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The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence: Lessons

1. gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Garay Canales O 1991 El cultivo de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walp en el Per In Morales D Vacher JJ editors Actas del VIl Congreso Internacional sobre Cultivos Andinos 4 8 February 1991 La Paz Bolivia IBTA La Paz Bolivia ORSTOM Paris France CIID Centro Interamericano de Investigaciones para el Desarrollo Ottawa Canada Garay Canales O 1992 Cultivo de la Maca Serie Divulgativa Instituto Nacional de Investigaci n Agraria INIA Lima Peru Garay Canales O 1994 Identificaci n de los sistemas productivos de maca en la regi n central del Per Res menes de trabajos presentados al VIII Congreso Internacional de Sistemas Agropecuarios Andinos y su Proyecci n al Tercer Milenio 21 26 March 1994 Valdivia Chile Res menes de trabajos presentados al VIII Congreso Internacional de Sistemas Agropecuarios Andinos y su Proyecci n al Tercer Milenio 21 26 March 1994 Valdivia Chile Universidad Austral de Chile Valdivia Chile Agro Sur Special Edition 22 25 Garay Canales O 1995 Niveles de fertilizaci n en maca para las condiciones de Jun n Res menes Congreso Peruano de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald s 11 16 September 1995 Ayacucho Peru Cultivos Andinos 5 1 7 8 Garay Canales O 1995 Identificaci n de los sistemas productivos de la maca en la regi n central del Per Res menes Congreso Peruano de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald
2. 2 April 1992 Lima Peru CIP Lima Peru Available from URL http www cipotato org library pdtdocs RTA41759 paf Date accessed 3 October 2008 Arbizu C Holle M 1994 Andean roots and tubers Additional sources of food for the twenty first century Proceedings of 10th Symposium of the International Society for Tropical Root Crops 13 19 November 1994 Salvador Brazil ISTRC Trinidad and Tobago Arbizu C Holle M 1994 Conservaci n ex situ de los recursos gen ticos de ra ces y tub rculos andinos Res menes de trabajos presentados al VIII Congreso Internacional de Sistemas Agropecuarios Andinos y su Proyecci n al Tercer Milenio 21 26 March 1994 Valdivia Chile Universidad Austral de Chile Valdivia Chile Arbizu C Huaman Z Golmirzaie A 1997 Other Andean roots and tubers In Fuccillo D Sears L Stapleton P editors Biodiversity in Trust Conservation and Use of Plant Genetic Resources in CGIAR Centres Cambridge University Press USA pp 39 56 Arellano Jim nez P 2000 Maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Libro de Memorias Primer Congreso Internacional Fito 2000 y 1er Congreso Peruano de Plantas Medicinales y Fitoterapia 27 30 September 2000 Lima Peru Asociaci n Argentina de Fitomedicina Capital Federal Argentina Coordena o Nacional de Plantas Medicinais em Servicos P blicos Brasilia Brazil Instituto de Fitoterapia Americano Lima Peru Red Iberoamericana de Productos Fitofarmac uticos RIPROFITO
3. Arias Ram rez AR 2002 Biotecnolog a y metabolitos secundarios en Lepidium peruvianum Chac n maca dissertation Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos UNMSM Lima Peru Arroyo Torres AM 1998 Producci n de semilla de maca Agro Enfoque 101 26 29 Arroyo Torres AM 1999 Producci n de semilla de maca In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 158 161 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Asociaci n de Exportadores ADEX 1996 Maca Estudio de la Demanda Resultados de la Investigaci n de Mercado ADEX USAID Lima Peru COSUDE Agencia Suiza para el Desarrollo y la Cooperaci n Berne Switzerland Asociaci n de Productores de Maca 1999 El cultivo de la maca In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 162 163 Ayambo Saavedra L 2006 Optimizaci n del proceso de extracci n etan lica de Lepidium peruvianum Chac n maca dissertation Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos UNMSM Lima Peru Berrios Mart nez DE 2001 Tecnolog as de Producci n Poscosecha Transformaci n y Comercializaci n de la Maca M dulo de Gesti n de Negocios Rurales Coordinadora Rural del Per Regi n Centro Junn y Huancay Peru Bogani P Simonini F Iriti M Rossoni M Faoro F Poletti A Vi
4. Maca s success in export markets has been astonishing but growth has been curtailed by the inability of maca marketers to effectively deal with market access barriers such as European food safety legislation When underutilized crops are promoted strong price fluctuations must be anticipated Growing consumer demand for a crop with marginal production will quickly outstrip supply and this will raise producer prices Small scale farmers face constraints e g lack of seed access to land and labour that cannot be overcome in the short term and they cannot therefore keep up with the growth of demand The case of maca shows that the resulting high farm gate prices provide strong incentives for farmers to further invest in the crop but that also non governmental and governmental institutions tend to jump on the bandwagon of a newly expanding crop Eventually however high prices will lure farmers into over production and the inevitable price collapse comes at considerable social costs for rural areas Therefore strategic alliances between producers processors and traders in a given supply chain are crucial Yet in practice such strategic alliances between farmer groups and enterprises are difficult to build in boom and bust cycles because initial high farm gate prices provide no incentive for farmer collective action Farmers tend rather to negotiate independently with the many clients eager to buy their produce Consequently they will n
5. mentions the use of maca as barter among the Yaros population of Chinchaycocha areas surrounding Lake Junin As quoted in Obregon 1998 the Archivo General de Indias de Sevilla contains a document dated 1583 which describes the payment of an annual tribute of approximately 15 18 t of maca by the district of Chinchaycocha to the encomendador Juan Tello de Sotomayor giving rise to speculation that the Spanish might have used maca to maintain fertility in their domestic animals Obregon 1998 S nchez 1996 hypothesizes that the Spaniards might have learned from the local population about maca s nutritious and fertility enhancing properties as they were concerned about the fertility of their horses which in fact is reduced at higher altitudes Clegg 1978 Rostworoski 1975 Cieza de Leon 1988 p 200 cap LXXXIII De la Laguna de Bomb n y c mo se presume ser nacimiento del gran r o de la Plata Dase poco ma z en esta parte por ser la tierra tan fr a como he dicho pero no dejan tener otras ra ces y mantenimientos con que se sustentan a Guillen 1972 Y tienen tierras para sus sementeras para pastos de su ganado y que en su tierra cogen maiz y papas y quinoa y taures y olluco y maxua y Oca y frijoles y maca Y no otra cosa y que estas sementeras hacen en andenes porque es gt gt tierra de sierra chapter 5 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Distribution and use in c
6. Jatisatienr A Lewinsohn E editors The Future for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 26th International Horticultural Congress Toronto Canada Acta Horticulturae 629 483 490 Lebeda A Dolezalova Dziechciarkova M Dolezal K Frcek J 2003 Morphological variability and isozyme polymorphisms in Maca and Yacon on line Czech Journal of Genetic and Plant Breeding 39 1 1 8 Available from URL http www cazv cz 2003 CJGPB1_03 1 Lebeda pdf Date accessed 10 January 2009 Lebeda A Dolezalova l Valentova K Dziechciarkova M Greplova M Opatova H et al 2003 Biologick a chemick variabilita maky a jakonu Biological and chemical variability of maca and yacon on line Chemicke Listy 97 548 556 Available from URL http cat inist fr aModele afficheN amp cpsi dt 15060911 Date accessed 10 January 2009 Lee KJ Dabrowskia K Sandovalb M Miller MJS 2005 Activity guided fractionation of phytochemicals of maca meal their antioxidant activities and effects on growth feed utilization and survival in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss juveniles Aquaculture 244 1 4 293 301 Le n Castro C 1989 Maca Ging seng de los Andes Agronoticias 116 34 35 Lobat n Erazo ME 1998 Micronutrientes en Lepidium meyenii W maca maca y actividad en sujetos con anemia ferrop nica e hiperlipidemia dissertation Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos UNMSM Lima Peru Lock O Rojas R 2002 Qu mica y farmacolog a de Lepidium
7. Little Known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation on line National Academy Press Washington D C USA pp 57 65 Available from URL http books nap edu books 030904264X html 57 html Date accessed 7 January 2009 Obreg n Vilchez L 2000 Avances en el estudio de maca sangre de grado y u a de gato Libro de Memorias Primer Congreso Internacional Fito 2000 y 1er Congreso Peruano de Plantas Medicinales y Fitoterapia 27 30 September 2000 Lima Peru Asociaci n Argentina de Fitomedicina Capital Federal Argentina Coordena o Nacional de Plantas Medicinais em Servi os P blicos Brasilia Brazil Instituto de Fitoterapia Americano Lima Peru Red Iberoamericana de Productos Fitofarmac uticos RIPROFITO Obreg n Vilchez L 2001 Investigaciones en ajo Allium sativum L y maca Libro de Res menes del Primer Simposio Internacional de Plantas Medicinales y Fitoterapia Fito 2001 6 12 August 2001 Lima Peru Instituto de Fitoterapia Americano Lima Peru pp 48 51 Obreg n Vilchez L 2001 Maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Lepidium peruvianum Libro de Res menes del Primer Simposio Internacional de Plantas Medicinales y Fitoterapia Fito 2001 29 November 1 December 2001 Lima Peru Instituto de Fitoterapia Americano Lima Peru Obreg n Vilchez L 2002 ltimas investigaciones en Lepidium meyenii Walp Maca Libro de Res menes del Segundo Curso Internacional de Plantas Medicinales y Fitoterapi
8. Ricigliano and addressed to the Embassy of Peru in Brussels confirmed that a final agreement had been reached among member states to consider maca as not novel referring to its acknowledged history of consumption before May 1997 The letter goes on to say Therefore according to Regulation 258 97 EX these food stuffs roots of maca shall not be considered novel and do not require an authorization under this Regulation before placing them on the market provided that they comply with other legal and safety requirements of the EU authors italics Yet concern about these safety requirements figured prominently in a decision issued in September 2004 by AFSSA Agence Francaise de S curit Sanitaire des Aliments denying market authorization for maca flour in France and reiterated in March 2005 While confirming DG SANCOSs interpretation of maca not falling under the remit of the NFR AFSSA raised the following food safety concerns e The presence of alkaloids in maca roots e The need for more information about the composition of maca particularly about the possible presence of other potentially toxic compounds chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development e Libido enhancing effects observed in rats at intake rates equivalent to those recommended for humans It appears likely that the cases listed above in which the NFR has challe
9. T cnicas en producci n de maca Maca Memoria del Primer Curso Nacional de Maca 10 12 December 1997 Cerro de Pasco Peru ECO Grupo de Investigaciones Econ micas Lima Peru Quispe Quispe E Delgado Paz F Pino Figueroa A 2003 Estudio del efecto adaptog nico del Lepidium peruvianum Chac n maca en animales de experimentaci n Libro de Memorias del Segundo Congreso Internacional de Plantas Medicinales y Fitoterapia Fito 2003 6 10 August 2003 Lima Peru Instituto de Fitoterapia Americano Lima Peru p 162 Ramos Villagarc a C Repo Carrasco R 1997 Caracterizaci n qu mica y nutricional de harina precocida de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Res menes IX Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald s 22 25 April 1997 Cusco Peru Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco UNSAAC Centro de Investigaci n en Cultivos Andinos CICA Asociaci n Arariwa Cusco Peru Ramos Villagarc a C Repo Carrasco R 2001 Aspectos qu micos nutricionales y tecnol gicos de la maca Lepidium sp Il Simposio Latinoamericano de Ra ces y Tub rculos SLART 2 Gu a para Participantes 28 30 November 2001 Lima Peru CIP UNALM Lima Peru Rebisso Ramos R 1999 Comportamiento del cultivo de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp en agroecosistema waru waru en el altiplano de Puno In Fern ndez Valdivia M et al editors Investigaciones sobre Maca en el Altiplano de Puno Programa Interinstitucional de los Wa
10. Upamayta P Carretero ME 2004 Lepidium peruvianum chacon restores homeostosis impaired by restraint stress Phytotherapy Research Vol 18 Issue 6 471 474 Marthe F Sch tze W Kr ger H Scholze P Kramer INITIAL Ryschka U 2003 Maca Lepidium meyenii cultivation resistance and composition of secondary metabolites under European conditions In Kn pffer H Ochsmann J Proceedings of a Symposium dedicated to the 100 birthday of Rudolf Mansfeld Schriften zu Genetischen Ressourcen Band 22 Gatersleben Germany 8 9 October 2001 Matos TW 1995 Efecto de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walp en la presentaci n de celo en vaquillas Holstein en el establo Chacra Valdivia Matahuasi Concepci n dissertation Universidad Nacional del Centro del Per Huancayo Peru Menaldo G Serrano S Lopez B 2001 Improving pregnancy rates by means of polarized maca based phyoterapy and intratubal insemination gt gt Controversies in Obstetrics Gynecology amp Infertility Sept 2001 chapter 10 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt References Meza Ninanya EW 1995 Efectos de la maca Lepidium meyenii walp sobre los parametros productivos y reproductivos de cuyes raza wanka dissertation Universidad Nacional del Centro del Peru UNCP Huancayo Peru Miura T Hayashi M Naito Y Suzuki I 1999 Antihypoglycemic effect of maca in fasted and insulin induced hypoglycemic mice Journal of Traditiona
11. cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum gt gt Chac n Agronegocios 4 197 200 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Durand Villarroel A Lavado Balde n K del M Napan Molina K Palomino Montes DR 2004 Estudio de prefactibilidad para la instalaci n de una planta procesadora de harina y tabletas de maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n para el mercado de Jap n y Estados Unidos dissertation Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru ECO editors 1999 Maca Memoria del Primer Curso Nacional de Maca 10 12 December 1997 Cerro de Pasco Peru ECO Grupo de Investigaciones Econ micas Lima Peru ECO 1999 Cultivo de la maca In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 127 132 Espinoza Oscanoa J 2001 Maca Entre La Agricultura el Burocratismo las Neuronas y la Impotencia Ruralter Lima Peru Fairlie T Morales Bermudez M Holle M editors 1999 Ra ces y Tub rculos Andinos Avances de Investigaci n v 1 online CIP CONDESAN Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Ecorregi n Andina Lima Peru Available from URL http www cipotato org library pdfdocs RTA59120 paf Date accessed 22 October 2008 FAO 1990 Utilisation des aliments tropicaux Racines et tubercules Etude FAO Alimentation et Nutrition 47 2 FAO Rome Italy Fer
12. glucotropaoeline and p methoxy benzyl glu chapter 3 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence Figure 9 Imidazole alkaloids identified in maca roots by Cui et al 2003 Figure 10 Structures of alkamides from maca roots Source Zhao et al 2005 gt gt 5 3 33933 cosinolates together with 5 methyl sulfinylpentyl glucosinolates gluco alyssine p hydroxybenzyl glucosinolates glucosinalbine m hydroxy benzyl glucosinolates tentative identification pent 4 enyl glucosinolates glucobrassicanapine indolyl 3 methyl glucosinolates glucobrassicine and 4 methoxyindolyl 3 methyl glucosinolates 4 methoxyglucobrassi cine Muhammad et al 2002 demonstrated the existence of macaridine benylated derivative of 1 2 dihydro N hydroxypyridine together with macamides benzylated alkamides of N benzyl 5 oxo 6E 8E octadeca dienamide and N benzylhexadecanamide and the acylic keto acid 5 oxo 6E 8E octadecadienoic acid Cui et al 2003 isolated the new imidazole alkaloids lepidiline A 1 3 dibenzyl 4 5 dimethylimidazolium chloride and lepidiline B 1 3 dibenzyl 2 4 5 trimethylimidazolium chloride from an extract of maca Fig 9 Zhao et al 2005 identified a range of alcamides Fig 10 gt Maca use chapter 3 Figure 11 Variation of total glucosinolate content in maca roots from 11 farms in Junin Source Locher 2006 3 2 Traditional processing c
13. on line Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology 3 16 21 Available from URL http www rbej com content paf 1477 7827 3 16 pdf Date accessed 10 January 2009 Ruiz Pizarro RR Repo Carrasco R Balde n EO 2004 Obtenci n y caracterizaci n de una bebida en polvo en base a maca Lepidium meyenii Walp kiwicha Amaranthus caudatus L y cacao Theobroma cacao L on line Anales Cient ficos 57 279 298 Available from URL http www lamolina edu pe investigacion investigacion anales pdf_anales LVII 2 pdf Date accessed 10 January 2009 Ruiz Pizarro RR 2001 Obtenci n y caracterizaci n de una bebida en polvo en base a maca Lepidium meyenii Walp kiwicha Amaranthus caudatus L y cacao Theobroma cacao L dissertation Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Ruiz R Repo Carrasco R 2001 Obtenci n y caracterizaci n de una bebida en polvo en base a maca Lepidium meyenii Walp kiwicha Amaranthus caudatus y cacao Theobroma cacao Il Simposio Latinoamericano de Ra ces y Tub rculos SLART 2 Gu a para Participantes 28 30 November 2001 Lima Peru CIP UNALM Lima Peru Salas A Uriarte O 1997 Investigaci n de los efectos de la maca Lepidium meyenii en la nutrici n y la actividad vigorizante en ratones Res menes de temas libres VI Congreso Peruano de Nutrici n 13 17 October 1997 Lima Peru Asociaci n Peruana de Nutrici n APN Lima Peru Salas F 1998 Fasc culo 23 Procesamie
14. s 11 16 September 1995 Ayacucho Peru Cultivos Andinos 5 1 49 Garay Canales O 1997 Cultivo de la maca IX Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Andinos Res menes curso pre congreso 22 25 April 1997 Cusco Peru Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco UNSAAC Centro de Investigaci n en Cultivos Andinos CICA Asociaci n Arariwa Cusco Peru Garay Canales O 1999 Condiciones clim ticas y ed ficas para el cultivo de la maca Maca Memoria del Primer Curso Nacional de Maca 10 12 December 1997 Cerro de Pasco Peru ECO Grupo de Investigaciones Econ micas Lima Peru Garro C ceres V Le n SE Julca TB 1993 Extracci n separaci n e identificaci n por cromatograf a de alcaloides de Lepidium meyenii Walp maca Libro de res menes VI Congreso Peruano de Farmacia y Bioqu mica 24 29 October 1993 Lima Peru Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos UNMSM Lima Peru Garro C ceres V Le n SE Fuertes C Carrasco E 1995 Investigaci n qu mica y biol gica de Lepidium meyenii Walp Maca Theorema 6 25 Gasco Tantachucco ME 2005 Efecto de la maca roja Lepidium meyenii en la hiperplasia prost tica inducida en ratas de la cepa Holtzman dissertation Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia Lima Peru The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Geu Flores F 2004 Purificaci n y caracterizaci n de la enzima mirosinasa a par
15. 1439 0272 2002 00519 x Date accessed 28 September 2008 Gonzales GF Cordova A Vega K Chung A Villena A Gomez C 2003 Effect of Lepidium meyenii maca a root with aphrodisiac and fertility enhancing properties on serum reproductive hormone levels in adult healthy men Journal of Endocrinology UK ISSN 0022 0795 176 1 163 168 Gonzales GF Gasco M Cordova A Chung A Rubio y Villegas L 2004 Effect of Lepidium meyenii MACA on spermatogenesis in male rats acutely exposed to high altitude 4340 m Journal of Endocrinology UK ISSN 0022 0795 180 87 95 Gonzales GF Rubio J Chung A Gasco M Villegas L 2003 Effect of alcoholic extract of Lepidium meyenii Maca on testicular function in male rats Asian Journal of Andrology 5 4 349 352 Available from http www asiaandro com 1008 682X 5 349 htm Date accessed 19 January 2009 Guaman Poma de Ayala F 1615 Nueva cor nica y buen gobierno online Available from http www kb dk permalink 2006 poma info es frontpage htm Date accessed 28 September 2008 Guill n E 1972 Un documento in dito sobre I igo Ortiz de Z iga visitador de la provincia de Le n de Huanuco Visita de la provincia de Le n de Hu nuco en 1562 Tomo II Visita de los yacha y mitmagkuna cuzque os encomendados en Juan Sanchez Falc n I igo Ortiz de Z iga Murra John ed M rquez Abanto Felipe Pal o Documentos para la historia y etnolog a de Hu nuco y la selva central 2
16. Alza Araujo M 1996 Agroexportaci n An lisis y Perspectivas Productos No Tradicionales Rentabilidad Mercado y Zonas de Producci n Instituto Nacional de Investigaci n Agraria INIA Lima Peru Vel squez Mantari J 1995 Producci n de semilla bot nica de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp con diferentes niveles de fertilizaci n dissertation Universidad Nacional del Centro del Per Huancayo Peru Venegas Medina F Vargas Gonzales F Mosquera V squez J 1999 Cultivo de Maca en la Meseta del Bombon Pasco Ministerio de Agricultura MAG gt gt Lima Peru The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Vera Z iga MA Caro Escarcena J 2001 Evaluaci n del comportamiento del cultivo de maca Lepidium meyenii en sistemas de riego y secano Res menes X Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Andinos 4 7 July 2001 San Salvador de Jujuy Argentina Universidad Nacional de Jujuy Ministerio de la Producci n FUNDANDES Jujuy Argentina Vera Z iga MA 2001 Establecimiento del cultivo de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp a diferentes niveles de humedad en cuatro tipos de suelo Res menes X Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Andinos 4 7 July 2001 San Salvador de Jujuy Argentina Universidad Nacional de Jujuy Ministerio de la Producci n FUNDANDES Jujuy Argentina Villagarc a Hermoza S 1999 Informe de avance de investigaciones en manejo de suelos y fertilizac
