for 009 235 898 4 above the last significant 6 digit number is nine but since the digit after 9 is 7 the 9 is rounded up by one to 10 and subsequently the 8 is rounded up to 9 to give us 9 2359E 03 which more accurately represents the single precision value See Configure for ways of setting the rounding factor NUMBER DEFAULT ROUNDING FACTOR IS 49 HEHE O 49 49 98 which is less than one No Rounding HtHESO 50 49 99 which is less than one No Rounding HHHESL 51 49 1 which is equal to one Rounds up HEHESZ 52 49 1 1 which is greater than one Rounds up This rounding option will not be available for optional binary floating point packages CONFIGURING ACCURACY ZBasic allows the user to configure the digits of accuracy for single double or scientific precision functions like LOG TAN SIN etc LIMITATIONS Double precision must be at least 2 digits more significant than single Digits of Accuracy must be in multiples of two four with Macintosh TYPE MINIMUM DIGITS MAXIMUM DIGITS PRECISION OF ACCURACY OF ACCURACY SINGLE 2 DIGITS 2 DIGITS less than Dbl DOUBLE 6 DIGITS 54 DIGITS SCIENTIFIC 2 DIGITS 54 DIGITS Note All floating point calculations are done in DOUBLE PRECISION For programs where floating point speed is important be sure to set the digits of acc
159. so works as lt BACKSP gt lt CNTRL C gt lt BREAK gt MSDOS Insert key lt l gt CP M lt CNTRL C gt lt BREAK gt TRS 80 lt SHIFT up arrow gt lt ESC gt USING THE LINE EDITOR The command to edit a line is EDIT or just E followed by a line number or label If no line number is used the last line LIST ed or EDIT ed will be assumed lt COMMAS without lt ENTER gt will also edit the current line EDIT 20 and E20 do the same thing The following page describes the simple commands used to edit the characters on the line Interactive Programming Environment 16 STANDARD LINE EDITOR eee LEARNING THE COMPLETE STANDARD LINE EDITOR IN 10 MINUTES OR LESS LISTING THE LINE YOU ARE EDITING lt L gt To see the complete line you are editing and put the cursor at the beginning of the line press the lt L gt key Remember Line editor commands do not require lt ENTER gt MOVING THE CURSOR ON THE LINE n lt SPACE gt lt BACKSPACE gt To move the cursor back and forth on a line use lt SPACE gt or lt BACKSP gt lt DEL gt some systems don t use lt ENTER gt To move the cursor multiple positions use a number first SEARCH FOR CHARACTER n lt S gt To move the cursor to a specific character on a line quickly use the lt S gt key SEARCH followed by the character to find To move the cursor from the T in THIS to the L in EXAMPLE just type lt S gt and lt L gt 00010 THIS IS
160. syntax of each disk operating system using its syntax for such things as filenames drive specs etc FILENAME Tells ZBasic which file to access A string constant or variable is used FILESPEC The part of a filename or some other indicator that specifies the device directory or sub directory a file is on See your DOS manual for correct filespec syntax FILENUMBER ZBasic may be configured to have from 0 to 99 files OPEN at the same time if DOS and available memory permit Filenumbers are used in a program with disk file commands to instruct ZBasic which file is being referred to For example if you open a file called Fred as number one when doing file commands you need only refer to file number one not Fred This saves a lot of typing RECORD A record is one segment of a file A mail list record might include Name Address City State ZIP etc If you want data from a specific record it is called up using the RECORD command The first record in a ZBasic file is RECORD 0 There may be up to 65 535 RECORDs in a file RECORD filenumber record location SEQUENTIAL METHOD This is a method of reading a file one element or record at a time in order one after another i e 1 2 3 RANDOM METHOD This is the method of reading file items randomly out of order i e RECORD 20 90 1 22 FILE POINTER It is often important to know how to manipulate the file pointer ZBasic allows you to position the file pointer by usin