17. Hu nuco Universidad nacional Hermilio Valdiz n 1972 p 405 426 Hermann M Heller J 1997 Andean roots and tubers at the crossroads In Hermann M Heller J editors Andean roots and tubers Ahipa arracacha maca yacon Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops 21 Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research Gatersleben International Plant Genetic Resources Institute Rome Italy p 5 11 IBPGR 1982 Plant genetic resources of the Andean region Proceedings of meeting of IBPGR IICA and JUNAC Lima Peru Johns TA 1980 Ethnobotany and phytochemistry of Tropaeolum tuberosum and Lepidium meyenii from Andean south America dissertation University of British Columbia Vancouver Canada Johns TA 1981 The anu and the maca Journal of Ethnobiology 1 2 208 212 Johns TA 1986 Chemical selection in Andean domesticated tubers as a model for the acquisition of empirical plant knowledge In Etkin NL editor Plants in indigenous medicine and diet Biobehavioral approaches New York USA Redgrave pp 268 288 chapter 10 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt References Kilham C n d Maca Peru s natural Viagra online Discovery Health Channel Available from http health discovery com centers sex libido maca html Date accessed 28 September 2008 King SR 1988 Economic botany of the Andean tuber crop complex Lepidium meyenii Oxalis tubero
18. In Carhuamayo a major production site for maca at 4080 m altitude the monthly mean maximum and minimum temperature ranges during the growing season are 11 13 C and 2 2 C respectively Tello et al 1992 A casual observer might be forgiven for mistaking maca fields for sparsely populated expanses of mosses or other wild vegetation Fig 8 Traditionally maca is grown on grazing land after long fallows with no or minimal use of mineral fertilizers Before the maca boom farmers would hardly grow more than small plots Mr Javier Castillo G ere personal communication 2006 Fallows traditionally lasted over 10 years but the expansion of maca cultivation in recent years chapter 2 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt The biological and agricultural context of maca supply chains has led to a shortage of suitable land forcing farmers to reduce the duration of fallows In her recent survey of maca farmers near Cerro de Pasco Locher 2006 found that only 17 of farmers let maca land rest for 10 or more years between successive crops while 58 re plant the same area of maca in less than 5 years Maca cultivation is strictly seasonal it is sown from September to October and the roots are harvested beginning in May over a period of six weeks Land preparation was traditionally done manually but contract ploughing with tractors now seems to be the norm Locher 2006 Maca is sown by broadcasting seed mi
19. Instituto de Fitoterapia Americano Lima Peru Red Iberoamericana de Productos Fitofarmac uticos RIPROFITO Mar n Bravo M 2003 Histolog a de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walpers Brassicaceae on line Revista Peruana de Biolog a 10 1 101 108 Available from URL http www scielo org pe scielo php script sci_artt ext amp pid S1727 99332003000100013 Date accessed 10 January 2009 Mar n M Arroyo J Bonilla P 2003 Efecto de fracciones lip dicas de Lepidium meyenii Walpers maca en el aparato reproductor de ratones Ciencia e Investigaci n 6 1 9 18 Mar n Machuca O Guevara Querevalu C Huamani Alfaro K Le n Moreno R 2000 La maca Lepidium meyenii Walp en la panificaci n y pasteler a Winay Yachay 4 1 71 76 Mayta S Alc zar J Holle M Lagnaoui A 2001 Evaluaci n de la susceptibilidad de hipocotilos de maca Lepidium meyenii wild al gorgojo de los andes Premnotrypes spp en condiciones de laboratorio Programa y Res menes XLIII Convenci n Nacional de Entomolog a 4 8 November 2001 Huancayo Peru Sociedad Entomol gica del Per SEP Lima Peru Universidad Nacional del Centro del Per Huancayo Peru Meyhuay Montes M 1999 Elaboraci n de harina de maca instant nea Maca Memoria del Primer Curso Nacional de Maca 10 12 December 1997 Cerro de Pasco Peru ECO Grupo de Investigaciones Econ micas Lima Peru Meyhuay Montes M Elaboraci n de harina de maca instant nea 1999 In Chirinos Saave
20. L 2003 Estudio del efecto antitumoral e inmunomodulador del extracto alcaloidal de ra ces de Lepidium peruvianum G Chac n maca Brassicaceae en ratones dissertation Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos UNMSM Lima Peru Ames de Icochea T 1997 Enfermedades Fungosas y Bacterianas de Ra ces Y Tub rculos Andinos online CIP Lima Peru Available from URL http www cipotato org library pdfdocs RTA55430 pdf Date accessed 3 October 2008 Anon 1994 La maca Novia andina Lepidium meyenii Walp In Pinas JA editor Los Tub rculos y Granos Andinos en el Pert Universidad Nacional Agraria de la Selva UNAS Huanuco Peru pp 55 82 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Anon 1998 Maca el nuevo ginseng peruano Fitom dica Spain 1 48 51 Apaza V Canahua A 2001 Efecto de la poca densidad de siembra y abonamiento en la producci n de maca Lepidium meyenii Walpers Res menes X Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Andinos 4 7 July 2001 San Salvador de Jujuy Argentina Universidad Nacional de Jujuy Ministerio de la Producci n FUNDANDES Jujuy Argentina Arbizu C Hermann M 1993 Algunos factores limitantes en el uso de ra ces y tub rculos andinos y sus prioridades de investigaci n online El agroecosistema andino Problemas limitaciones perspectivas Anales del Taller Internacional sobre el Agroecosistema Andino 30 March
21. ae o Root 5 2 5 S Capsules g 2 0 m Extract g 154 a Flour E Q Q 1 0 0 5 J 0 0 t mp t t t t 1 t t 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 450 400 Gross weight per type of product 350 Other PO Sat m Capsules B 200 mex 6 150 4 5 Flour a 100 50 4 0 4 i 4 4 1 4 I 4 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 Years 1994 2005 Fig 20 middle graph shows the evolution of maca export value by product type SUNAT records upon which this graph is again based are almost certainly flawed owing to confusion by customs officers and declaring exporting companies over the meaning of categories flour and extract and erroneous application of respective tariff codes partidas arancelarias especially in the early years of product innovation However Fig 20 clearly shows that overwhelmingly the gt gt export revenue throughout the years has been generated by products chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development with medium added value flour and high added value extract and capsules see also Table 3 thus countering the widely held notion of maca being exported as primary material only as argued by Peruvian media and politicians to eventually misguide policy decisions As a matter of fact exports of the dried unprocessed roots the product type with the lowest added value accounted for a major
22. blended into coffee milk or juice is popular for breakfast The dehydrated maca can also be ground into flour for use in the making of bread cakes pancakes or as a thickening agent in mazamorras a sweet porridge for which usually starch is used Locher 2006 also recorded the contemporary use of roasted milled maca roots as a coffee surrogate Locher 2006 found that a producer family will nowadays typically consume maca one to three times a week She estimated consumption per family at about one kilogramme of dehydrated maca roots per week This coincides with the assessment of Javier Castillo Gere personal communication 2006 a native of Junin and president of the local maca producer association who estimates that maca was consumed traditionally two to three times per week Farmers still take maca to work in the field as it is said to help them resist the cold for the whole day Locher 2006 estimated the intake gt gt of dehydrated maca to be around 50 100g per person per meal chapter 3 3 3 Indigenous knowledge associated with maca use The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence There are very few references pre dating the maca boom of the 1990s that provide authentic information on the indigenous knowledge surrounding the use of maca We must assume that later reports of farmers indigenous knowledge are not necessarily genuine but rather contaminated by press reports and the hype as
23. floral de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Res menes Congreso Peruano de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald s 11 16 September 1995 Ayacucho Peru Cultivos Andinos 5 1 33 34 Delgado Mamani P Ortiz RR Mujica SA 2004 Insectos plaga en maca Lepidium meyenii Walpers Memorias XI Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Andinos 3 6 February 2004 Cochabamba Bolivia Fundaci n PROINPA Cochabamba Bolivia Ministerio de Asuntos Campesinos y Agropecuarios MACA Lima Peru Delgado Mamani P 2001 Ciclos biol gicos de tres plagas del cultivo de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp en Puno Res menes X Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Andinos 4 7 July 2001 San Salvador de Jujuy Argentina Universidad Nacional de Jujuy FUNDANDES San Salvador de Jujuy Argentina Ministerio de la Producci n Buenos Aires Argentina Delgado MP Arcos PJ 2003 Plagas del cultivo de maca Lepidium meyenii Walpers Programa y Res menes XLV Convenci n Nacional de Entomolog a 1 4 December 2003 Ayacucho Peru Sociedad Entomol gica del Per SEP Lima Peru Universidad Nacional San Crist bal de Huamanga Ayacucho Peru Dini I Tenore GC Dini A 2002 Glucosinolates from Maca Lepidium meyenii on line Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 30 11 1087 1090 Available from URL http dx doi org 10 1016 S0305 1978 02 00058 3 Date accessed 22 October 2008 Dolorier HJ 1999 Tecnologia de secado In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T
24. food or pharmaceutical preparations Vilchez 1999 The low maca prices also favoured the market entry of many informal players In contrast to the formal companies these informal and smaller processors and traders tended to avoid taxation and registration systems They targeted the large number of less wealthy consumers especially in Lima who account for a growing share of the purchasing power in urban areas of Peru but favour lower product prices In this informal setting price pressure and strong competition led to the adulteration of maca with wheat flower causing market distortions insecurity and confusion among consumers G mez 2002 This informality continues to affect export practices Without scientific evidence about the efficacy and appropriate dosage of maca many exporters or their collaborating overseas distributors position maca as an over the counter substitute of Viagra a drug used to treat erectile dysfunction in humans see Section 7 2 1 This tendency goes hand in hand with Internet information and newspaper articles that reinforce the notion that maca is a natural Viagra or Andean Viagra e g Chauvin 1999 chapter 6 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Modern expansion of use and market development It was also in the early 2000s that the first peer reviewed scientific papers seeking to substantiate product claims appeared in international journals see Section 7
25. margins of fields during harvest Both the drying and the heat treatment are gt Maca use Figure 12 Winnowing dehydrated maca roots to remove soil Photo October 2006 photo courtesy Ms C line Cl ment gt gt known to diminish pungency owing to the significant reduction of the content of glucosinolates The traditional drying of maca takes place on whatever flat surfaces are available to farmers Fig 12 The drying lasts for several weeks during which time the roots are at risk of contamination by farm animals Traditional drying apart from reducing pungency presumably converts some starch into free sugars and it also brings out the typical flavour of maca which is peculiar and difficult to describe One eager botanist likened the maca aroma to butterscotch King 1988 but in our experience most maca novices do not find it at all attractive Indeed Torres 1984 showed that the acceptance of maca was very low in a focus group recruited from Lima with no previous exposure to this food Maca quite obviously is an acquired taste and this must have been a major use constraint and is likely to be one of the reasons for the failure of this crop to expand beyond its narrow geographic distribution in the past chapter 3 Figure 13 Dehydrated maca roots gt gt The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence According to Locher 2006 farmers prefer small and medium sized roots for their
26. own consumption the bigger roots are reserved for sale since they fetch better prices Smaller roots are quicker to boil and are said to have less fibre and a sweeter taste Some farmers prefer yellow skinned roots claiming these are the sweetest while black roots may be employed in the preparation of maca liquor However these preferences are not pronounced and no particular maca landraces are recognized for particular culinary qualities as is the case for potatoes maize and many other Andean crops Locher 2006 reports that product developers from processing companies confirmed that there are no notable difference in taste and quality between different maca morphotypes mainly based on their skin colour Her own research remained inconclusive in that regard Except when baked in huatias see above for which freshly harvested roots are used maca recipes require dehydrated roots These are gt Maca use chapter 3 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Maca use Figure 14 Dehydrated left and rehydrated maca roots right We typically rehydrated overnight Fig 14 before being boiled and then blended into a range of dishes or potions to which the maca imparts a characteristic flavour Soups and blended beverages seem to be the most popular local recipes in which maca is used but the cooked roots are also used in jams empanadas stuffed pastry alcoholic cocktails etc Maca
27. share of total export value only in 1998 but were of negligible importance in all other years Table 4 Export free on board FOB value of maca compared to other agricultural products from Peru Product Value FOB US million Introduced crops Asparagus 263 Paprika 95 Artichokes 49 Mangoes 43 Citrus fruits 19 Olives 16 Native American crops Cocoa 29 Avocadoes 24 Tara Caesalpinia spinosa 11 Maca 3 7 Total agricultural exports 1340 Source Peruvian customs ADEX PROMPEX 2005 SUNAT statistics also reveal that in the five years to 2005 a total of 220 companies exported maca at some time or other Fig 21 However only 31 companies 14 managed to complete at least one maca export transaction in each of the 5 years These companies accounted for 70 of the total export value US 11 03 million with an average of US 71154 per year per company By contrast 105 companies were gt gt recorded as exporters in only one of the 5 years these accounted chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development Figure 21 Consistency of maca exporting e activity during 2001 to 2005 2 12 120 5 2410 Number of 100 E N e gt exporting companies is D g seo 2 E 5 6 60 S 2 5 Ey w 4 40 2 O oO a Q 2 20 E 7T 2 e 0 0 5 years 4 years 3 years 2 years 1 year Number of years in which compani
28. strategic alliances between farmers and commercial companies by providing information on prices diseases technologies and potential markets and by providing contacts to research and credit institutions certifying companies and so on Government agencies might also stimulate rural development through local capacity building that enhances farmers organizations and local processing E gt gt chapter 10 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence 10 References Alvarez Medrano CJ 1993 Utilizacion de diferentes niveles de maca en la fertilidad de cobayos dissertation Universidad Nacional Daniel Alcides Carrion UNDAC Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias Huancayo Peru Ant nez de Mayolo SE 1981 La nutrici n en el antiguo Per Banco Central de Reserva del Per Lima Peru Balick MJ Lee R 2002 Maca From traditional food crop to energy and libido stimulant Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 8 2 96 98 Barreiro A J 1940 Travels of Ruiz Pav n and Dombey in Peru and Chile 1777 1778 Fieldiana 21 Field Museum of Natural History Chicago USA 372 pp Beltr n S Balde n S Carrillo E Fuertes C Arroyo J Sandoval S Obreg n L 1997 Estudio bot nico y qu mico de los ecotipos amarillo y morado de Lepidium peruvianum maca Evaluaci n de su toxicidad aguda Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos Instituto de Fitoterapia Americano Lima Peru Canales M Aguilar J Prad
29. thus avoiding the risk of obtaining adulterated flour The local promotion of maca is based on brands and driven by the commercial interest of a few companies with enough economic strength to invest in publicity for their products Given the confusing gt gt messages consumers have received about maca during the last Figure 19 Screenshots of websites 2003 praising maca as a safe or natural alternative to Viagra gt gt gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development years these companies are very careful in how they sell their maca products nowadays Currently all important and formal maca publicity in Peru targets consumer segments interested in maca as a natural energy enhancing food supplement 7 1 3 Promotion on the Internet Since the early 1990s maca products principally gelatine pills filled with the ground flour of the roots have been advertised on the Internet Fig 19 shows screenshots of websites touting maca as an alternative to Viagra Many sites refer to maca as the female Viagra the Peruvian Ginseng a rejuvenating tonic or a feel good product Give Vigarella Foe Women Se hove you fer et ADULT ovd s Travel Entertainment Business Pleasure Shopping Guide A Sate Alternative to Viegre So you have been Penking you may Meo to ty Viagra AOU DJO a Dole ated and works for many DHOO uciestart Side efes are Chen expenenced a
30. transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development In October 2002 the Danish Veterinary and Food Administration Division for Nutrition stated that raw maca flour was not considered safe for human consumption and that it was not legal to sell it in Denmark relative to the Danish Food Act 7 Mr Guillerm personal communication 2004 Reasons for this decision included e Uncertainty about maca s composition owing to the lack of appropriate literature e Presence of alkaloids as reported by Dini et al 1994 e Uncertainty about the appropriate processing of maca for food uses based on the observation that reports of consumption in the Andes quote the use of heat treated maca products only boiling while the use of the raw root flour was suggested in products destined for consumption in Europe e Two refereed journal articles Zheng et al 2000 Cicero et al 2001 suggesting that the dried tuber or an extract derived from the dried tuber had an effect on mating behaviour and increased locomotion of mice and rats giving rise to concerns that similar recommended intake levels would likely pose risks to the hormone system of humans e In order to assess food safety risks there was a need for more information on 1 harvest periods 2 product standardization 3 traceability of the botanical identity of maca at all supply chain stages In November 2002 the o
31. y selecci n combinada por peso de ra z hipocotilo en una poblaci n selecta de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp de fase vegetativa Res menes IX Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald s 22 25 April 1997 Cusco Peru Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco UNSAAC Centro de Investigaci n en Cultivos Andinos CICA Asociaci n Arariwa Cusco Peru Ponce Aguirre D 1999 Avances logrados en el mejoramiento gen tico de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Maca Memoria del Primer Curso Nacional de Maca 10 12 December 1997 Cerro de Pasco Peru ECO Grupo de Investigaciones Econ micas Lima Peru Ponce Aguirre D 1999 Avances logrados en el mejoramiento gen tico de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walp In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 183 190 Ponce Aguirre D 1999 Estimaci n de par metros gen ticos para caracteres cuantitativos de producci n de semilla en maca Lepidium meyenii on line In Fairlie T Morales Berm dez M Holle M editors Ra ces y Tub rculos Andinos Avances de Investigaci n CIP CONDESAN Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Ecorregi n Andina Lima Peru v 1 pp 163 176 Available from URL http www cipotato org library pdtdocs RTA59120 paf Date accessed 10 January 2009 Ponce Aguirre D 1999 Producci n de ra ces hipocotilos fase vegetativa In Chirinos Saavedra
32. 001 Evaluaci n del comportamiento del cultivo de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp en los sistemas de producci n de waru waru pampa e invernadero Res menes X Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Andinos 4 7 July 2001 San Salvador de Jujuy Argentina Universidad Nacional de Jujuy FUNDANDES San Salvador de Jujuy Argentina Ministerio de la Producci n Buenos Aires Argentina Fern ndez Valdivia MA Villena Soria J 2001 Evaluaci n del comportamiento del cultivo de maca Lepidium meyenii en los sistemas de waru waru y pie de ladera en el altiplano de Puno Res menes X Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Andinos 4 7 July 2001 San Salvador de Jujuy Argentina Universidad Nacional de Jujuy FUNDANDES San Salvador de Jujuy Argentina Ministerio de la Producci n Buenos Aires Argentina Figueroa Lezama R 1999 Operaciones de ingenier a presentes en el procesamiento de la maca In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 194 196 Flores Cruz D Medina Espinoza W Ram rez Cayro C Ucharico Vel squez G 1999 Alternativas de transformaci n de la maca con tecnolog a intermedia zumos y n ctares In Fern ndez Valdivia M et al editors Investigaciones sobre Maca en el Altiplano de Puno Programa Interinstitucional de los Waru Waru PIWA Programa Especial Binacional Lago Titicaca PELT Puno Peru Instituto Nacional de Desarrollo INADE Lima Peru pp
33. 04 Lee etal Trout Improved growth and reduced mortality Growth stress resistence Journal article E in trout alevins and juveniles 2004 L pez et al Rats Alleviation of stress related symptoms Stress resistance Journal article E and improvment in stress resistance gt gt E in English S in Spanish chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development property claims A recent survey has shown that industry backed scientific papers on the health effects of food products were seven times as likely as publicly funded research to produce a conclusion favouring a company s product This begs the question whether research on the efficacy of maca consumption is affected by the same phenomenon In a thesis that did not rely on private sources of funding Locher 2006 found that a maca feeding trial with breeding bulls lasting 84 days average 0 23 g per kg body weight produced no statistically significant effects on ejaculate volume sperm count and motility 7 4 2 Maca patents In 2001 and 2002 the United States Patent and Trademark Office granted Pure World Botanicals Inc patents protecting the extract of Lepidium meyenii roots for pharmaceutical applications US patent 6 267 995 and the treatment of sexual dysfunction with an extract of Lepidium meyenii roots US patent 6 428 824 These inter related patents basically claim
34. 1 54 55 Rivera JS 1999 El cultivo de la maca Maca Memoria del Primer Curso Nacional de Maca 10 12 December 1997 Cerro de Pasco Peru ECO Grupo de Investigaciones Econ micas Lima Peru Robles Soria PC 2004 Evaluaci n de dos niveles de inclusi n de harina de maca Lepidium peruvianum G Chac n en alimento de inicio de alevines de trucha arco iris Oncorhynchus mykiss dissertation Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Rojas Pineda J 1999 Maca uno de los mejores alimentos suplementarios naturales del mundo In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 147 153 Ronceros G Ramos W Garmendia F Arroyo J Guti rrez J 2005 Eficacia de la maca fresca Lepidium meyenii Walp en el incremento del rendimiento f sico de deportistas de altura on line Anales de la Facultad de Medicina Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos UNMSM 66 4 269 273 Available from URL http sisbib unmsm edu pe BVRevistas anales v66_n4 pdf a03 pdf Date accessed 10 January 2009 Rondan Sanabria GG Pires TCR Finardi Filho F 2006 Preliminary approach to detect amylolytic and pectinolytic activities from maca Lepidium meyenii Walp on line Revista Brasileira de Ci ncias Farmac uticas 42 1 49 58 Available from URL http www scielo br paf rbcf v42n1 29858 pdf Date accessed 10 January 2009 Rosas Portugal J 2005 Efecto antioxidan
35. 121 193 Flores HE Flores T 1997 Biology and biochemistry of underground plants storage organs In Johns T Romeo JT editors Functionality of Food Phytochemicals Plenum Press New York USA pp 113 142 Flores HE Walker TS Guimaraes RL Bais HP Vivanco JM 2003 Andean root and tuber crops Underground rainbows online HortScience 38 2 161 167 Available from URL http lamar colostate edu jvivanco papers Hort 20Science 2003 pdf Date accessed 24 October 2008 Flores Mego JA 2004 Efecto en la tasa de crecimiento de Artemia sp cepa virrila sustituyendo parcialmente la dieta algal con diferentes concentraciones de harina de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp dissertation Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos UNMSM Lima Peru Fuentealba Durand B 2004 Abundancia distribuci n y h bitat de las especies de papa y maca silvestres presentes en cuatro comunidades campesinas andinas de Huancavelica y Jun n dissertation Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Garay Canales O 1991 El cultivo de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walp en el Peru In Morales D Vacher JJ editors In Morales D Vacher JJ editors Actas del VIl Congreso Internacional sobre Cultivos Andinos 4 8 February 1991 La Paz Bolivia IBTA La Paz Bolivia ORSTOM Paris France CIID Centro Interamericano de Investigaciones para el Desarrollo Ottawa Canada The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence
36. 25 April 1997 Cusco Peru Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco UNSAAC Centro de Investigaci n en Cultivos Andinos CICA Asociaci n Arariwa Cusco Peru Solis J Ghislain M Medrano G 2005 Aislamiento y expresi n recombinante de un gen de defensina obtenido de maca Lepidium meyenii on line Res menes XII Encuentro Cient fico Internacional de Verano ECI 2 5 January 2005 Lima Peru ECI Lima Peru Available from URL http www cienciaperu org eci2005v resumeneseci2005v htm Date accessed 10 January 2009 Solis J Medrano G Ghislain G 2006 Inhibitory effect of a defensin gene from the Andean crop maca Lepidium meyenii against Phytophthora infestans on line Journal of Plant Physiology 12 p Available from URL http dx doi org 10 1016 j jplph 2006 06 002 Date accessed 10 January 2009 Soto Pasco JR editor 2001 Producci n de maca kiwicha y camu camu Editora y Distribuidora Palomino Lima Peru Suarez L pez L 1999 La maca como producto agroindustrial Aplicaci n en alimentos y medicinas In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 61 71 Sulca Huamani W Alarc n Ismodes JY Chang Rodriguez JN Garc a Irey MV 2004 Estudio de prefactibilidad para la producci n y la comercializaci n de una bebida en polvo instant nea a base de kiwicha Amaranthus caudatus L quinua Chenopodium quinoa W cebada Hor
37. 4 1 Such information was picked up by many companies who used it in product promotion Because of the lack of coherent scientific information about maca European food safety legislation also began to pose a serious problem for exports in 2002 see Section 7 2 2 The confiscation in Japan of maca contaminated with pesticide residues was widely observed and attributed to the intensification of cultivation and unscrupulous use of pesticides This provided incentives to return to the traditional ecological production of maca and led some companies to seek organic certification for production which they source increasingly through contract farming In 2006 the share of organically certified maca reached 15 In recent years the increased competition has led to tensions between the main producer groups of Junin and Pasco For example they no longer conduct a shared maca trade fair but have opted for separate individual fairs There are even reports about quarrels between the two groups concerning the establishment of product norms Mr Magno Meyhuay personal communication 2007 Interest in maca continues to grow unabatedly although export figures from the years 2003 to 2005 suggest that export demand was stagnating in that period Currently most products on the market are for human consumption but there could be market opportunities for greater maca use in feed supplements for intensive production systems such as for chickens pigs fi
38. V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 154 157 Ponce Aguirre D 1999 Producci n de semilla de alta calidad de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Maca Memoria del Primer Curso Nacional de Maca 10 12 December 1997 Cerro de Pasco Peru ECO Grupo de Investigaciones Econ micas Lima Peru Ponce Aguirre D 1999 Variabilidad de familias S y selecci n combinada por peso de ra z hipocotilo en una poblaci n selecta de maca Lepidium meyenii de fase vegetativa on line In Fairlie T Morales Berm dez M Holle M editors Ra ces y Tub rculos Andinos Avances de Investigaci n CIP CONDESAN Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Ecorregi n Andina Lima Peru v 1 pp 177 190 Available from URL http www cipotato org library pdfdocs RTA59120 pdf Date accessed 10 January 2009 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Ponce Aguirre D 1999 Variabilidad de familias S1 y selecci n combinada por peso de ra z hipocotilo en una poblaci n selecta de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp de fase vegetativa In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 80 88 Ponce Aguirre DD 1999 El cultivo de la maca 1 Producci n de ra ces hipocotilos Bolet n de Divulgaci n Chakarunas Trading 1 12 Ponce Canchihuaman JC 2001 Efectos de l
39. a o Nacional de Plantas Medicinais em Servicos P blicos Brasilia Brazil Instituto de Fitoterapia Americano Lima Peru Red lberoamericana de Productos Fitofarmac uticos RIPROFITO C rdenas M 1969 Tub rculos y ra ces In C rdenas M editor Manual de Plantas Econ micas de Bolivia Imprenta Ictchus Cochabamba Bolivia pp 16 86 Castillo L del 2004 Diversidad biol gica y biopirater a El caso de la maca Debate Agrario 37 23 38 Castillo Venegas AA Castillo Venegas LA 2003 Construcci n de un secador de bandejas con circulaci n de aire forzada y su evaluaci n en el secado de maca dissertation Universidad Nacional del Altiplano Puno Peru Castro Berm dez G 1995 Producci n de Lepidium meyenii Walp maca en dos sistemas de siembra Meseta de Bomb n Res menes Congreso Peruano de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald s 11 16 September 1995 Ayacucho Peru Cultivos Andinos 5 1 33 34 Castro de Le n M 1999 Historia e importancia de la maca Maca Memoria del Primer Curso Nacional de Maca 10 12 December 1997 Cerro de Pasco Peru ECO Grupo de Investigaciones Econ micas Lima Peru Chac n de Popovici G 1997 La importancia de Lepidium peruvianum Chac n maca en la alimentaci n y salud del ser humano y animal 2 000 a os antes y despu s de Cristo y en el siglo XXI Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos UNMSM Lima Peru Chac n de Popovici G 1999 Estudio ecol gico fitoqu mic
40. a Fito 2002 29 July 03 August 2002 Lima Peru Instituto de Fitoterapia Americano Lima Peru pp 19 20 Ochoa C Ugent D 2001 Maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Brassicaceae A nutritious root crop of the central Andes Economic Botany 55 3 344 345 Ore R Mayorca JR Valdivieso R Ronceros G Raez E Durand J et al 2004 Efectos adversos de la maca y atorvastatina en higado de ratas hipercolesterol micas on line Revista de la Sociedad Quimica del Peru 70 1 9 17 Available from URL http sisbib unmsm edu pe bibvirtualdata publicaciones rsqp n1_2004 a03 pdf Date accessed 10 January 2009 Orellana A Muchaypina JJ Guillermo JJ 2005 Prevalencia de hongos en harina de Lepidium peruvianum maca en mercados de Andahuaylas Ica y Ca ete Peru on line Revista Peruana de Biologia 12 3 445 448 Available from URL http www scielo org pe pdf rpb v12n3 v12n3a13 paf gt gt Date accessed 10 January 2009 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Oshima M Gu Y Tsukada S 2003 Effects of Lepidium meyenii Walp and Jatropha macrantha on blood levels of estradiol 17 lt beta gt progesterone testosterone and the rate of embryo implantation in mice on line Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 65 10 1145 1146 Available from URL http www jstage jst go jp article jvms 65 10 1145 _paf Date accessed 10 January 2009 Pacheco Sandoval M 1986 Virt
41. a b Obregon 1998 refers to several Peruvian authors who observe that toponyms consisting of or containing maca occur in in the departments of Arequipa Cajamarca Cusco Puno and even beyond Peru Argentina Bolivia Chile Colombia Ecuador i e outside the historically confirmed area of maca cultivation This is often taken as evidence that maca cultivation in pre Spanish historic times must have been much more widespread across Peru and neighbouring countries than historical sources and the available archaeological record suggests To assess the linguistic validity of this argument is beyond the scope of this paper but whether the etymology of toponyms can be derived from simple phonetic similarities appears highly debatable chapter 5 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence El Distribution and use in colonial times The texts of some Spanish chroniclers as well as records by the colonial administration in the 16 and 17 centuries mention maca and provide hints as to its distribution its significance compared to other crops and its uses In his description of Lake Junin written around 1550 Pedro Cieza de Leon a Spanish conquistador and author of La Cr nica del Per briefly refers to the cultivation of roots at Lake Jun n as the predominant agricultural activity apart from livestock herdingf In 1562 I igo Ort z de Z iga in his account of travel to the province of Le n de Hu nuco
42. a A Marcelo A Huaman C Carbajal L 2000 Evaluaci n nutricional de Lepidium meyenii maca en ratones albinos y su descendencia Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutricion Guatemala ISSN 0004 0622 2000 50 2 126 133 online Available from http www scielo org ve scielo php script sci_arttext amp pid S0004 06222000000200003 amp lng es amp nrm iso amp tIng es Date accessed 26 September 2008 Castro de Leon M 1990 Un cultivo andino en extincion El caso de la maca Peru Indigena 12 28 85 94 Chacon de Popovici G 1990 La maca Lepidium peruvianum Chacon sp nov y su habitat Revista Peruana de Biologia 3 2 171 267 Chacon Roldan G 1961 Estudio fitoquimico de Lepidium meyenii Walp dissertation Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos Lima Peru Chauvin LO 1999 Peru s natural viagra leads list of unusual crops with potential The Miami Herald Jan 11 Cicero AFG Bandieri E Arletti R 2001 Lepidium meyenii Walp improves sexual behavior in male rats independently from its action on spontaneous locomotor activity Journal of Ethnopharmacology Uk ISSN 0378 8741 2001 75 2 3 225 229 online Available from http dx doi org 10 1016 S0378 8741 01 00195 7 Date accessed 26 September 2008 chapter 10 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt References Cicero AFG Piacente S Plaza A Sala E Arletti R Pizza C 2002 Hexanic maca extract improves rat sexual performance more e
43. a maca Lepidium meyenii Walp en la funci n reproductiva del rat n de la cepa swiss Evaluaci n microsc pica de ovarios y test culos dissertation Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia Lima Peru Ponessa Gl Parrado MF Hern ndez M 2004 Anatom a de Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Brassicaceae Lilloa 41 1 2 41 55 Portugal Mendoza C 1999 La maca y la pobreza y desnutrici n en los Andes Maca Memoria del Primer Curso Nacional de Maca 10 12 December 1997 Cerro de Pasco Peru ECO Grupo de Investigaciones Econ micas Lima Peru Portugal Mendoza C 2003 El mercado americano de los dietary supplement en base a plantas medicinales El caso de la introducci n de productos con maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n dissertation Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Portugal Mendoza C 2004 La exportaci n de maca en el Per Lecciones de una experiencia de promoci n de un cultivo tradicional Per In Eguren F Remy MI Oliart P editors Peru El problema agrario en debate X Seminario Permanente de Investigacion Agraria SEPIA 19 22 August 2003 Pucallpa Peru SEPIA Lima Peru Programa Colaborativo de Conservaci n y Uso de la Biodiversidad de Ra ces y Tub rculos Andinos 1996 Memorias 1994 1995 COTESU Cooperaci n T cnica Suiza Berne Switzerland CIP CONDESAN Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Ecorregi n Andina Lima Peru Programa Colaborativo de Conservaci
44. a plants ready for harvest gt gt chapter 2 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt The biological and agricultural context of maca supply chains Figure 5 Seed bearing maca plants with strong generative shoots Jun n early 1990s Figure 6 Maca seeds scale units mm Each maca plant has the capacity to develop several hundreds or even thousands of seeds Therefore in cultivation only a few dozen plants are needed to reproduce the crop area typical of a smallholder The fruits are dehiscent hence the need to harvest the plants prematurely and dry them in a location where the seeds are not lost The seeds are gt gt tiny and 1600 seeds weigh approximately one gram Fig 6 chapter 2 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt The biological and agricultural context of maca supply chains 2 3 The word maca as used in Peru is believed to be of Quechua Economic plant part and origin and it refers both to the plant Lepidium meyenii as well as vernacular name to its fleshy and edible underground parts Fig 7 These comprise the main value of the crop although the leaves may serve as animal fodder and when tender also make a pleasant ingredient in salads similar in taste to watercress although the latter use is not reported from Peru In the English literature maca is mostly referred to as a root or a tuberous root We will maintain the usag
45. ailable Thus there is currently no replacement gt gt of farmer seed with improved varieties a chapter 9 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence 9 Conclusions Although the case of maca described here is unique some general conclusions for the market development of minor or neglected and underutilized species NUS can be drawn As for many NUS the market development for maca has in the past been constrained by a lack of demand rather than by supply limitations In the case of maca the major demand constraint is the low acceptability of the product s flavour In addition maca s restricted geographic distribution made it invisible to most consumers and resulted in a lack of familiarity even among most Peruvians with the product and its uses These demand constraints were overcome by the promotion of maca and more importantly by the development and diversification of convenience products that mask the maca taste and make them suitable for urban and export markets The discussion surrounding market prospects of NUS typically concentrates on their value attributes and how these can be used in promotion when indeed the identification of crop supply or demand constraints would be equally rewarding The maca case shows that the identification of a key product attribute effectiveness as a libido stimulant and the focused and sustained communication of that attribute despite a lack of scient
46. al 800 hectares of maca in the Junin area Peru s president at the time Alberto Fujimori made considerable publicity for maca in Japan from 1998 to 2000 which led to inflated expectations as to the export demand of maca The increment of maca production was driven by high market prices during these years provoking both an expansion of the cultivated area and the intensification of maca cultivation notably through the use of mineral fertilizers which resulted in a gt gt significant increase of area yields Fig 17 chapter 6 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Modern expansion of use and market development The resulting drastic expansion of production in 2001 and 2002 however resulted in oversupply of dehydrated maca which was not absorbed by the market Fig 17 Gomez 2002 estimated that in 2002 2000 t of dried maca were stored in the Junin area alone The Peruvian company Qu mica Suiza had gathered huge stockpiles of maca for which the company had no use Andr s V zquez personal communication 2001 Consequently prices collapsed and many farmers were ruined as they were not able to pay back their loans Consequently the abundant availability of dried maca at a low cost attracted new companies to enter the maca business targeting with their products the national and international market In the year 2000 there were already 15 formal companies processing and commercializing maca as
47. ase as saying that his company s research efforts were instrumental in popularizing maca as a world wide Peruvian export a claim not easily dismissed in view of the frequent citation of Zheng s research paper see Section 7 4 1 also in connection with Internet advertisements of maca gt gt 15 www washingtonpost com wp dyn content article 2007 01 05 AR2007010500807 html chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development products of the firm s competitors The same source also quotes Naturex the company now owning PureWorld patents as willing to grant free licenses to Peruvian companies to use MacaPure the product obtained through the proprietary extraction protocol in their products An INDECOPI led delegation of Peru based research institutions private sector and advocacy groups eventually brought the issue of maca patents to the attention of the World Intellectual Property Organization WIPO who published the delegation s position paper in 2003 In it Peru presents a thorough technical and legal analysis of the maca patents to WIPO s Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources Traditional Knowledge and Folklore The paper argues that some of the claims by the US patents which they analyzed do not meet the requirement of novelty particularly regarding the extraction procedure It notes also tha
48. be represented in phytomorphic pottery Based on the historical and archaeological records we therefore conclude that maca in pre contact and well into colonial times was restricted to the area identified by Pearsall 1989 as the crop s likely place of domestication The view of maca s highly localized economic significance is also supported by the fact that Inca Garcilaso de la Vega writing in the mid 16 century is silent on maca in his chapter XXV on edible roots while he provides detailed descriptions of potato sweetpotato oca a u and the elusive cuchucho root Garcilazo de la Vega 1982 p 97 99 E chapter 6 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence al Modern expansion of use and market development 6 1 We are unaware of any mention of maca cultivation in the literature Humble beginnings th th i i until about 1990 of the 19 and early 20 century Even Weberbauer 1911 in his extensive monograph on the Andean Flora of Peru fails to mention cultivated maca although he records a wild Lepidium species occurring in Moquegua Southern Peru Perhaps this is an indication of the decline of the maca area during that period in the wake of the general decline of Peruvian highland agriculture This decline was caused by the expansion of wool production and mining that provided much local employment and income opportunities owing to the increasing demands for raw materials of the British metal and textil