161. t character in that string CONDITION RESULT RRRRR lt S True 1 FRANK FRANK True 1 abc gt ABC True 1 TESTS Hello If TESTS Hello True 1 WAN SNpu False 0 YES yes False 0 SIMPLE STRINGS Quoted string Hello This is within quotes String variable A NAME FF BFS 2 3 Any of the following string commands MKI MKB CHR HEX OCT BIN UNS STR ERRMSG TIME DATE INKEY INDEX n COMPLEX STRINGS May be any combination of SIMPLE STRINGS String operations containing one of the following commands simple string simplestring LEFT RIGHT MID STRING SPACE UCASE would be a complex string COMPLEX STRINGS MAY NOT BE USED WITH IF THEN STATEMENTS ZBasic allows only one COMPLEX STRING per statement If you wish to perform more than one complex sting at a time simply divide the complex string expression into multiple statements like this CHANGE complex strings TO simple strings BS RIGHTS A CS 2 BS A C BS RIGHTS B 2 BS UCASES LEFTS A 3 BS LEFTS AS 3 BS UCASES BS IF LEFTS BS 2 IT THEN 99 DS LEFTS B 2 IFD IT THEN 99 63 Variables VARIABLES O ae USING STRING VARIABLES EFFICIENTLY String variables will require 256 bytes of memory for each string used if the string lengths are not defined by the user It is important to realize that extensive use of string variables
162. the appropriate EEE appendix for Norrmally gt 39 exact mode 80x24 Appenpix designations Note Check your computer appendix for variations 85 Graphics GRAPHICS PLOTTING POINTS AND LINES To set a specific screen position s to the current color or to draw lines from one screen position To another TO another or to draw from the last screen position used in another ZBasic statement TO another PLOT TO horizontal vertical TO horizontal vertical TO PLOT draws with the last color defined by COLOR COLOR 0 is the background color of most computers while COLOR 1 is the foreground color If you have a system with a black background COLOR 1 is white and COLOR 0 is black See COLOR in this chapter PLOT 209 304 PLOT 987 543 PLOT TO g7 PLOT 208 304 TO 987 643 TO 322 742 l As with all other graphic commands PLOT uses the standard ZBasic coordinates of 1024 x 768 regardless of the computer being used When TO is used ZBasic will plot a line from the first position TO the next position TO the next position EXAMPLES OF PLOTTING PLOT 4 5 PLOT 0 0 TO 1023 767 PLOT TO 12 40 PLOT 0 0 TO 400 0 TO 0 300 TO 0 0 RESULT Turns on the pixel at the graphic position 4 positions over and 5 positions down Plots a line from upper left corner of the screen down to the lower right corner of the screen Draws a line from the last position used with the PLOT com
163. the innermost expression will be calculated first A 2 5 3 6 1 4 To force the 2 5 3 part of the above equation to be calculated first and then multiply that by 6 and add 1 second with division by 4 last you would express the equation like this A 2 5 3 6 1 4 The order of operations in this expression would be 1 245 3 2 245 3 6 1 3 24 5 3 6 1 4 A 6 25 Note If Expressions are optimized for Integer Math the outermost expression is used by ZBasic to determine whether the final result will be returned as integer or floating point The decimal point after the 4 forces the expression to be calculated as floating point although each expression within parentheses is evaluated as floating point or integer depending on the rules of expressions If the decimal point had been omitted the result would have been 6 To use the standard rules of expression evaluation set Optimize Expression evaluation to Integer to NO under configure Math expressions will be done in the usual manner if this is done 43 Math Functions and Operators MATH CONDITIONAL OPERATORS The conditional operators return 0 zero 1 negative one A non zero expression A zero expression If the Comparison is FALSE If the Comparison is TRUE Is always TRUE Is always FALSE These symbols are used for comparing expressions and conditions lt gt gt lt lt gt gt gt lt lt Equal To Not Equal T
164. to disk A few moments later ZBasic will request the filename of the resulting compiled program to be saved For IBM or CP M use a COM suffix For TRS 80 use a CMD suffix This method frees up the most memory for the final program because the source code and ZBasic are no longer resident in memory Compiled programs saved to disk are machine language programs and should be executed from the operating system like any other machine language program See column three of the COMPILE MEMORY CHART RUN COMPILE PROGRAM IN MEMORY AND SAVE AS CHAIN PROGRAM RUN filename COMPILE FORM DISK AND SAVE AS CHAIN See CHAINING PROGRAMS for details Running ZBasic Programs 22 RUNNING ZBASIC PROGRAMS DETERMINING MEMORY REQUIREMENTS MEM returns the available memory The table may vary on some versions TYPE MEM 00123 Text 49021 Memory 00000 Object 00000 Variable MEANING Program text memory used Source code Free memory Compiled program size of object code Memory required for variables Type MEM immediately after compiling to get the correct totals At other times the results of Object and Variable may be invalid TYPICAL MEMORY USAGE BY RUN TYPE RUN Program text is resident in memory with ZBasic the compiled program and the variables used by that program The user may press lt BREAK gt when running the program re enter COMPILE AND RUN A PROGRAM an IN BER CRY CODE Varies OBJECT
165. to the standard BYTE PEEK and POKE provided by many versions of BASIC WORD 16 bit and LONG 32 bit PEEK and POKE are also provided PEEK 8 BIT POKE 8 BIT PEEKWORD 16 BIT POKEWORD 16BIT PEEKLONG 32 BIT POKELONG 32BIT 2 Macintosh only at this time BINARY BOOLEAN MATH FUNCTIONS OR AND XOR NOT SHIFT LEFT SHIFT RIGHT EXP and IMP may be emulated easily See Logical Operators in the Math section of the manual VARIABLE POINTER VARPTR variable will return the address of that variable z Macintosh Remember to use LongIntegers to store the address since Macintosh memory exceeds 65 535 the limit of regular integers Also see DEFSTR LONG for defining integer functions to do Longinteger MSDOS Check appendix for way of determining SEG of variable Machine Language Support 146 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING 147 Structure STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING Eee ASIC Much has been said about the difficulty of reading BASIC programs and the so called spaghetti code created the program flow is said to resemble the convoluted intertwinings of string spaghetti STRUCTURE While we believe structure is important we don t believe that a language should dictate how a person should compose a program This inhibits creativity and may even paint programmers into corners Nevertheless we have provided powerful structure support in ZBasic THAT NASTY GOTO STATEMENT The GOTO statement has been class
166. tor That s the beauty of interactive compiling LESSON THREE SAVING THE PROGRAM To save your program make sure you have an unprotected diskette in the drive and type SAVE MYPROG The program will be saved to disk for future use LESSON FOUR EXITING ZBASIC To exit ZBasic type QUIT You will now be back in the operating system It s a good idea to save your programs before doing this LESSON FIVE HOW TO LOAD EXISTING PROGRAMS To load the previously saved program first re load ZBasic then type LOAD MYPROG The program you saved is now back in memory To see it type LIST 10 FOR Count 1 to 10 20 PRINT Hi I m ZBasic 30 NEXT Count 9 Getting Started GETTING STARTED A NOTE TO EXPERIENCED BASIC PROGRAMMERS Since the ZBasic Compiler is very similar to the BASIC interpreters found on most microcomputers except for graphic commands and file I O use the Reference Section and your Computer Appendix to check syntax differences from other BASIC s Use the Index to find more in depth answers The appendices in the back of this manual contain the commands and enhancements for specific computers These appendices are also very useful for converting programs from one machine to another If you have been frustrated with incredibly slow interpreters and awkward complicated compilers you will be pleased with the power and ease of ZBasic A NOTE TO INEXPERIENCED BASIC PROGRAMMERS This manual is not inten
167. uble precision Precision is set when loading ZBasic under lt C gt onfigure Scientific math functions are complicated the more digits of precision used the longer the processing time required See Setting Accuracy in the floating point section of this manual for information about accuracy speed charts and memory requirements SCIENTIFIC MATH SPEED When speed is more important than accuracy configure DIGITS OF PRECISION under configure at start up to 6 digits for DOUBLE 4 digits for SINGLE and 6 digits for SCIENTIFIC 39 Math Functions and Operators MATH TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS TAN expr ATN expr COS expr SIN expr SQR expr TANGENT of expression in radians TAN A Y X X Y TAN A Y TAN A X ARCTANGENT of the expression in radians A ATN Y X Pi ATN 1 lt lt 2 COSINE of the expression in radians COS A X H H COS A X X COS A H SINE of the expression in radians SIN A Y H Y H SIN A H Y SIN A SQUARE ROOT of expression H SQR X X Y Y TAN ATN COS AND SIN return results in Radians OTHER ZBASIC MATH FUNCTIONS FRAC expr INT expr SGN expr ABS expr FIX expr expr MOD expr RND expr Returns FRACTIONAL portion of an expression FRAC 23 232 232 FRAC 1 23 23 Returns expression as a whole number INT 3 5 3 INT 99231 2 0 99231 Returns the SIGN of an expression SGN 23 1 SGN 990 1 SGN 0 0 Returns the ABSOLUTE VALUE of an expression ABS 15