49. boom years of maca s transition to market prominence gained some producers fortunes but the supply expansion and inevitable price decline hurt those entering the market too late In this study we will narrate the economic history of the crop and we will examine the players and processes behind its re emergence from neglect and under use The story of maca is a fascinating case in which inflated expectations of easy profit making well intentioned but ill advised government policies food safety inspired concerns of regulators in export markets the dispute over maca patents and research of doubtful relevance to maca value chains intertwine to produce a confusing picture Our challenge is to provide a reasonably objective account of maca s history and to disentangle the myths from the realities surrounding the crop its products and protagonists Our goal is to derive from this study broader lessons for the development of value chains for under utilized crops chapter 1 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Introduction The specific objectives of this study are a to describe key processes that caused the expansion of maca cultivation and commercialization b to identify factors constraining maca market chain development and c to assess the effects of market development on rural livelihoods and on maca biodiversity In the first sections we will provide an overview on maca biology and product
50. by far more than farmers could expect from any other agricultural activity under the harsh conditions of the Puna and significant income effects must have occurred as a consequence of the growing demand for maca In Huancayo Yanahuanca some farmers created considerable wealth in the late 1990s when maca prices soared and a large part of the proceeds were used to buy houses trucks and to pay for school fees Martin Lara unpublished rural survey 2003 Farmers chosing to re invest profits in the expansion of cultivation were badly hit at the turn of the century as described in Section 6 3 In her survey in Pasco Locher 2006 confirmed that maca growing had become a source of self employment and income for the rural poor Half of the farmers had only started growing maca during the gt gt Fujimori administration 1990 2000 and said they no longer needed chapter 8 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Impact of the expansion of maca production to work in mines due to the alternative income generation option of maca cultivation Especially in Junin the expansion of maca production has triggered the development of a number of small scale businesses related to maca processing and commercialization some of which are benefiting from the strategic location on the road connecting Lima with the tropical lowlands This has allowed farmers to set up family businesses allowing them to diversify activiti
51. c had not shown sensitivity towards the economic needs of indigenous maca farmers with whom it might have sought an agreement on a profit sharing mechanism nor did the company have the vision that a fair profit sharing agreement might have been a powerful marketing instrument paying handsome dividends Public sentiment did not approve of the company s desire to protect what it claimed was a novel extraction method for which the Peruvian companies claiming to be using it already might have pursued patent protection as well Moreover campaigners did not appreciate that regulators will not allow the use of indigenous knowledge in product advertisements and labelling unless there is scientific evidence backing it up Thus companies investing in the scientific substantiation of indigenous knowledge face difficult trade offs between the need for product protection and the reputational risks of biopiracy accusations As a matter of fact private investors can make an important contribution for admittedly selfish reasons to the recognition and economic valuation of indigenous knowledge by providing scientific substantiation but are forced to protect themselves through patents or other IPR mechanisms against free riders unwilling or unable to make such investments In hindsight the publicity surrounding the patents may actually have promoted maca and Zheng Pure World Botanicals chief scientist is quoted in a 2007 Associated Press rele
52. ce El Domestication and pre contact distribution The earliest evidence of maca as an edible food plant comes from Pearsall s stratigraphic analysis of archaeological plant remains recovered from the midden of Panaulauca Cave a rock shelter occupied by humans from 7700 BC to 1200 AD and located at 4140 m altitude near Atocsayco in the Department of Junin Pearsall 1989 Maca roots first appear in excavated horizons dated between 1900 BC and 1600 BC at a time when quinoa also becomes more abundant at the expense of more primitive gramineous seeds that must have served as food e g Festuca spp Initially the size of the thin tuberous taproot of what Pearsall refers to as a contemporary wild Lepidium species found around Panaulauca the excavated maca roots increase in size after 1600 BC reaching a maximum in the horizons corresponding to the period 1000 300 BC By 1200 AD at the end of the archaeological record at Panaulauca cave the average size of maca is similar to the lower range of modern maca cultivars Concomitantly with the increase in root size there is also increasing abundance of maca at 1000 300 BC Pearsall 1989 Pearsall 1989 concludes that the increase of size and abundance in the maca roots is suggestive of incipient maca cultivation tending and domestication This appears to coincide with the domestication of camelids at the site Indeed Pearsall speculates that herding may have favoured maca domesticat
53. cional de Cajamarca Cajamarca Peru pp 17 22 Sevilla Panizo R 2002 De la conservaci n ex situ a la conservaci n in situ o el nuevo paradigma de la conservaci n de los recursos fitogen ticos Proceedings Regional Seminar and Workshop on Andean Crops and their Wild Relatives 10 11 October 2002 Cusco Peru Solis Hospinal R Trigos Salazar M 1995 Valor nutricional morfolog a y clasificaci n de las especies de maca en la zona altoandina de Pasco Res menes Congreso Peruano de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald s 11 16 September 1995 Ayacucho Peru Cultivos Andinos 5 1 69 70 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Solis Hospinal R 1996 Producci n de Maca en la Meseta de Bombom Cerro de Pasco Peru Solis Hospinal R 1997 Influencia de la maca en el proceso de ense anza aprendizaje en la zona altoandina de Pasco Res menes IX Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald s 22 25 April 1997 Cusco Peru Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco UNSAAO Centro de Investigaci n en Cultivos Andinos CICA Asociaci n Arariwa Cusco Peru Solis Hospinal R 1997Valor nutricional morfolog a clasificaci n de las especies de la maca cultivadas en la zona altoandina de Pasco su uso y formas de cultivo por la comunidad Res menes IX Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald s 22
54. conomic Botany USA ISSN 0013 0001 50 2 216 223 Quiros CF Aliaga Cardenas R 1997 Maca Lepidium meyenii Walp In Hermann M Heller J editors Andean roots and tubers Ahipa arracacha maca and yacon Rome Italy International Plant Genetic Resources Institute IPGRI Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research IPK ISBN 92 9043 351 5 1997 pp 173 197 Promoting the Conservation and Use of Underutilized and Neglected Crops IPGRI no 21 Available from http www bioversityinternational org fileadmin bioversity publications pdfs 472 pdf Date accessed 19 January 2009 Rea J 1994 Maca Lepidium meyenii In Neglected crops 1492 from a different perspective Hernando Bermejo JE Leon J editorss Plant Production and gt gt Protection Series No 26 1994 FAO Rome Italy pp 165 179 chapter 10 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt References Rose P Faulkner K Williamson G Mithen R 2000 7 methylsulfinylheptyl and 8 methylsulfinyloctyl isothiocyanates from watercress are potent inducers of phase II enzymes Carcinogenesis 21 1983 1988 Rostworoski M 1975 La visita a Chinchaycocha de 1549 Anales Cientificos de la Universidad del Centro del Per Number 4 73 88 Sanchez A 1996 Que rica maca Somos 495 34 36 Sandoval M Okuhama NN Angelesa FM Melchor VV Condezo LA Lao J Miller MJS 2002 Antioxidant activity of the cruciferous vegetable Maca Lepi
55. creasingly deal with maca food composition product development and animal studies reflecting the needs of market development and attribute substantiation A large share of theses is conducted at Peruvian universities Some of these claim to substantiate traditional beliefs in the capacity of maca to increase fertility For instance feeding maca as a supplement to sheep C ndor 1991 is shown to increase the heat symptoms of female animals improving reproduction performance Similar results are presented for cattle by Matos 1995 who also finds increased sperm count and motility in bulls semen Data presented by Lock and Apumayta 1993 suggest accelerated sexual maturity in maca fed female rats Alvarez 1993 and Meza 1995 find that the fertility of female guinea pigs as well as the survival of their offspring is positively related to maca intake Table 2 Growth of maca literature recorded at the library of the International Potato Center 1960 2006 Data courtesy Cecilia Ferreyra Time Period 1960 69 1970 79 1980 89 1990 99 2000 06 Total Journal articles 1 1 7 39 68 1168 Theses 1 0 3 13 32 49 Other publications 165 a of which 55 are in English 57 in Spanish 4 in other languages of which 46 were defended at Peruvian universities e of which 146 are in Spanish 17 in English and 2 in other languages Beginning in the early 1990s the governments of Germany and Switzerland support over a period of 15 y
56. d nutritional value 16 3 2 Traditional processing culinary uses and intake levels 18 3 3 Indigenous knowledge associated with Maca USE 22 Domestication and pre contact distribution 23 Distribution and use in colonial times eee seeeeeesseeeeeeeeetee 25 Modern expansion of use and market development 28 6 1 Humble beginnings until about 1990 oe esessssesssseeeesnsseetnneeeteeeeeee 28 6 2 Expansion of demand and production from 1990 onwards 30 6 3 Crash and Consolidation 2000 2006 34 6 4 Maca production outside Peru ici 36 7 Analysis of factors affecting maca market development 38 TA DEMANA EXPANSION iii 38 7 1 1 Product innovation and diversification 38 7 1 2 Supply chain diversificatiOD ocnnociicinininnnmmismms AO 71 3 Promotion in the Internet 41 TNA o CA AP trend eed 42 7 2 Maca encountering barriers on international markets 45 7 21 The problem of unsubstantiated health claims 45 7 2 2 European food safety legislation 46 7 3 Maca supply chains and government policies 50 7 4 Supporting product INNOVATION eeeeseeesssesssssessesieseesisseeeeseeisseeetnneeetenseeeeet 53 7 4 1 Scientific substantiation of maca attributes 0 ee 53 7 4 2 Maca Patents ccccsssscccsssssmeessseessmessseetnsssesssnssesesinsssessuessseestuensseesineenee 55 8 Impact of th
57. deum vulgare L y maca Lepidium meyenii W para el mercado de Lima Metropolitana dissertation Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Suni ML Bravo JA Fabian J 2002 Absorci n de hierro en Maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Brasicaceae on line Revista Peruana de Biologia 9 1 11 15 Available from URL http sisbib unmsm edu pe BVRevistas biologia v09_n1 absor_hierro htm Date accessed 10 January 2009 Taipe Vasquez JC 2003 Planeamiento estrat gico y ventaja competitiva de los subproductos de maca Lepidium meyenii para el mercado norteamericano gt gt dissertation Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Talledo D Escobar C 1996 Citogen tica de Lepidium meyenii Walpers 1 Ciclo Celular y N mero Cromos mico on line CIP Lima Peru Cooperaci n T cnica Suiza COTESU Berne Switzerland Available from URL http www cipotato org library pdfdocs RTA57648 pdf Date accessed 10 January 2009 Talledo D Escobar C 1999 Comparativo de la acci n de los inhibidores de la mitosis en especies vegetales nativas del Per Scientia 1 1 129 157 Tamaki M Sasada N Soejima D Koda H Kiso Y Hori T 2006 Effects of maca on sleep onset period and sleep structure Proceedings 18th Congress of the European Sleep Research Society 12 16 September 2006 Innsbruck A
58. dium meyenii online Food Chemistry USA 79 2 207 213 Available from http dx doi org 10 1016 S0308 8146 02 00133 4 Date accessed 28 September 2008 Tapia A Lopez C Marcelo A Canales M Aguilar JL 1999 2000 La Maca Lepidium meyenii y su efecto anti estres en un modelo animal en ratones Acta Andina Peru 8 31 37 Tello J Hermann M Calderon A 1992 La maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Cultivo alimenticio potencial para las zonas alto andinas 7 Congreso Internacional sobre Cultivos Andinos La Paz Bolivia 4 8 Feb 1991 Boletin de Lima Peru 14 81 59 66 Toledo J Dehal P Jarrin F Hu J Hermann M Al Shehbaz Quiros CF 1998 Genetic variability of Lepidium meyenii and other Andean Lepidium species Brassicaceae assessed by molecular markers online Annals of Botany UK 82 523 530 Available from http dx doi org 10 1006 anbo 1998 0715 Date accessed 28 September 2008 Torres Villanueva RC 1984 Estudio nutricional de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walp y su aplicacion en la elaboracion de una bebida base dissertation Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina Lima Peru Valentova K Ulrichova J 2003 Smallanthus sonchifolius and Lepidium meyenii prospective Andean crops for the prevention of chronic diseases online Biomedical Papers Czech Republic 147 2 119 130 Available from http publib upol cz obd fulltext Biomed 2003 2 119 pdf Date accessed 28 September 2008 V squez A 1948 Comp
59. documentation of traditional uses of native biodiversity This suggests that coordinated efforts to systematize information on NUS are necessary e g on traditional intake levels processing methods anecdotal information on food hazards Such information should ideally be available from public databases and authoritative crop and product monographs Defensive publishing could also be a means to protect traditional knowledge Defensive publishing could also be used to suggest product concepts not substantiated by experimental data in order to prevent companies from staking out claims The state and public sector have important roles to play to support NUS supply chains through regulatory frameworks and research unaffected by particular private sector interests The design of policies in Peru in support of maca supply chains has in general been poorly informed and implemented However the recent public sector initiatives to support maca product norms and to challenge the gt gt maca patents granted in the US are an encouraging sign of future chapter 9 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Conclusions developments Much more needs to be done by the public sector in order to ensure an enabling environment for the market development of NUS such as geographic indication protection and more peer reviewed research on NUS Government agencies and R amp D institutions also play a key role in helping build
60. dra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 191 193 Ministerio de Agricultura y Alimentaci n Direcci n de Investigaci n Agropecuaria DGI 1978 Algunas especies nativas para la alimentaci n humana Special Report No 73 Ministerio de Agricultura y Alimentaci n Lima Peru Montaldo A 1991 Cultivo de Ra ces y Tub rculos Tropicales 2nd ed IICA San Jos Costa Rica Montaldo A 1972 Cultivo de Ra ces y Tub rculos Tropicales IICA San Jos Costa Rica Moreno JR 1995 Maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Recurso Gen tico Patrimonio del Per para la Humanidad Agroindustriales de Productos Andinos Lima Peru The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Mujica A Apaza V Canahua A Jacobsen SE 2000 Adaptation of maca Lepidium meyenii Walpers to different agroecosystems In Parente G Frame J editors Proceedings of the Final Conference of COST Action 814 on Crop Development for the Cool and Wet Regions of Europe Achievements and Future Prospects 10 13 May 2000 Pordenone Italy European Communities European Cooperation in the Field of Scientific and Technical Research COST Brussels Belgium pp 525 529 Nakanishi T 1999 Utility of new Andean crops for Agriculture in Japan Japanese Journal of Tropical Agriculture 43 3 226 229 National Research Council 1989 Lost Crops of the Incas
61. e ande e altre radici e tuberi andini contributo alla conoscenza e valorizzazione delle risorse vegetali e animali dell America Latina Serie Scienza 10 IILA Rome Italy Inche Mitma J Godoy M Vizarreta R 1995 Ampliaci n de la frontera agr cola del cultivo de la maca Theorema 4 6 79 80 Instituto para el Desarrollo de la Agro Industria Rural del Per Escuela de Negocios Internacionales y Aduanas Business Consult 2002 Producci n procesamiento y exportaci n de maca y yac n Proceedings Course Workshop on Agroexports 19 May 2002 Lima Peru INDAR PERU Business Consult Lima Peru Irigoyen J Guidi A 2003 Estudios preliminares para la agroindustria de ra ces y tub rculos andinos In Cadima X Garc a W editors Manejo Sostenible de la Agrobiodiversidad de Tub rculos Andinos S ntesis de Investigaciones y Experiencias en Bolivia Fundaci n PROINPA Cochabamba Bolivia Alcald a de Colomi Bolivia CIP Lima Peru COSUDE Agencia Suiza para el Desarrollo y la Cooperaci n Berne Switzerland pp 151 160 Jaime Pinas JA 1995 Respuesta del cultivo de maca a la aplicaci n fraccionaria de tres niveles de nitr geno en etapa de desarrollo del cultivo Res menes Congreso Peruano de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald s 11 16 September 1995 Ayacucho Peru Cultivos Andinos 5 1 39 40 Jaime Pinas JA 1991 Respuesta del cultivo de la maca a la aplicaci n fraccionada de tres niveles de nitr geno en eta
62. e companies to differentiate their product on the market particularly in the US or legitimize their promotion of the genuine Peruvian maca Mr Percy Rojas personal communication 2006 In our opinion Chacon s stated reasons for justifying her decision to give cultivated maca species status are not consistent with modern taxonomic and nomenclatural practice Although somewhat counter intuitive a type specimen as the one used in the description of L meyenii does not have to be typical of the species but can also represent a less common variant Also the status of domestication or the size of a vegetative plant part in a particular intra specific population is considered today as insufficient for the description of a new species even more so in the case of cultivated maca which is known to commonly segregate in individuals of widely varying storage root thickness with up to 20 of plants not having tuberous roots at all Mr Alberto Salas personal communication 2006 Chacon did not present evidence for discontinuous variation or reproductive barriers between wild and domesticated forms of L meyenii Based on these considerations we conclude that the possibility of the two forms being different species is very low and in the absence of substantiating evidence for such a separation it is prudent and generally accepted best practice to retain the original species name In this view we are fully confirmed by Brassicaceae
63. e et Marie Curie Paris France Humala Tasso KK Combelles PO 2003 La maca une culture millenaire d ltitude on line Pour la Science 311 25 29 Available from URL http maca over blog com Date accessed 10 January 2009 Icochea T Torres H P rez W Aley P 1994 Enfermedades fungosas de cultivos andinos en el Per VIl Congreso Latinoamericano de Fitopatolog a 10 14 January 1994 Santiago de Chile Chile Fitopatolog a 29 1 44 Icochea T Torres H P rez W 1994 Tiz n velloso de la maca Lepidium meyenii S ntomas e identificaci n del agente causal Fitopatolog a 29 2 156 159 Icochea T Torres H P rez W 1995 Etiolog a del mildiu de la Maca Lepidium meyenii Walpers Res menes Congreso Peruano de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald s 11 16 September 1995 Ayacucho Peru Cultivos Andinos 5 1 7 IIAP FMAM PNUD 2001 Proyecto de conservaci n in situ de cultivos andinos y sus parientes silvestres Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazon a Peruana IIAP Loreto Peru Instituto Nacional de Investigaci n Agraria INIA Proyecto Andino de Tecnolog as Campesinas PRATEC Coordinadora de Ciencia y Tecnolog a en los Andes CCTA Lima Peru Asociaci n Arariwa Centro de Servicios Agropecuarios CESA Cusco Peru The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP IILA Istituto Italo Latinoamericano 1998 La maca Il ginseng dell
64. e expansion of maca production 59 8 1 Impact ON rural Welfare 59 8 2 Impact on on farm diversity Of MACA ceeeccsesssseessssssmeessseeiessssesieseeeeie 60 9 CONCIUSIONS ovio 61 10 References 65 gt gt Annex Bibliography on maca available at CIP 72 chapter 1 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence EN Introduction Maca is an edible root crop of the crucifer family endemic to the Puna of the high Andes in Central Peru around Lake Junin a chilly plateau at 4000 m altitude Grown in the late 1980s exclusively in its native area on no more than 50 ha maca has experienced over the last years a meteoric rise from an overlooked botanical curiosity to Internet notoriety Owing to the root s reputed effects on fertility physical stamina and libido maca has been touted as the Ginseng of the Andes or as a soft alternative to Viagra and has made headlines world wide in the natural products industry The total area cropped to maca increased in the last 15 years by a factor of at least 60 and comprised in 2005 about 3000 ha However rather than enjoying the benefits of the sustained growth in the maca economy it has been a bumpy ride for the crop s poor farmers who have few alternatives for eking out a living in one of the most inhospitable mountainous environments Rapidly rising demand in the early
65. e industry Morlon 1992 The first newspaper articles on maca appear in the 1960s such as Pulgar s piece in 1960 which mentions maca s positive effects on reproductive fertility Chacon in her pioneering thesis on maca 1961 reports on trials with rats suggesting accelerated maturation of Graaf follicles and the enhanced production of sperm in rats In 1964 Leon introduces maca to an international audience in his article in Economic Botany Leon 1964b In this first survey on the cultivation and use of maca he confirms the Junin area as maca s habitat but notes that maca is also grown near Huancayo In the 20 years that pass after the appearance of Leon s article not much change appears to occur in terms of the area cropped to maca and the economic significance of the crop Vilchez 1999 estimates that in 1980 maca was grown only around Lake Junin and Yanacancha a community close to Huancayo Maca was cultivated mainly for self consumption and occasionally it was used during local festivities in the Junin area He estimates that the area of land gt gt under maca cultivation at that time 1980 was around 15 hectares chapter 6 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Modern expansion of use and market development an area so small as to raise concern that the the crop might become extinct IBPGR 1982 In the late 1970s and early 1980s different local actors start to promote maca
66. e la maca In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 142 146 Seminario J editor 2004 Origen de las ra ces andinas on line In Seminario J editor Ra ces Andinas Contribuciones al Conocimiento y a la Capacitaci n Conservaci n y Uso de la Biodiversidad de Ra ces y Tub rculos Andinos Una D cada de Investigaci n para el Desarrollo 1993 2003 v 6 Universidad Nacional de Cajamarca Cajamarca Peru CIP Lima Peru COSUDE Agencia Suiza para el Desarrollo y la Cooperaci n Berne Switzerland pp 1 38 Available from URL http www cipotato org artc Series 06_PDF_RTAs_Capacitacion 01_Origen_raices_andinas pdf Date accessed 10 January 2009 Seminario J editor 2004 Ra ces Andinas Contribuciones al Conocimiento y a la Capacitaci n Conservaci n y Uso de la Biodiversidad de Ra ces y Tub rculos Andinos Una D cada de Investigaci n para el Desarrollo 1993 2003 v 6 on line Universidad Nacional de Cajamarca Cajamarca Peru CIP Lima Peru COSUDE Agencia Suiza para el Desarrollo y la Cooperaci n Berne Switzerland Available from URL http www cipotato org artc ARTC_series_spa_pubs htm Date accessed 10 January 2009 Seminario J Valderrama M 2003 Origen de las ra ces andinas In Seminario J Valderrama M editors Primer Curso Nacional Cultivo y Aprovechamiento del Yacon 26 29 August 2002 Cajamarca Peru Universidad Na
67. e of the term root in this paper for want of a better common word that describes appropriately the anatomical structure of the fleshy underground plant part Tello et al 1992 recognized that the maca root results from secondary parenchymatic growth of the tissue of hypocotyl and the upper part of the tap root much like in a radish Raphanus spp Unfortunately since the appearance of that paper the use of the term hipoc tilo to denote the maca root has been widely adopted in the Peruvian literature also in the technical product norms of INDECOPI expected to be published in 2007 see Section 7 3 The English term hypocotyl has also been used in recent papers in international journals e g Quiros et al 1996 Ganzera et al 2002 This is misleading for a hypocotyl is an entirely different thing part of the axis of a developed seedling immediately below the cotyledons and the use of this term should be discontinued The issue of finding an appropriate name for maca roots and adhering consistently to its usage is not a trivial or irrelevant matter It has implications for general purposes of categorization the keywording of literature the assignation of tariff codes upon which the degree of taxation depends etc 5 According to Webster s Online Dictionary a tuber is a fleshy underground stem or gt gt root serving for reproductive and food storage chapter 2 The transition of maca from neg
68. ears 1990 2004 the Lima based International Potato Center CIP and its public sector partners in Peru to improve the conservation and use of nine neglected and underutilized Andean root and tuber crops The Programme generates and documents a considerable body of knowledge on maca and does some scientific groundwork for enhanced conservation methods and gt gt use strategies Tello et al 1992 Quiros et al 1996 Toledo et al 1998 chapter 6 The transition of maca from ne gt Modern expansion of use and market development Figure 16 Leading Peruvian brands of maca nutraceuticals Maca Andina Maca Forte on display in a pharmacy in Lima 2003 It is impossible to determine the extent to which CIP has contributed to the expansion of maca but CIP is recognized in Peru for making significant contributions for more than a decade to public awareness and information dissemination In particular CIP s library has built up an impressive collection of literature on maca including grey literature which has been instrumental in providing information to private sector players In 1995 Quimica Suiza a Peruvian pharmaceutical company became interested in maca Over the following years the company invested more than one million USD in the development and branding of the nutraceutical Maca Andina tablets containing crude maca flour Chauvin 1999 Launched in the Peruvian market in 1998 Quimica Suiza 1998 Maca Andi
69. encial para las zonas altoandinas In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n INDOAGRO Fondo para el Desarrollo de Proyectos FONDE Agronegocios Lima Peru 4 89 96 Tineo AL Franco S 2003 Extracci n de nutrientes por el cultivo de maca Libro de Memorias del Segundo Congreso Internacional de Plantas Medicinales y Fitoterapia Fito 2003 6 10 August 2003 Lima Peru Instituto de Fitoterapia Americano Lima Peru p 211 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Torres Arancivia CM 2003 Efecto de maca sobre el peso vivo dosaje de hemoglobina y toxicidad a nivel hep tico y renal en ratones dissertation Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Torres M Ames T P rez W 1997 Evaluaci n in vitro de productos qu micos para el control de pudriciones de hipocotilos de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp en pozas de brotamiento Fitopatolog a 32 1 15 Torres R Lastarria H Scarpati de Briceno Z 1986 Elaboraci n de una bebida base a partir de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Anales Cient ficos 26 1 2 261 270 Torres R Lastarria H Scarpati de Briceno Z 1986 Estudio de los componentes de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Anales Cient ficos 26 1 2 249 259 Tropical Development amp Research Institute 1987 Crop and Product Digest 2 2nd ed Tropical Development amp Researc
70. endio y descripci n de las indias occidentales Transcription of original manuscript by Charles Upson Clark Smithsonian Institution Washington USA V lchez M 1999 Maca reyna alta andina Huancayo Peru Vilchez JP 2001 El cultivo de la maca y su consumo CONCYTEC Lima Peru Weberbauer A 1911 Die Pflanzenwelt der peruanischen Anden Leipzig Verlag von Wilhelm Engelmann 355p Zhao J Muhammad Chuck Dunbar D Mustafa J Khan IA 2005 New alkamides from Maca Lepidium meyenii online Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry USA 53 3 690 693 Available from http pubs acs org doi abs 10 1021 jf048529t Date accessed 5 December 2005 chapter 10 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt References Zheng BL He K Kim CH Rogers L Shao Y Huang ZY Lu Y Yan SJ Qien LC Zheng QY 2000 Effect of a lipidic extract from Lepidium meyenii on sexual behavior in mice and rats online Urology USA 55 4 598 602 Available from http dx doi org 10 1016 S0090 4295 99 00549 X Date accessed 28 September 2008 gt gt The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence Bibliography on maca available at CIP The following is an exhaustive list of bibliographic references on maca including URL addresses for electronic versions as recorded at the library of the International Potato Center CIP Lima Peru as of March 2007 Courtesy Cecilia Ferreyra CIP Literature lis
71. es and thus lowering income risks At the same time important new skills have been gained along maca supply chains related to product development and marketing Those skills have raised the competitiveness and the attractiveness of Junin as a market place in general One important effect on rural welfare is the self esteem of the native population In contrast to the past rural producers take pride in all the external interest in maca 8 2 There is no meaningful baseline data on the genetic diversity of Impact on on farm a maca at the beginning of the crop s renaissance over one and a half diversity of maca 9 9 P decades ago or in the current situation and it is therefore impossible to determine how the expansion of maca production has affected the on farm diversity of the crop In each growing season many maca seed lots are being moved across the crop s geographical range through informal seed supply systems and no pressures favouring particular morpho or chemotypes have become evident Moreover local traders may blend produce from different locations and years of production Companies recognize the need for raw material standardization and uniformity Locher 2006 Li et al 2001 and breeding work at the Universidad Nacional Daniel Alcides Carrion in Cerro de Pasco is aiming at producing varieties of maca with higher yields and a less variable chemical composition but no formally released and uniform seeds have become av
72. es have exported maca from 2001 to 2005 Average annual export value per company FOB US rasa tite rae soor taco for only 4 US 610000 of the total FOB value with an average of US 1160 per year per company These figures demonstrate that only a small number of companies have emerged as significant maca suppliers for export markets while a much larger number of companies is involved in minor and occasional sales to external clients with some companies never progressing beyond the dispatch of product samples 7 2 7 2 1 Maca encountering The problem of unsubstantiated health claims barriers on international markets The frivolous Internet marketing of maca as a libido booster that began in the mid 1990s quickly propelled it to international notoriety As exports picked up from 1997 onwards maca pills containing the crude flour or hydro alcoholic extracts became increasingly available in Europe by mail and over the counter and were openly touted for their alleged pharmacological effects and often on sale in red light districts or advertised on webpages linked to adult material The fact that none of these products had gone though internationally gt gt accepted registration procedures mandated for pharmacological chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development products did not escape the attention of the regulatory ent
73. esults suggest that maca is an acquired taste which is probably one of the reasons for this crop failing to expand beyond its narrow geographic distribution in the past Product development and diversification have been key in the expansion of maca demand particularly the development of convenience products for urban consumption that mask the maca flavour typically by limiting its share of total product weight to under 20 Today there is a plethora of maca products available on the Peruvian market They include breakfast cereals biscuits alcoholic and non alcoholic beverages jams soluble instant flours spray dried extract candies and gelatine capsules filled with maca flour Fig 18 Some of the main processed products are described below Maca flour Dehydrated maca roots are milled to produce flour The dehydrated roots are either obtained by traditional drying as described under Section 3 2 or by oven drying the freshly harvested roots The latter method yields flour which is higher in glucosinolates Extruded maca flour Extrusion of raw maca flour from conventionally dried roots results in the gelatinization of starch The extruded product is then finely milled and becomes largely water soluble Extruded maca flour is an attractive product for use in milk or breakfast cereals upon which it imparts a unique flavour at low concentrations Pills Raw flour from freshly harvested maca can be mixed with gt gt excipient
74. expert taxonomist Al Shehbaz Missouri Botanical Garden who based on 1 The authors of this paper assisted in various gatherings of maca stakeholders of the public and private sector from 2001 to 2003 in which the need for the exclusive gt gt use of the name L meyenii was forcefully argued chapter 2 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt The biological and agricultural context of maca supply chains his inspection of the isotype of L peruvianum stated that this species is indistinguishable from L meyenii Personal communication 20022 It should be noted that an influential consortium of Peruvian maca companies namely the Instituto Peruano de Productos Naturales IPPN recommends the continued use of the name L meyenii Mr Percy Rojas personal communication 2006 Unfortunately defenders of L meyenii as the valid name for maca have been accused of improper motives The ongoing public debate over the correct botanical name for maca is an interesting case where taxonomic and nomenclatural disagreements get in the way of the functioning of supply chains In January 2007 a Google search in the Internet still produced the epithet meyenii five times as often as peruvianum However the co existence of two binomials for maca in this readily accessible information source as well as in science papers has not only confused Peruvian audiences and maca stakeholders but also European regula
75. ffectively than methanolic and chlorofornic maca extracts Andrologia USA ISSN 0303 4569 2002 34 3 177 179 online Available from http dx doi org 10 1046 j 1439 0272 2002 00490 x Date accessed 26 September 2008 Cieza de Le n P 1988 La cr nica del Per PEISA Lima Peru Clegg E y 1978 Fertility and early growth In Baker PT editor The Biology of High Altitude Peoples Cambridge University Press Cambridge UK pp 65 115 Cobo F B 1958 Historia del Nuevo Mundo Biblioteca de Autores Espa oles 2ndo Tomo Libro IV Cap 8 Madrid Spain C ndor DA 1991 Influencia de la maca en el incremento de peso en la reproducci n y descendencia de borregas en la Cooperativa Comunal San Ignacio de Jun n dissertation Universidad Nacional Daniel Alcides Carri n Pasco Peru Cui B Zheng BL He K Zheng QY 2003 Imidazole alkaloids from Lepidium meyenii The Journal of Natural Products 66 1101 1103 Del Castillo L 2004 Diversidad biol gica y biopirater a el caso de la maca Debate Agrario CEPES Lima pp 23 38 Dini A Migliuolo G Rastrelli L Saturnino P Schettino O 1994 Chemical composition of Lepidium meyenii online Food Chemistry UK ISSN 0308 8146 1994 49 4 347 349 Available from http dx doi org 10 1016 0308 8146 94 90003 5 Date accessed 26 September 2008 Ganzera M Zhao J Muhammad Khan IA 2002 Chemical profiling and standardization of Lepidium meyenii maca by reversed phase hig
76. ffice of consumer protection in the German town of Regensburg obliged the natural products distributor Compendium to withdraw several maca products in reference to the NFR In June 2002 Schiphol airport customs Netherlands confiscated a shipment of maca pills also quoting concerns related to the NFR In May 2003 the food safety authority in the Netherlands seized a gt gt consignment of maca flour and issued two warning notifications banning chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development maca flour crushed root as a non authorized novel food from entry to EU markets under references 2003 AZW and 2003 AZ along with a variety of chemically and microbiologically contaminated food items The notification was published in the weekly Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed RASFF a newly created instrument to assist authorities with the rejection of incriminated foods at the EU s external borders or with the removal of such foods from the market However a few months later the owner of the consignment had produced statistics from the Peruvian tax authority SUNAT revealing for 1996 maca shipments to Italy and Spain worth some US 5200 This was taken as proof for the use of maca in the EU prior 1997 when the NFR came into force and the consignment was returned to the importer In March 2004 a letter from DG SANCO signed by Guido Mattera
77. frutos semillas y ra ces chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development but it continues to be exported to a large extent Fig 20 This same decree also prohibits the export of maca seeds but to our knowledge the Peruvian government has never investigated the issue of maca production in Bolivia from seed that has almost certainly come from Peru through informal channels thus challenging Peru s ownership of maca genetic resources With the increase in maca trade and consumption both within Peru and abroad the lack of product standards together with the incoherent and even confusing use of product names widely varying product quality and frequent adulteration especially at times of low supply has become a problem and has been perceived as compromising the reputation of maca increasing transaction costs and putting food safety at risk Recognizing these problems in 2004 the Sociedad Nacional de Industriales de Junin Junin s Regional Office of the Ministry of Agriculture and a group of maca producers approached INDECOPI requesting the establishment of technical product norms for maca Calling upon government institutions producer organizations private companies universities the International Potato Center and independent experts INDECOPI established three committees to focus on consumption production and technical aspects Mr Magno Meyh
78. gov articlerender fcgi artid 548136 Date accessed 10 January 2009 Gonzales GF Nieto J Rubio J Gasco M 2006 Effect of black maca Lepidium meyenii on one spermatogenic cycle in rats on line Andrologia 38 5 166 172 Available from URL http www3 interscience wiley com journal 118621775 abstract Date accessed 10 January 2009 Gonzales GF Valerio Jr LG 2006 Medicinal plants from Peru A review of plants as potential agents against cancer Anti C ncer Agents in Medicinal Chemistry 6 5 429 444 Gonzales GF Villegas L C rdova A Ruiz A Gonzales C Rubio A 2000 Efecto del extracto acuoso de Lepidium meyenii maca sobre la espermatog nesis en ratas Libro de Memorias Primer Congreso Internacional Fito 2000 y 1er Congreso Peruano de Plantas Medicinales y Fitoterapia 27 30 September 2000 Lima Peru Asociaci n Argentina de Fitomedicina Capital Federal Argentina Coordena o Nacional de Plantas Medicinais em Servicos P blicos Brasilia Brazil Instituto de Fitoterapia Americano Lima Peru Red Iberoamericana de Productos Fitofarmac uticos RIPROFITO Gonzales Guzm n WD 1991 La maka alimento seleccionado con esfuerzo y sabidur a Agroenfoque 7 47 24 25 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Gonzales Ureta A 1995 La maca Lepidium meyenii Walp cultivo y usos Instituto Nacional de Investigaci n Agraria INIA Lima Peru Guti
79. h performance liquid chromatography online Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin Japan 50 7 988 991 Available from http cpb jstage jst go jp cgi bin fs cgi 50_988 pdf SID 0cd3ac558c493132cfe587 7d594f960e Date accessed couldn t access it Garcilazo de la Vega INITIAL 1982 Comentarios Reales ESPASA CALPE Madrid Gomez E 2002 2 mil toneladas de maca no tienen donde venderse Correo August 29 Huancayo Peru Gonzales GF Ruiz A Gonzales C Villegas L Cordova A 2001 Effect of Lepidium meyenii maca roots on spermatogenesis of male rats Asian Journal of Andrology China online ISSN 1008 682X 3 3 231 233 Available from http www asiaandro com 1008 682X 3 231 htm Date accessed 26 September 2008 Gonzales GF Cordova A Gonzales C Chung A Vega K Villena A 2001 Lepidium meyenii Maca improved semen parameters in adult men Asian Journal of Andrology China online ISSN 1008 682X 3 4 301 303 Available from http www asiaandro com 1008 682X 3 301 htm Date gt gt accessed 28 September 2008 chapter 10 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt References Gonzales GF Cordova A Vega K Chung A Villena A Gonez C Castillo S 2002 Effect of Lepidium meyenii MACA on sexual desire and its absent relationship with serum testosterone levels in adult healthy men Andrologia UK online ISSN 0303 4569 34 6 367 372 Available from http dx doi org 10 1046 j