168. ugh these commands may also be used to loop ZBasic has a number of ways of looping or executing a routine until a condition is met FOR NEXT STEP DO UNTIL WHILE WEND Each of these loop types is executed at least once ENTERING OR EXITING LOOPS ZBasic loops may be entered or exited without ill affects Some compilers require you to use a loop EXIT statement This is not required with ZBasic Just use a GOTO or RETURN to exit as appropriate IMPORTANT LOOP REQUIREMENTS ZBasic requires that each FOR has one and only one NEXT Each WHILE must have one WEND and each DO must have one UNTIL Otherwise a STRUCTURE error will result when you attempt to RUN the program AUTOMATIC INDENTING OF LOOPS ZBasic automatically indents loops two characters in listings for readability LIST Loops 136 LOOPS el FOR TO STEP NEXT FOR VAR counter start expression TO end expression STEP expression Program flow NEXT VAR counter STEP is an optional part of FOR NEXT If STEP is omitted the step is one An example of a FOR NEXT STEP loop FOR X 0 TO 20 STEP 2 PRINT X NEXT X program continues LINE 1 Begin the loop where X is incremented in STEPs of 2 0 2 4 6 20 LINE 2 Prints the value of X each time the loop is executed LINE 3 If X gt 20 the loop falls through to line 4 X will equal 22 in line 4 of this example program FOR NEXT loops will go through the loop at least once regardless of the values i
169. uracy to DOUBLE PRECISION 6 SINGLE PRECISION 4 SCIENTIFIC PRECISION 4 Important Note Some versions of ZBasic offer an optional high speed binary floating point option While the speed of binary math packages is superior the accuracy range and memory requirements of binary math are much different from the standard BCD math described above See the manual provided with the binary math package for details WARNING Programs sharing disk files and CHAINED programs with single or double precision variables must have the same accuracy configuration If one program is set for 6 and 14 digits and another program is set for 10 and 20 digits the programs will not be able to read and write each others files 2 Configurable up to 240 digits For hi speed set Double to 8 single and scientific to 6 57 Variables VARIABLES EE ACCURACY AND MEMORY REQUIREMENTS The number of bytes of memory or disk space required for storing single and double precision variables is dependent on the digits of accuracy If you do not change the accuracy ZBasic will assume 6 digits for single precision which requires 4 bytes and 14 digits for double precision which requires 8 bytes When you change accuracy disk files variables and constants memory requirements will change as well The equation to calculate memory or disk file space required for single or double precision variables is Digits of Accuracy 2 1 Bytes required per Floating P
170. ure to avoid line number references and GOTOs in subroutines to make them easily portable 141 Functions and Subroutines FUNCTIONS AND SUBROUTINES ee MORE EXAMPLES OF LONG FN The following example will check to see if a random file specified by the filename file exists If it does it will open it as a random file If it does not exist it will return a disk error Remember with OPEN R if the file exists it is opened if it doesn t exist it is created You may not want it created in certain circumstances like if the wrong diskette is in a drive LONG FN Openfile files S filenum reclens ON ERROR 65535 REM Disk error trapping on Open file OPEN I filenum file LONG IF ERROR LONG IF ERROR AND 255 lt gt 3 PRINT 0 0 Could not find file Check disk drive INPUT and press lt ENTER gt when ready temp ERROR 0 GOTO Open file END IF ia XELSE CLOSE filenums END IF ON ERROR RETURN REM Give error checking back to ZBasic EN R filenum s fileS reclen ND FN EASY GETKEY FUNCTION LONG FN GetKey Key DO Key INKEY UNTIL LEN Key END FN Key Functions and Subroutines 142 MACHINE LANGUAGE SUPPORT 143 Machine Language Support MACHINE LANGUAGE SUPPORT ee N ASIC MACHINE LANGUAGE MACHLG LINE Occasionally it is important to be able to use machine language programs with your program whether for spee