80. h Institute London UK Tupac Yupanqui A 1998 Fasciculo 24 Poscosecha de las raices andinas con nfasis en el manejo del producto fresco Arracacha achira maca yac n chago y ajipa In Seminario J compiler Producci n de Ra ces Andinas Manual de Capacitaci n CIP Lima Peru pp 1 10 Valderrama Soto ML 2003 Evaluaci n nutricional y biol gica de galletas dulces con sustituci n parcial de harina de trigo por harina de maca Lepidium meyenii W dissertation Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Valdivia Cuya M 2001 Male fertility is improved by a Peruvian herb Lepidium meyenii Walp maca VIII Congreso Iberoamericano de Biolog a Celular y Primer Congreso de la Sociedad Peruana de Biolog a Celular 24 26 September 2001 Lima Peru Sociedad Peruana de Biolog a Celular SPBO Lima Peru Sociedad Iberoamericana de Biolog a Celular SIBC Biocell Mendoza Argentina v 25 Suppl Sep Valentova K Buckiova D Kren V Peknicova J Ulrichova J Simanek V 2006 The in vitro biological activity of Lepidium meyenii extracts on line Cell Biology and Toxicology 22 2 91 99 Available from URL http dx doi org 10 1007 s10565 006 0033 0 Date accessed 10 January 2009 Valerio Jr LG Gonzales GF 2005 Toxicological aspects of the South American herbs cat s claw Uncaria tomentosa and maca Lepidium meyenii A critical synopsis Toxicological Reviews 24 1 11 35 V squez Villanueva V
81. i n en ra ces y tuberosas andinas RTA Technical Report Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Villagomez Castillo V 2004 Urqupi Tiyapga Miski Mikuynin La Comida Dulce de los que Viven en los Andes Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Villanueva J L pez C Tapia B 2001 Obtenci n de pl ntulas in vitro de maca Lepidium sp mediante organog nesis indirecta ll Simposio Latinoamericano de Ra ces y Tub rculos SLART 2 Gu a para Participantes 28 30 November 2001 Lima Peru CIP Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Walker M 1998 Effects of Peruvian maca on hormonal functions Townsend Letter for Doctors amp Patients 184 18 23 Wamg Y Wang Y McNeil B Harvey LM 2007 Maca An Andean crop with multi pharmacological functions Food Research International 40 783 792 Yllesca Guti rrez MG 1994 Estudio qu mico y fitoqu mico comparativo de 3 ecotipos de Lepidium meyenii Walp Maca procedente de Carhuamayo Junin dissertation Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos UNMSM Lima Peru Zhang Y Ao M Yu L Jin W 2006 Effect of ethanol extract of Lepidium meyenii Walp on osteoporosis in ovariectomized rats on line Journal of Ethnopharmacology 105 1 2 274 279 Available from URL http dx doi org 10 1016 j jep 2005 12 013 Date accessed 10 January 2009 Zheng BL He K Hwang ZY Lu Y Yan SJ Kim CH Zheng QY 2002 Effect of aqueou
82. i Walp en un sistema andino marginal In Valencia L Pe a E de la editors Aportes para el Manejo Ecol gico de Cultivos Concurso Nacional de Innovaci n en Tecnolog as para el Agro Red de Acci n en Alternativas al Uso de Agroqu micos RAAA Lima Peru pp 143 148 Aliaga C rdenas R 1995 Biolog a floral de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walp dissertation Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Aliaga C rdenas R 1997 La maca Lepidium sp recurso gen tico del Per Res menes IX Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald s 22 25 April 1997 Cusco Peru Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco UNSAAC Centro de Investigaci n en Cultivos Andinos CICA Asociaci n Arariwa Cusco Peru The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Aliaga C rdenas R 1998 La maca In Seminario J compiler Producci n de Ra ces Andinas Manual de Capacitaci n CIP Lima Peru Fascicule 6 pp 1 7 Aliaga C rdenas R 1999 Gu a para el cultivo aprovechamiento y conservaci n de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walpers Convenio Andr s Bello CAB Serie Ciencia y Tecnolog a 82 Convenio Andr s Bello Ministerio de Educaci n y Cultura de Espa a Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM CIP Lima Peru Aliaga C rdenas R 2001 Aspectos agron micos de la maca ll Simposio Latinoamericano de Ra ces y Tub rculo
83. iaandro com 1008 682X 7 71 htm Date accessed 3 October 2008 Cabieses Molina F 1997 La Maca y la Puna Universidad de San Martin de Porres Lima Peru Cabieses Molina F 1999 La maca valor nutricional In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 39 49 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Campoverde E M rquez M Castro J 2002 Acci n de la maca en el ciclo evolutivo de Chrysoperla externa en condiciones de laboratorio Programa y Res menes XLIV Convenci n Nacional de Entomolog a 3 7 November 2002 Lima Peru Sociedad Entomol gica del Per SEP Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Cano M Pe a J Gonzales Figueroa H 2002 Alteraciones de los ndices de fases y mit tico en meristemos de Allium cepa inducidas por extractos de Lepidium meyenii Walp maca Revista de la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad Ricardo Palma 3 1 22 Capcha RC Rojas PA Aguilar JL 2000 Toxicidad aguda DL50 para dos extractos estandarizados de Uncaria tomentosa Willd DC y un extracto de Lepidium meyenii maca rico en glucosinolatos Libro de Memorias Primer Congreso Internacional Fito 2000 y 1er Congreso Peruano de Plantas Medicinales y Fitoterapia 27 30 September 2000 Lima Peru Asociaci n Argentina de Fitomedicina Capital Federal Argentina Coorden
84. ific substantiation has allowed a strong positioning of the product on the market and in the minds of consumers Similarly the effective marketing of asingle important attribute namely the nutritionally relevant content of oligofructose also propelled yacon Smallanthus sonchifolius Poepp amp Endl H Robinson another Peruvian root crop from obscurity to hugely expanded use in even fewer years than maca These experiences suggest that the often blurred and unfocused messages to consumers associated with the multipurpose functions of some NUS are much less effective for the positioning of a new crop The re appraisal of maca was initially a domestic Peruvian development however quickly growing interest from export markets and related gt gt Internet promotion provided important feedback to domestic market chapter 9 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Conclusions development in terms of increased consumer awareness and maca demand in Peru greater entrepreneurial interest incipient policy making in support of native agrobiodiversity and investment in the substantiation of economic product value attributes While the prospects of greater opportunities in export markets as opposed to national or regional markets prompted many supply chain actors to invest in maca production and marketing they underestimated the need for a coherent marketing approach and for responsible product claims
85. in the fact that maca suppliers were unprepared to respond adequately to food safety concerns particularly those embodied by EU Regulation No 258 97 also known as the Novel Food Regulation NFR Regulation EC No 258 97 of the European Parliament and of the council of 27 January 1997 concerning novel foods and food ingredients Official Journal L 043 14 02 1997 p 0001 0007 accessed 27 Dec 2006 Available from http eur lex gt gt europa eu LexUriServ site en consleg 1997 R 01997R0258 20040418 en paf chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development This regulation requires food safety assessments of traditional foods viewed as novel from a European perspective for pre market approval Its stated objective is to protect public health by ensuring food safety The NFR arbitrarily defines novel food as food or food ingredients that were not used for human consumption to a significant degree within the EU before 15 May 1997 The NFR calls for anyone wishing to place a food product on the EU market to first evaluate whether the food was used prior to 1997 and to present evidence to support the case If the food in question can be shown to have been used within the EU before 15 May 1997 it is viewed as not novel and it may be placed on the market An assessment under the NFR is then not required If market presence for the food can not be demons
86. ion Corralling animals and grazing may have provided the disturbed habitat that this herbaceous species requires However given abundant evidence for the use of camelids deer and a variety of small animals at Panaulauca it seems unlikely that plant derived food sources including maca played a dominant nutritional role in the diet of Panaulauca s occupants Apart from Panaulauca we are unaware of other archaeological maca gt gt remains Pearsall s extensive list of archaeological plant remains chapter 4 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Domestication and pre contact distribution Pearsall 1992 from excavations in the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes the Peruvian coast and the Chilean coast and Sierran oases of the Atacama desert is silent on maca remains while a wide range of root and tuber as well as seed and fruit crops is well documented for most archaeological sites This is all the more remarkable since the dried maca roots preserve much better than similarly fleshy plant products Pearsall concludes from these findings that maca never spread far from the Central Andes but formed a component of the puna system of llama herding and root crop cultivation Pearsall 1992 In this context it is interesting to note that no phytomorphic ceramics representing maca have been documented in the ancient Peruvian pottery that is otherwise so rich in representations of cultivated plants Leon 1964
87. ion in order to lay the basis for the ensuing sections After examining the traditional use of maca and its nutritional attributes we proceed to describe what is known about maca s distribution and significance in pre historic and colonial times This is followed by a description of the crop s expansion and market development since the early 1990s the boom and crash years of 1999 2001 and what hopefully will prevail in coming years as the consolidation of maca cultivation and market development In the final sections we will examine in greater depth the enabling and constraining factors behind the market development of maca In particular we will describe the drivers of demand expansion the functions of the public and private sectors and the role of national and international policies Finally we will derive broader lessons for the market development of neglected and under utilized species with attributes similar to maca to yield farmer and consumer benefits For this study we have evaluated a comprehensive body of literature on maca conveniently available from CIP s library including much grey literature We also rely on information gathered over the years informally through our interaction with maca growers exporters and importers Particularly useful in that regard was the experience we gained as exhibitors of maca products at international trade fairs Vitafoods Geneva 2001 ANUGA K6In 2001 Tisana Lugano 2001 For the purpose of thi
88. ion is daylength neutral However the authors failed to recognize that this experiment is unsuitable to determine the daylength sensitivity of maca Their observation would also be consistent with maca behaving as a short day plant with a critical daylength over 14 hours under the highly artificial conditions of the experiment The same authors observed good maca storage root formation up to 3 5 5 cm diameter in field cultivation at Davis California from September to May Maca roots had reached maximum enlargement by the end of April Thus root enlargement must have taken place in days less than 13 hours long Maca sown in Berlin ca 52 N latitude in June and harvested in September did not show at all root enlargement Mr H J Brinkjans personal communication 1990 Maca cultivated in Gatersleben Germany near Berlin from April to November produced only very small roots 1 1 5 cm Marthe et al 2003 These observations under long daylength conditions in higher latitudes suggest that maca is indeed a short day plant perhaps with gt gt strong interaction between critical daylength and temperatures chapter 2 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt The biological and agricultural context of maca supply chains Figure 1 The life cycle of maca redrawn from Tello et al 1992 Root transplant A i Seed sun drying i sale and storage i Precipitation monthly 50 160 mm Precipitation m
89. ities in target markets Particularly in the EU an increasing number of maca shipments were confiscated in the 1990s and maca marketing became increasingly limited to informal distribution channels including sales through the Internet Peruvian exporters and their EU importer counterparts reacted by toning down advertisements and or by removing health claims from their product labels but this invariably resulted in reduced demand Mr Gm r personal communication 2001 It was also at this time that a sense of the need for scientific substantiation of maca s invigorating effects became commonplace leading to research that was eventually published in university theses and in peer reviewed journals from 1999 onwards see Section 7 4 1 aan food safety legislation Some maca suppliers however began to pursue a different marketing strategy aimed at the promotion of maca as a food or food ingredient consistent with the root s traditional use in its native area in the Lake Junin area This strategy was beset with two major difficulties One was the de facto positioning of maca as a drug in the Internet which was further accentuated by the appearance of science papers suggesting the efficacy of maca s action on reproductive parameters in animals and humans This necessarily led to concerns about possible toxicological effects at the much higher doses implied in consumption of maca as a food A second problem of this approach consisted
90. ium meyenii Walp Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50 20 5621 5625 PIWA Programa Interinstitucional de Waru Waru 1999 Investigaciones sobre maca en el altiplano de Puno Ingenier a Qu mica y Desarrollo Regional 6 6 43 45 Plaza A Quintanilla R Lock de Ugaz O 2000 Identificaci n de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp en sus formulaciones farmac uticas Libro de Memorias Primer Congreso Internacional Fito 2000 y 1er Congreso Peruano de Plantas Medicinales y Fitoterapia 27 30 September 2000 Lima Peru Asociaci n Argentina de Fitomedicina Capital Federal Argentina Coordena o Nacional de Plantas Medicinais em Servi os P blicos Brasilia Brazil Instituto de Fitoterapia Americano Lima Peru Red Iberoamericana de Productos Fitofarmac uticos RIPROFITO The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Ponce Aguirre D Molina Gal n JD Torres L 2003 Gen tica y fitomejoramiento de la maca Lepidium peruvianum en la meseta del Bombom 4200 msnm de Per Libro de Memorias del Segundo Congreso Internacional de Plantas Medicinales y Fitoterapia Fito 2003 6 10 August 2003 Lima Peru Instituto de Fitoterapia Americano Lima Peru pp 43 49 Ponce Aguirre D 1995 Estimaci n de la variabilidad genot pica en una poblaci n de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp de fase generativa Reproductiva Res menes Congreso Peruano de Cultivos Andinos O
91. l Medicine 16 93 96 Morlon P 1992 Comprendre l agriculture paysanne dans les Andes Centrales INRA Paris France Muhammad I Zhao JP Dunbar DC Khan IA 2002 Constituents of Lepidium meyenii maca online Phytochemistry UK ISSN 0031 9422 59 1 105 110 Available from http dx doi org 10 1016 S0031 9422 01 00395 8 Date accessed 28 September 2008 Obregon Vilches L 1998 Maca planta medicinal y nutritiva del Peru Instituto de Fitoterapia Americano Lima Peru Pearsall DM 1989 Adaptation of prehistoric hunter gatherers to the high Andes the changing role of plant resources In Harris DR Hillman GC editors Foraging and farming The evolution of plant exploitation Unwin Hyman London UK p 318 332 Pearsall DM 1992 The origins of plant cultivation in South America In Cowan CW Watson PJ editors The origins of agriculture an international perspective Smithsonian series in archaeological inquiry Washington p 173 205 Pulgar V 1960 La maca poderoso fecundante vegetal La Voz de Huancayo Abril 24 1960 10 Pulgar V 1978 La maca y el uso agricola de la puna Expreso Peru 1978 29 May p 12 20 Jun p 18 26 Jun p 10 4 Jul p 18 15 Jul p 18 Qu mica Suiza 1998 Maca Andina Monograf a de presentaci n Qu mica Suiza Lima Peru Quiros CF Epperson A Hu J Holle M 1996 Physiological studies and determination of chromosome number in maca Lepidium meyenii Brassicaceae E
92. lect to market prominence gt The biological and agricultural context of maca supply chains Figure 7 Freshly harvested maca storage roots 2 4 According to Quiros amp Aliaga 1997 maca is an autogamous species Reproductive biology genetic diversity and ploidy Progenies from single plants are morphologically alike with few and reproduces predominantly by self pollination cleistogamy exceptions and it is straightforward to obtain homogeneous lines of particular morphotypes Toledo et al 1998 found that the similarity among 29 accessions of cultivated maca was high indicating a low level of polymorphism Maca is an octoploid with 2n 8x 64 chromosomes as first established by Quiros et al 1996 Its meiosis is normal with the chromosomes associating as bivalents suggesting that maca is a disomic polyploid gt gt Figure 8 Maca field in full vegetative growth Junin 4300 m altitude Photo 1990 2 5 Production gt gt gt The biological and agricultural context of maca supply chains Good accounts of maca production can be found in Le n 1964a 1964b Tello et al 1992 and Quiros amp Aliaga 1997 It is confined to the puna of Central Peru the cold barren extensions where sheep grazing is the dominant occupation Maca cultivation is practiced up to an altitude of 4500 m above sea level where no other crop gives economic returns except certain varieties of bitter potatoes
93. lect to market prominence gt The biological and agricultural context of maca supply chains The mature generative plants are harvested before they scatter the seed they are then dried in the shade and threshed In Pasco half of the farmers use exclusively their own seed while others rely on external seed sources in addition to their own production a practice believed by farmers to maintain the vigour of the plants and their resistance to pests and diseases Locher 2006 The price for one kilogramme of pure seeds reached 400 Soles in 1999 Mr David Ponce personal communication 2006 and was still Soles 150 300 US 46 92 kg in 2006 Locher 2006 Three to five kilogrammes of seed are needed to sow one hectare Seed germination is generally well over 80 Tello et al 1992 E gt gt chapter 3 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence E Maca use 3 1 Maca has high nutritional density as determined by Dini et al 1994 Chemical composition N Dried roots as obtained through the traditional procedures described and nutritional value in Section 3 2 contain about 10 water 55 65 highly digestible carbohydrates 2 2 lipids 10 13 protein and 8 5 fibre Maca seems to be particularly rich in iron calcium copper zinc and potassium Dini et al 1994 Canales et al 2000 The maca protein is high in essential amino acids with serine arginine phenylalanine valine isoleucine leucine and l
94. levels and incentives are thus provided for a slight expansion of local production From 1987 onwards V lchez also sells maca sporadically at different natural food fairs in Lima The interest of two national newspapers and a television channel covering his activities help familiarize many more people with a plant still largely unknown to most Peruvians It is also at this time that the first convenience products containing maca begin to appear using the root at lower concentrations or with ingredients that mask its strong flavour thus improving its acceptance among gt gt urban consumers Torres 1984 V lchez 1991 chapter 6 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Modern expansion of use and market development During this same period in the 1980s the first foreigners discover maca For instance in 1982 two US students visit Junin to survey the economic botany of maca Balick and Lee 2002 In the 1980s Johns publishes his thesis and publications on the ethnobotany and phytochemistry of maca and a u Tropaeolum tuberosum Johns 1980 1981 1986 The 1980s also put maca on the political agenda of the Peruvian government Under the umbrella of a new law ratified in 1986 to promote Andean crops maca is introduced to other parts of the Peruvian Andes with the stated aim of overcoming malnutrition in poor communities Obregon 1998 However the lack of maca seed and growing insecurity owing to
95. meyenii Walp maca Revista de Qu mica 16 1 2 25 32 Loo Kung Baffigo TM 2003 Evaluaci n del efecto de la harina pre gelatinizada de maca Lepidium peruvianum sobre el crecimiento de alevitos de tilapia roja Oreochromis spp dissertation Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Machaca Acero W 2001 Comportamiento de cinco ecotipos de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp en la fase de producci n de semilla bot nica en condiciones del Altiplano de Puno dissertation Universidad Nacional del Altiplano Puno Peru Mamani Calisaya AE 2001 Efecto de azotol n y esti rcol en la producci n de semilla bot nica de maca Lepidium sp dissertation Universidad Nacional del Altiplano Puno Peru Mamani Paredes J 2000 Efecto de suplementaci n con maca Lepidium sp en el ltimo tercio de gestaci n de borregas Corriedale dissertation Universidad Nacional del Altiplano Puno Peru The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Marcelo Al Canales MA Aguilar JL 2000 Ausencia de toxicidad aguda y citotoxicidad de Lepidium meyenii maca Libro de Memorias Primer Congreso Internacional Fito 2000 y 1er Congreso Peruano de Plantas Medicinales y Fitoterapia 27 30 September 2000 Lima Peru Asociaci n Argentina de Fitomedicina Capital Federal Argentina Coordenac o Nacional de Plantas Medicinais em Servicos P blicos Brasilia Brazil
96. mmissioned and partially financed by the Global Facilitation Unit for Underutilized Species We thank the following people for generously sharing with us unpublished information about maca Mr Javier Castillo GUere Mr Michel Guillerm Ducher Mr Magno Meyhuay Montes Dr David Ponce Aguirre Mr Jos Luis Rabines Alarc n Mr Percy A Rojas Puente Mr Alberto Salas Mr Jos Luis Silva Ms Alejandra Velazco Mu oz Mr Ivan Manrique Ms Nicole Locher and Ms C line Cl ment provided some of the pictures in this paper We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Ms Cecilia Ferreyra CIP in preparing the Bibliography on maca available at CIP and of Ms Alexandra Walter in revising and standardizing the references Ms Arwen Bailey edited the final manuscript and provided many useful suggestions for improvement Cover Picture Rural women in Junin gathering dehydrated maca Photo courtesy Ivan Manrique CIP Lima gt gt The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence Table of Contents T Introduction cuutorocrsres irc eel centro de 1 2 The biological and agricultural context of maca supply chains 3 2 1 Taxonomy and nomenclature ici 3 2 2 Life form and Agro ecol0YY iii 6 2 3 Economic plant part and vernacular NaMe 10 2 4 Reproductive biology genetic diversity and ploidy 11 O e 12 2 6 SECA POUM cia 14 3 M t USC icons coin ina noti alcance ess 16 3 1 Chemical composition an
97. n ndez Valdivia M Villena Soria J Ortiz Ortiz J P rez Mamani P Zamalloa Humpire N Rebisso Ramos R Flores Cruz D Medina Espinoza W Ram rez Cayo C Ucharico Vel squez G 1999 Investigaciones sobre Maca en el Altiplano de Puno Programa Interinstitucional de los Waru Waru PIWA Programa Especial Binacional Lago Titicaca PELT Puno Peru Instituto Nacional de Desarrollo INADE Lima Peru Fern ndez Valdivia M Villena Soria J Ortiz Ortiz J P rez Mamani P Zamalloa Humpire N 1999 Adaptabilidad del cultivo de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp en los agroecosistemas de waru waru y Pampa en el altiplano de Puno In Fern ndez Valdivia M et al editors Investigaciones sobre Maca en el Altiplano de Puno Programa Interinstitucional de los Waru Waru PIWA Programa Especial Binacional Lago Titicaca PELT Puno Peru Instituto Nacional de Desarrollo INADE Lima Peru pp 7 60 Fern ndez Valdivia M Villena Soria J 1999 Manual t cnico para el cultivo de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walp In Fern ndez Valdivia M et al editors Investigaciones sobre Maca en el Altiplano de Puno Programa Interinstitucional de los Waru Waru PIWA Programa Especial Binacional Lago Titicaca PELT Puno Peru Instituto Nacional de Desarrollo INADE Lima Peru pp 97 120 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Fern ndez Valdivia MA Ortiz Ortiz JR Ucharico Vel squez G 2
98. n y Uso de la Biodiversidad de Ra ces y Tub rculos Andinos 1999 Informe t cnico anual 1998 on line CIP Lima Peru Cooperaci n T cnica Suiza COTESU Berne Switzerland Available from URL http www cipotato org library pdfdocs RTA59028 pdf Date accessed 10 January 2009 Proyecto de Conservaci n In Situ de los Cultivos Nativos y sus Parientes Silvestres 2003 Pol ticas y legislaci n sobre la conservaci n de la agro biodiversidad Seminario Regional 17 18 February 2003 Urubamba Peru Proyecto de Conservaci n In Situ de los Cultivos Nativos y sus Parientes Silvestres Lima Peru Quine Napuri A 2004 Nutrac uticos Perspectivas de un futuro agroexportador Agronom a 48 46 48 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Quir s C Epperson A Valladolid A 1995 Avances en el estudio de la fisiolog a y biolog a reproductiva de la maca Lepidium meyenii Res menes Congreso Peruano de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald s 11 16 September 1995 Ayacucho Peru Cultivos Andinos 5 1 7 Quispe Espinoza R Berrospi EA 1998 Cultivo de la maca Pasco Per ECO Grupo de Investigaciones Econ micas Bolet n de Divulgaci n 4 27 Quispe Espinoza R 1999 T cnicas en producci n de maca In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 133 137 Quispe Espinoza R 1999
99. na became the flagship maca nutraceutical in Peru and encouraged by its success several Peruvian companies gt gt ventured into similar products Fig 16 chapter 6 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Modern expansion of use and market development Figure 17 Evolution of maca production and prices in Junin from 1994 to 2005 Source of data Ministry of Agriculture production personal information from Javier Castillo maca producer in Junin prices Junin Office of Ministry of Agriculture yield 18 000 16 000 14 000 12 000 10 000 8 000 6 000 4 000 2 000 0 MU Maca production gt Maca price Maca production t fresh matter 3 Maca farm gate price Soles kg 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 a O N A Average maca yield t fresh matter ha oOo N A OD 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 Years 1994 2005 6 3 As consumers and the private sector become increasingly interested Crash and consolidation 2000 2006 in maca during the late 1990s both demand for maca and producers prices rise drastically Fig 17 High prices in combination with expectations to export maca in large quantities to Japan the USA and Europe Chauvin 1999 provide further incentives to producers to enhance maca production Expanding production is also stimulated by a government campaign to finance the cultivation of an addition
100. nally the paper observes the enormous difficulties encountered by Peru when challenging or questioning the United States or European patents of this nature in particular the prohibitive costs and need for specialized advice Indeed no information on action by the Peruvian Government following up on the complaint to WIPO is available to us gt gt chapter 8 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence Ei Impact of the expansion of maca production Our assessment of the impact that the expansion of maca production and trade has had on rural welfare the environment and maca diversity on farm is entirely based on circumstantial and anecdotal evidence We are unaware of much quantitative data in this connection 8 1 Castillo personal communication 1996 mentions that half the total Impact on area cultivated with maca is produced by small scale farmers 1 3 ha of rural welfare maca To date maca remains an important crop for Junin because the roots can be stored and sold for cash providing more income security to farm households which in fact have very few income options With farm gate prices over 3 Soles ca one US per kilogramme of dehydrated maca roots for several years Fig 17 and conservatively estimating average dry matter yields of one tonne per hectare the revenue from a two hectare field of maca typical of a smallholding is likely to have exceeded US 2000 in most years This is
101. nd itis Oty praia by Goctors precon chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development In April 2007 a Google search for the term maca yielded 4260000 hits and in combination with the term Lepidium still 226000 hits Overwhelmingly websites featuring maca have commercial purposes and much of the information on maca is incorrect and misleading The lack of readily available authoritative information on maca is all too apparent 7 1 4 Exports Statistics based on export records of the Peruvian tax authority SUNAT Fig 20 upper graph show that the first maca exports took place in 1995 and have since grown steadily and vigorously except for the year 2000 when the international maca demand dropped by approximately one third relative to the previous year concomitantly with the worldwide stockmarket crash and ensuing recession Until 1999 sales to the US accounted for most exports but beginning in 2000 Japan took over as the most important international maca buyer with a share accounting for about half of all sales between 2001 and 2005 By 2005 total maca exports from Peru had grown to a total free on board FOB value of approximately US 3 7 million This represented 0 28 of Peru s total agricultural export value Maca export figures are dwarfed by the export value of grapes mangoes asparagus paprika and native products s
102. nged the importation and distribution of maca are probably only the tip of the iceberg of a phenomenon that has discouraged investment in maca supply chains and particularly in product and market development We have interacted with a number of companies intrigued by the marketing potential of maca who eventually shied away from investment because of uncertainties surrounding the food safety assessment of maca in the context of the NFR 7 3 Using fairly ambiguous language in early 1999 Peru s government Maca supply chains and ae under Alberto Fujimori issued a presidential decree Decreto government policies supremo No 025 99 AG which prohibited the export of specimens products and sub products of maca in a natural state or obtained through primary mechanical transformation so that its exportation be with higher added value This decree appeared to be motivated by the desire to halt the flow of maca germplasm to Bolivia and Ecuador countries which had exaggeratedly been portrayed in press reports as emerging producers of maca from illegally obtained Peruvian seed The decree was also issued in response to the perception of maca being exported as a low value commodity while added value was claimed to accrue mainly in importing countries Indeed in 1998 over half a million US worth of unprocessed maca roots accounted for the lion s share of that year s total maca exports see Fig 20 The decree effectively brought export
103. novelty for an alcoholic extraction procedure employed in the standardization of a commercial product claimed to contain novel amides by the commercial name macamide The patents also seek to protect the concept of the use of this extract for the treatment of sexual dysfunction and cancer Another less publicized patent is held by Biotics Research Corporation US patent 6 093 421 and claims novelty for the combined use of maca and antler for augmenting testosterone levels News of the patents unleashed a storm of protest in Peru amongst farmers rights and biodiversity advocacy groups e g press release by ETC Group 3 July 2002 accusing the companies who had filed the patents of engaging in flagrant biopiracy Shortly afterward it became apparent that the patents do not result in a monopoly on the growing and marketing of maca or on the use of maca genetic 14 PLoS Medicine DOI 10 1371 journal pmed 0040005 gt gt 15 http www etcgroup org en materials publications html pub_id 194 chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development resources Nor do the patents preclude the protection and marketing of other extracts but the outrage over what was perceived as the appropriation of common maca knowledge through patents lingered on and culminated in Del Castillo s paper on maca and biopiracy Del Castillo 2004 Clearly Pure World Botanicals In
104. ns that in Junin only two enterprises have processing facilities for maca and both are linked to farmer groups with organic certification Most companies acquire maca through a number of intermediaries who exploit the need of individual farmers for cash by negotiating very low prices Castillo mentions that in total there are at least 10 maca farmer associations in Peru Junin 4 Cerro de Pasco 4 Carhuamayo 1 Huancayo 1 However farmers do not always respect their contractual obligations with the associations and at times of high maca demand tend to sell their produce to the highest bidder Except for organically certified maca supply contracts between enterprises and farmers are rare Moreover they provide little supply security for enterprises Castillo estimates that currently 10 15 of the total maca area is organically certified The certification is typically owned by companies commercializing maca and also by individual farmers who act as intermediaries The fact that farmers are not owners of the certification is due to the high cost of the certification In the Lima wholesale market the most important market for maca in Peru a few traders dominate the turnover of fresh maca which is of great relevance to smaller enterprises and retailers Actually the most important wholesaler is called the King of Maca Although there is also maca flour on sale many smaller processors favour the purchase of whole maca roots
105. nto de ra ces y tub rculos andinos In Seminario J compiler Producci n de Ra ces Andinas Manual de Capacitaci n CIP Lima Peru pp 1 31 Salva Ruiz B Melgarejo Cabello S 2004 Utilizaci n de carne de alpaca Lama pacos y harina de maca Lepidium peruvianum gelatinizada en chorizos precocidos on line Anales Cient ficos 57 244 259 Available from URL http www lamolina edu pe investigacion investigacion anales pdf_ anales LVII 2 pdf Date accessed 10 January 2009 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Samam JC Ayala Y B r N Blas J Caro K Cirineo N Lujan V Palma A Salazar J Santa Cruz de Lama F Seminario RE 2003 Toxicidad subcr nica de Lepidium meyenii Walpers maca Libro de Memorias del Segundo Congreso Internacional de Plantas Medicinales y Fitoterapia Fito 2003 6 10 August 2003 Lima Peru Instituto de Fitoterapia Americano Lima Peru S nchez Le n A 1996 Una ancestral planta peruana de asombrosos poderes Qu rica maca Somos 495 34 36 Sandoval M Okuhama NN ngeles FM Melchor VV Condezo LA Lao J Miller MJS 2002 Antioxidant activity of the cruciferous vegetable maca Lepidium meyenii Libro de Res menes del Segundo Curso Internacional de Plantas Medicinales y Fitoterapia Fito 2002 29 July 03 August 2002 Lima Peru Instituto de Fitoterapia Americano Lima Peru p 21 Santiago Rivera J 1999 El cultivo d
106. o J Gonzales C Gasco M Gonzales GF 2005 Dose response effects of Lepidium meyenii Maca aqueous extract on testicular function and weight of different organs in adult rats on line Journal of Ethnopharmacology 98 1 2 143 147 Available from URL http dx doi org 10 1016 j jep 2005 01 028 Date accessed 6 October 2008 Chura Cruz R 2001 Utilizaci n de la maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n en la madurez gonadal de la trucha arco iris Oncorhynchus mykiss dissertation Universidad Nacional del Altiplano Puno Peru Cikutovic Salas MA Cikutovic Molina PA 2005 Plantas altoandinas y su efecto sobre la fertilidad mito o realidad on line Ciencia amp Trabajo 7 16 41 48 Available from URL http www cienciaytrabajo cl pdfs 16 Pagina 2041 PDF Date accessed 6 October 2008 CIP 1997 Andean root and tuber crops A report on collaborative research in biodiversity 1993 1997 on line CONDESAN Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Ecorregi n Andina CIP Lima Peru Available from URL http www cipotato org library pdfdocs RTA54677 pdf Date accessed 10 January 2009 CIP 1995 Andean Roots and Tubers CIP Bibliography No 29 CIP Lima Peru CIP 1997 Ra ces y tub rculos andinos Informe sobre la colaboraci n en investigaciones de biodiversidad 1993 97 online Technical Report CONDESAN Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Ecorregi n Andina CIP Lima Peru Available from URL http w
107. o y farmacol gico de Lepidium peruvianum Chac n maca Maca Memoria del Primer Curso Nacional de Maca 10 12 December 1997 Cerro de Pasco Peru ECO Grupo de Investigaciones Econ micas Lima Peru Chac n de Popovici G 1999 La maca Alimentaci n y salud In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 50 60 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Chac n de Popovici G 2001 Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Planta milenaria del Per con propiedades altamente nutricional y medicinal Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos UNMSM Lima Peru Chasquibol SN Aguirre MR Bravo AM Lengua CR Tomas CG Demas Ri Rivera CD 2002 Estudio qu mico y nutricional de las variedades de la ra z de la Polymnia sonchifolia yac n online Revista Peruana de Qu mica e Ingenieria Qu mica 5 1 37 42 Available from URL http sisbib unmsm edu pe bibvirtualdata publicaciones rsqp n1_2004 a02 pdf Date accessed 6 October 2008 Chicana V lez B 2002 Estudio de la hidrolisis enzim tica de la maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n sp nov para la obtenci n de un jarabe concentrado dissertation Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Chirinos Saavedra V editor 1999 Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 Chung F Rubi
108. of Bioversity is conferred under an Establishment Agreement which by January 2009 had been signed by the Governments of Algeria Australia Belgium Benin Bolivia Brazil Burkina Faso Cameroon Chile China Congo Costa Rica C te d lvoire Cuba Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Ecuador Egypt Ethiopia Ghana Greece Guinea Hungary India Indonesia Iran Israel Italy Jordan Kenya Malaysia Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Norway Oman Pakistan Panama Peru Poland Portugal Romania Russia Senegal Slovakia Sudan Switzerland Syria Tunisia Turkey Uganda and Ukraine Financial support for Bioversity s research is provided by more than 150 donors including governments private foundations and international organizations For details of donors and research activities please see Bioversity s Annual Reports which are available in printed form on request from bioversity publications cgiar org or from Bioversity s Web site www bioversityinternational org The geographical designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Bioversity the International Potato Center CIP or the CGIAR concerning the legal status of any country territory city or area or its authorities or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries Similarly the views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view
109. of maca stakeholders is an encouraging development for the regulatory role of this public agency These product norms are expected to contribute to consumer safety and the proper functioning of maca marketing making the sector more competitive 7 4 7 4 1 Supporting product Scientific substantiation of maca attributes innovation Since 1999 a growing number of scientific papers seeking to substantiate the efficacy of maca consumption on male fertility sexual performance and physical stamina have appeared in peer reviewed journals Table 5 The paper by Zheng in the journal Urology 2000 has been particularly influential and is widely referred to as proof of maca s aphrodisiac effect Zheng presented data suggesting that oral administration of a proprietory extract obtained from maca see 7 4 2 enhanced the sexual function of mice and rats in terms of increased frequency of intromissions the increased number of sperm positive females and a decrease in the latent period of erection in male rats with erectile dysfunction Aphrodisiac or fertility enhancing effects in animal models are typically observed at consumption levels that are several orders higher 1g per kg body weight than those recommended in commercial maca nutraceuticals casting doubt on the efficacy of commercial products Some authors speculate that maca s elevated content of glucosinolates is responsible for fertility enhancement but this has not yet been confirmed Unf
110. olonial times Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala writing in 1615 refers to the invigorating effect of maca In 1630 Antonio V squez de Espinosa in his Compendio y descripci n de las indias occidentales mentions maca as a unique crop of the cold Junin highlands and makes reference to the need for long fallow periods to maintain maca productivity Writing in 1653 the Jesuit Bernab Cobo gives the most detailed account of maca again for Chinchaycocha with a reference to the reputed fertility enhancing effects of the plant Obreg n 1998 refers to a document in the Archivo Arzobispal of Lima dated 1650 which describes the use of maca maize and potatoes in rites practiced in Junin Finally in 1777 the botanist Ruiz records the cultivation of maca in the villages of Ondores Pampa de los Reyes Carhuamayo and Ninacaca in what is today the department of Junin Barreiro 1940 Guaman Poma de Ayala 1615 p 119 Y se purgaua cada mes con tres pares de bilca tauri purgante de Tawri y otro tanto que pesase de maca y tomaua por la boca la mitad y la mitad se echaua melecina con esto aument salud y uida Hasta treynta a os no ten a muger ni marido ni cargo y ac ten an muy mucha fuerza 2 Quoted in Obreg n 1998 p 47 La provincia de Chinchaycocha es muy fr a tanto que en toda ella no se da un tan solo arbol ni se cria maiz ni trigo sino solo se da una rrais de hechura de navo como hogasuela que los indios llaman maca
111. on the grounds of its locally perceived health benefits For example Pulgar 1978 disseminates information through national newspaper articles referring also to his own experiments which he claims show how maca supplemented feed helps boost the fertility of heifers A key person in the promotion campaign is Timotea Cordova the owner of a beverage shop in Junin on the road between Lima and Huanuco In 1980 she successfully begins to offer a maca beverage that is highly appreciated by her clients Truck drivers and travellers enjoy the fortifying hot drink said to be good also for sexual stamina and fertility Over the following years Timotea s store becomes the place from where the news about maca spreads to other parts of the country in particular to the nearby capital city of Lima To this day the little store serves the hot maca beverage to travellers and numerous postcards on display profusely thanking Timotea for restored marital lives and the arrival of desperately wanted children are testimony to the almost magical powers ascribed to maca Vilchez 1999 In 1981 V lchez starts to offer dried maca roots to several local markets in Central Peru Vilchez 1999 He produces the first printed leaflets on maca promoting the health attributes of this crop to a wider audience With expanding demand and the product still in short supply from a small cropping area maca prices for the first time increase beyond its traditional low