171. when your program is debugged 4 Set to Single S if you want code to be most like other BASICs We highly recommend you set it to integer if possible Integer will often increase program speeds 10 to 100 times 5 Setting allows variables like Fred and FRED to be the same variable If you want CASE to be significant do not change the configuration 6 ZBasic gives you two options for deciding how expressions may be evaluated ZBasic defaults to optimizing expressions for Integer to get the fastest and smallest code Most other languages do not Set to N for easier conversions See Math for explanation of ZBasic options for expression evaluations 7 Some BASICs allow using keywords in variables like INTEREST To allow this spaces or other non variable type characters are required around keywords Set this for easier conversion in most cases especially IBM PC and Macintosh BASIC type programs Note Not available on all versions of ZBasic 163 Converting old Programs CONVERTING OLD PROGRAMS ee eee eae CONVERTING RANDOM FILES ZBasic incorporates FIELD LSET MKI MKS MKD CVI CVS and CVD into the READ and WRITE statements saving the programmer a lot of time RECORD is used instead of GET and PUT for positioning the file pointer The OPEN and CLOSE statements are the same for both BASICs except for MSBASIC use of OPEN FOR RANDOM type This is changed easily ZBASIC statements MSBASIC e
172. y be assigned values like other string variables To illustrate the power of INDEX the following values have been stored into INDEX elements INDEX 0 through INDEX 3 and will be used in the examples on the following pages ELEMENT DATA INDEX 0 AL INDEX 1 BOB INDEX 2 DON INDEX 3 ED INDEX Variables 6 8 INDEX INSERTING ELEMENTS INTO INDEX INDEX I n DELETING To INSERT CHRIS into INDEX between BOB and DON you would use the command INDEX 2 CHRIS This instructs ZBasic to move DON and ED down and insert CHRIS in element 2 INDEX I 2 A would also be legitimate INDEX would now look like this ELEMENT DATA INDEX 0 AL INDEX 1 BOB INDEX 2 CHRIS INDEX 3 DON INDEX 4 ED ELEMENTS FROM INDEX INDEX D n To DELETE BOB from INDEX use the command INDEX D 1 This instructs ZBasic to delete element one and move CHRIS and DON and all the other elements up to fill in that space The INDEX array would now look like this ELEMENT DATA INDEX 0 AL INDEX 0 CHRIS INDEX 0 DON INDEX 0 ED FIND A STRING IN INDEX X INDE XF simplestring element n 69 INDEX V ZBasic will begin searching from element n element zero if not specified for the string specified by simple string Examples IF FOUND IF NOT FOUND X ELEMENT NUMBER X NEGATIVE ONE 1 To FIND DON in the above list let s say that A DON
173. y following the line number consisting of upper or lowercase alphanumeric characters or symbols in any order enclosed in quotes The length of a label is limited to the length of a line ZBasic recognizes only the first occurrence of a label Line numbers are essential only for line EDIT ing MERGE and APPEND Statements like LIST EDIT APPEND GOTO ON GOTO GOSUB ON GOSUB DEL etc may use either Labels or line numbers List programs without line numbers by using LIST SIMPLE STRINGS Quoted strings Hello This is within quotes Any String variables A NAME FF BF 23 Any of the following string functions MkI MKB CHR HEX OCT BINS UNS STR ERRMSG INKEY INDEX 9 COMPLEX STRINGS Complex strings are any combination of SIMPLE STRINGS Any string operations containing one of the following commands simple string simple string LEFT RIGHT MID STRING SPACE UCASE ZBasic allows only one level of COMPLEX STRING expression Complex strings MAY NOT be used with IF THEN statements Convert all multi level complex strings to simple strings CHANGE COMPLEX STRINGS TO SIMPLE STRINGS BS RIGHTS AS CS 2 BS AS CS BS RIGHTS BS 2 BS UCASES LEFTS AS 3 BSLEFTS A 3 BS UCASES BS IF LEFTS B 2 IT THEN 99 DS LEFTS B 2 IFDS IT THEN 99 E The Macintosh version allows much deeper levels of complex strings 33 Terms and Definit

ZBasic Manual

Contents

Download Pdf Manuals

Related Search

Related Contents