112. onde se da esta ra z muy est ril y de tan fr o y spero temple por mantenerse sus naturales con esta ra z no solo van a menos como en las dem s provincias del Per sino que se multiplican cada d a m s para gt gt lo cual dicen tener virtud esta raiz chapter 5 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Distribution and use in colonial times These accounts are frequently interpreted as evidence for great significance of maca in Peru during Inca rule and in the two centuries following European contact Obregon 1998 A frequently quoted legend according to which Inca troups in Cusco were supplied with maca Antunez de Mayolo 1981 seems to support this notion Many authors state that maca cultivation may have extended beyond Lake Junin and Huancayo to Cusco and even to the land around Lake Titicaca Quiros amp Aliaga 1997 Johns 1981 and eventually declined to its modern pre boom distribution in a reduced number of localities in the departments of Junin and Pasco However the above quoted literature clearly points to the areas surrounding Lake Junin Chinchaycocha as the only area of maca cultivation in colonial Peru We were unable to find a reference to a single historical source to suggest other locations If indeed important and traded beyond Chinchaycocha prior to European contact the long lasting dried maca roots would most likely have been found in excavated archaeological material or
113. onthly 10 25 mm As schematically presented in Figure 1 the maca seedling emerges after the onset of the rainy season in October a month after sowing Fig 2 The seedling develops into a prostrate herb consisting of a rosette of some 10 25 basal leaves which form a mat near the soil surface Fig 3 The upper part of its tap root together with the lower part of the hypocotyls thickens just below the soil surface to eventually yield the edible maca root From May to June after 260 280 days of vegetative growth the beginning drought and decreasing temperatures constrain plant development and severe night frosts eventually kill the leaves Fig 4 Maca roots either left in the field or harvested and maintained in earthen pits for seed propagation will remain dormant for two to three months throughout the cold dry season With the onset of rains and warmer temperatures in September the re planted root develops a mighty generative shoot Fig 5 which yields the seeds five months later February to March Seed production exhausts the plant s resources and leads to its death Thus after nearly two years maca has concluded its life cycle very much like many cruciferous gt gt crops in the Old World hence the term biennial gt The biological and agricultural context of maca supply chains Figure 2 Maca seedling plants Figure 3 Vegetative maca plants in full growth Junin March 2006 Figure 4 Senescent mac
114. ortunately some authors of the peer reviewed articles in Table 5 fail to disclose the private sources of funding for their research and the links gt gt of their work to commercial product development and related intellectual chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market promit gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development Table 5 Reported pharmacological effects of maca to support health claims Year Author s Organism Reported pharmacological effects Supported health claim Document 1961 Chac n Rats Enhanced maturation of Graaf follicles and Fertility male and female Thesis S production of sperms 1991 C ndor Sheep Improved heat symptoms and other Ferility female Thesis S reproduction parameters 1993 Alvarez Guinea Improved reproduction with higher birth Ferility female Thesis S pigs weight and decreased risk of death at birth 1993 Lock and Rats Enhanced sexual female maturity Ferility female Thesis S Apumayta 1995 Matos Cattle Higher number of ejaculated sperms with Fertility male Thesis S increased motility 1995 Meza Guinea Improved reproduction with higher birth Fertility female Growth Thesis S pigs weight and faster growth of newborns 1997 Beltr n et al Rats Non toxicity at lethal dose DL 50 Non toxicity Document S 1999 Miura et al Rats Improved energy response in hypoglycemic Stress recovery Journal ar
115. ot be prepared to react in an organized manner once prices crash and companies begin to set the price and purchasing conditions In the case of maca indigenous knowledge associated with the gt gt crop s use provided an important pointer for product and market chapter 9 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Conclusions development The sensationalist and irresponsible use of indigenous knowledge in the Internet paid quick dividends for some companies but it eventually brought maca into ill repute particularly in the EU where regulators have banned maca from the market because of food safety concerns Unfortunately indigenous knowledge is not recognized in the documentation of food safety health and nutrition claims Regulators will allow its use in product claims say for pharmacological effects or nutritional properties only if it has been substantiated by scientific methods Substantiation is cumbersome and expensive and companies engaging in it understandably seek intellectual property protection e g through patents against competitors for their investment a legitimate need they need to balance with reputational risks arising from biopiracy accusations A widely held opinion in Peru about the US patents filed for maca is that these do not meet the requirements of novelty and industrial applicability and that the patent offices examining the applications had insufficient access to the
116. pa de desarrollo del cultivo Universidad Nacional Agraria de la Selva Tingo Mar a Peru Jeri C rdenas H 1995 Evaluaci n qu mico farmacol gico del Lepidium meyenii Walp Maca Maca Res menes Congreso Peruano de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald s 11 16 September 1995 Ayacucho Peru Cultivos Andinos 5 1 74 75 Jeri C rdenas H 1999 Maca Producto alternativo In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 97 124 Junta del Acuerdo de Cartagena Comisi n de las Comunidades Europeas CEE 1990 Bases para la formulaci n de un programa cooperativo subregional para el desarrollo de cultivos y crianzas andinos Memoria Foro Internacional para el Fomento de Cultivos y Crianzas Andinos 12 15 November 1990 Lima Peru Junta del Acuerdo de Cartagena Kay DE 1987 Root crops In Tropical Development amp Research Institute editor Crop and Product Digest 2 2nd ed Tropical Development amp Research Institute London UK pp 128 130 King SR 1987 Four endemic Andean tuber crops promising food resources for agricultural diversification Mountain Research and Development 7 1 43 52 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Lebeda A Dolezalova Dolezal K 2004 Variation in morphological and biochemical characters in genotypes of maca and yacon In Craker LE Simon JE
117. pdf Date accessed 10 January 2009 Ponce Aguirre D 1997 Estimaci n de par metros gen ticos para caracteres cuantitativos de producci n de semilla de maca Lepidium meyeniiWalp Res menes IX Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald s 22 25 April 1997 Cusco Peru Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco UNSAAC Centro de Investigaci n en Cultivos Andinos CICA Asociaci n Arariwa Cusco Peru Ponce Aguirre D 1997 Estimaci n de par metros gen ticos para caracteres cuantitativos de producci n de semilla de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Res menes IX Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald s 22 25 April 1997 Cusco Peru Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco UNSAAC Centro de Investigaci n en Cultivos Andinos CICA Asociaci n Arariwa Cusco Peru The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Ponce Aguirre D 1997 Variabilidad de familias y selecci n combinada en una poblaci n selecta de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp de fase vegetativa Producci n de ra z hipocotilo Res menes IX Congreso Internacional de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald s 22 25 April 1997 Cusco Peru Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco UNSAAO Centro de Investigaci n en Cultivos Andinos CICA Asociaci n Arariwa Cusco Peru Ponce Aguirre D 1997 Variabilidad de familias
118. pply chains Table 1 Crop area production and root fresh matter yield of maca in Peru in the year 2005 Share of total A z 4 crop area Production t Yield t ha Department Crop area ha Junin 1681 57 15257 9 08 Pasco 1138 39 4333 3 81 La Libertad 51 2 346 6 78 Huancavelica 48 2 249 5 19 Puno 10 lt 1 39 3 90 Apurimac 8 lt 1 31 3 88 Cusco 7 lt 1 6 0 86 Hu nuco 4 lt 1 28 7 00 Total 2947 100 20289 6 88 Source Ministerio de Agricultura Direcci n General de Promoci n Agraria Lima Peru The harvest is done exclusively manually At harvest the maca leaves are severed from the roots and left in the field to serve as feed for livestock or as green manure 2 6 For the production of botanical seeds for crop reproduction farmers Seed production select at harvest maca roots in good health and with preferred skin colours These roots are placed in pits 50 100 cm deep and arranged in alternate layers of soil and grass sods The reason for covering the roots is presumably to protect them against dehydration until planting is possible since the roots would quickly dry and become unsuitable due to the high atmospheric water saturation deficits in the puna At the onset of rains the roots are planted in small nutrient rich plots e g in enclosures where animals have been kept and they develop gt gt into generative plants with myriad infructescences chapter 2 The transition of maca from neg
119. ral Peru It chapter 6 Figure 15 The evolution of maca production in Peru from 1983 to 2003 Source GIS Unit International Potato Center based on information from MINAG Ministry of Agriculture and CENAGRO Censo Nacional Agropecuario gt gt The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Modern expansion of use and market development COLOMBIA ECUADOR Amazonas Lambayeque O Cajamarca La Libertad A PACIFIC OCEAN Madre de Dios Altitude E gt 3500 m Maca Production Apurimac by 5 ha areas 1993 2003 BOLIVIA Arequipa by department 300 ha 200 ha g 100 ha 1983 1993 2003 Source International Potato Center CIP based on information from MINAG 1983 2003 and CENAGRO 1993 seems that maca cultivation requires particular growing conditions that are met in the Central Peruvian puna only and give that region an absolute advantage over other high altitude areas within the Andes and other mountain areas In the 1990s academic interest in maca also increases considerably as indicated by the number of university theses and publications which exceed by a factor of 3 4 the number of all publications in previous years Table 2 Publications initially cover agronomic subjects but chapter 6 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Modern expansion of use and market development in
120. ria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru C rdova Herrera HE 1999 Ecolog a Uso y conservaci n de la maca Maca Memoria del Primer Curso Nacional de Maca 10 12 December 1997 Cerro de Pasco Peru ECO Grupo de Investigaciones Econ micas Lima Peru The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP C rdova Herrera HE 2003 La Maca Ra z Nutritiva de los Andes Ministerio de Agricultura Lima Peru Cortes Juro I 2000 Estudio de necesidades h dricas de dos ecotipos de maca en el valle del Mantaro on line Revista de Trabajos de Investigaci n 1 23 28 Available from URL http khatati igp gob pe cns servicios biblioteca_cndg rev99 pdf hyo_ic PDF Date accessed 10 January 2009 Cruz Lapa GF de la Valladolid Rivera J 1988 Clasificaci n de los cultivos andinos en plantas de fotos ntesis C y C de acuerdo a las caracter sticas anat micas del mesofilo de la hoja Memorias VI Congreso Internacional sobre Cultivos Andinos 30 May 2 June 1988 Quito Ecuador INIA Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias Quito Ecuador D Arrigo G Benavides V Pino J 2004 Evaluaci n preliminar del efecto de Lepidium meyenii Walp en el desarrollo embrionario de rat n on line Revista Peruana de Biolog a 11 1 103 106 Available from URL http www scielo org pe paf rpb vin1 v11n1a14 paf Date accessed 20 October 2008 Delgado F Aliaga R 1995 Biologia
121. rrez JE Montano K Bracho JC Chang A 2003 Determinaci n cuantitativa de beta sitosterol por hplc en maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Libro de Memorias del Segundo Congreso Internacional de Plantas Medicinales y Fitoterapia Fito 2003 6 10 August 2003 Lima Peru Instituto de Fitoterapia Americano Lima Peru p 156 Hermann M 1992 Andean roots and tubers Research priorities for a postposed food resource Ra ces y Tub rculos Andinos Prioridades de Investigaci n para un Recurso Alimentario Pospuesto on line CIP Lima Peru Available from URL http www cipotato org library pdfdocs RTA39988 paf http www cipotato org library pdtdocs RTA41159 paf Date accessed 10 January 2009 Holle M 1987 La conservaci n ex situ de la variabilidad gen tica de los cultivos andinos 1958 1986 Anales V Congreso Internacional de Sistemas Agropecuarios Andinos 10 14 March 1986 Puno Peru Universidad Nacional del Altiplano CORDE Puno Centro de Investigaci n y Promoci n Agropecuaria INIPA Puno Peru Proyecto de Investigaci n de Sistemas Agropecuarios Andinos PISA Lima Peru Agencia Canadiense para el Desarrollo Internacional ACDI Gatineau Canada CIID Centro Interamericano de Investigaciones para el Desarrollo Ottawa Canada Humala Tasso Combelles K 1996 Revalorisation des plantas alimentaires du Perou ancien Memoire Maitrise Biologie des Organisations et des Populations Biologie Vegetale Approfondie Universite Pierr
122. ru Waru PIWA Programa Especial Binacional Lago Titicaca PELT Puno Peru Instituto Nacional de Desarrollo INADE Lima Peru pp 61 96 Reyes de la Cruz V 2006 Determinaci n de aflatoxinas y ocratoxinas en la maca seca y harina de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp dissertation Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos UNMSM Lima Peru Reyna J G mez S nchez Gagliuffi A Idelfonso C 1999 Evaluaci n qu mico nutricional de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walp In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 72 79 Reyna J G mez S nchez l Gagliuffi A Ildefonso C 1995 Evaluaci n qu mico nutricional de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Parte 2 Agro Enfoque 76 51 52 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Reyna J G mez S nchez Gagliuffi A Ildefonso C 1995 Evaluaci n quimico nutricional de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Parte 1 Agro Enfoque 75 44 46 Reyna J G mez S nchez Gagliuffi A Ildefonso C 1995 Evaluaci n quimico nutricional de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Parte 3 Agro Enfoque 77 42 44 Reyna J G mez S nchez Huapaya G mez M 1995 Valores de macro y micro nutrientes de muestras de harinas de maca precocida Res menes Congreso Peruano de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald s 11 16 September 1995 Ayacucho Peru Cultivos Andinos 5
123. s SLART 2 Gu a para Participantes 28 30 November 2001 Lima Peru CIP UNALM Lima Peru Aliaga C rdenas R 2004 La Maca online In Seminario J editor Ra ces Andinas Contribuciones al Conocimiento y a la Capacitaci n Conservaci n y Uso de la Biodiversidad de Ra ces y Tub rculos Andinos Una D cada de Investigaci n para el Desarrollo 1993 2003 vol 6 Universidad Nacional de Cajamarca Cajamarca Peru CIP Lima Peru COSUDE Agencia Suiza para el Desarrollo y la Cooperaci n Berne Switzerland Available from URL http www cipotato org artc Series 06_PDF_RTAs_Capacitacion 25_ La_maca_edit pdf Date accessed 3 October 2008 Aliaga Rosado M Calero Gamarra N S nchez Sihuay M 2000 Poscosecha de maca Agroalimentos Primer Bolet n Informativo de Manejo Poscosecha de Maca Huancayo Peru lvarez Pizarro JC 2001 Caracterizaci n bioqu mica de p ptidos con actividad antif ngica de semillas de maca Lepidium peruvianum G Chac n dissertation Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos UNMSM Lima Peru lvarez Pizarro JC Monteghirfo Gomero M 2003 Aislamiento de una fracci n proteica de bajo peso molecular de semillas de maca Lepidium peruvianum G Chac n con propiedades antif ngicas online Revista de la Sociedad Qu mica del Per 69 4 222 228 Available from URL http sisbib unmsm edu pe bibvirtualdata publicaciones rsqp n4_2003 a04 paf Date accessed 3 October 2008 Alzamora Gonzales
124. s and market chains of minor crops on line Agricultural Biodiversity and Livelihoods Discussion Papers 1 Bioversity International Rome Italy JOSO This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution BY NC SA Noncommercial Share Alike 3 0 Unported License To view a copy of this license visit http creativecommons org licenses by nc sa 3 0 or send a letter to Creative Commons 171 Second Street Suite 300 San Francisco California 94105 USA You are free to Share to copy distribute and transmit the work to Remix to adapt the work Under the following conditions Attribution You must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author or licensor but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work Noncommercial You may not use this work for commercial purposes Share Alike If you alter transform or build upon this work you may distribute the resulting work only under the same or similar license to this one For any reuse or distribution you must make clear to others the license terms of this work The best way to do this is with a link to this web page Any of the above conditions can be waived if you get permission from the copyright holder Nothing in this license impairs or restricts the author s moral rights Rights owner Bioversity International 2009 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence Acknowledgements This study was co
125. s and pressed into pills chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development Figure 18 Range of maca products available in Peru 2003 Photo courtesy Ivan Manrique Alcoholic extract Alcohol can be used as solvent to extract pharmacologically active substances from sliced roots or coarsely milled maca Evaporation of the alcohol leaves an aqueous solution of maca solids Table 3 shows the value added through processing from crudely processed to final consumer products Table 3 Average free on board FOB value per gross weight of exported maca products 2001 2005 Type of exported maca product FOB US kg Dried roots 3 1 Crude flour 6 2 Fine flour 7 2 Gelatinized flour 13 5 Capsules 27 5 Maca extract 67 0 gt gt Source Calculated from export data provided by PROMPEX Comisi n para la Promoci n de Exportaciones Peru chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development a chain diversification Although dozens of companies are currently exporting maca products see Section 7 1 4 few enterprises have their own processing facilities In fact most companies subcontract services from bigger companies with the equipment to produce gelatinized flour capsules or liquid extracts Castillo personal communication 2006 for instance mentio
126. s extract from Lepidium meyenii on mouse behavior in forced swimming test In Ho CT Zheng OY editors Quality Management of Nutraceuticals ACS symposium series 803 American Chemical Society Royal Society of Chemistry Washington D C USA pp 258 268 Zolezzi Chocano O 1998 Transformaci n de la u a de gato y la maca en el Per In Rodr guez D Rodr guez F editors Ponencias Tercer Encuentro de la Agroindustria Rural 20 22 March 1997 Tarapoto Peru ITDG Warwickshire UK REDAR Lima Peru pp 31 38 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Z iga Molina E 1992 El cultivo de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Agronom a 40 2 55 56 Z iga Molina E 1995 Insectos da inos del cultivo de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walp en el Per Res menes Congreso Peruano de Cultivos Andinos Oscar Blanco Gald s 11 16 September 1995 Ayacucho Peru Cultivos Andinos 5 1 45 Z iga Molina E 1998 Producci n de hipocotilos de maca Lepidium meyenii con semillas procedentes de dos localidades Technical and Financial Report Centro de Investigaci n y Promoci n Rural CIPRU Talpushun Jun n Peru Z iga Molina E 1999 Avances en el control de plagas en el cultivo de maca Maca Memoria del Primer Curso Nacional de Maca 10 12 December 1997 Cerro de Pasco Peru ECO Grupo de Investigaciones Econ micas Lima Peru Z iga Molina E 1999 A
127. s of these organizations Mention of a proprietary name does not constitute endorsement of the product and is given only for information V V The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence The authors Michael Hermann is a senior scientist at Bioversity International posted in Montreal Canada His recent work focuses on approaches involving high value product differentiation to enhance the use of agrobiodiversity with the ultimate goal of linking poor farmers and keepers of much agricultural diversity to markets for income generation Email m hermann cgiar org Thomas Bernet has worked for several years at the International Potato Center CIP in Lima Peru where he has conducted methodological research on how to link small scale farmers to markets Since 2006 he has been a consultant for marketing concept and market chain development especially in the context of underutilized pro poor crops Email t bernet cgiar org Both authors have lived and worked in Lima Peru Michael Hermann from 1988 to 1990 and from 1997 to 2004 and Thomas Bernet from 1997 to the present The authors have consumed maca and traveled on several occasions to Junin to witness maca production trading processing and local consumption The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence Correct citation Hermann M and Bernet T 2009 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence Lessons for improving use strategie
128. s of unprocessed maca roots to a halt while in the following two years the export of maca flour gained momentum despite the fact that at least the fraction of crude milled flour would have fallen within the decree s definition of primary mechanical transformation In June 2001 the Government issued another decree No 035 2001 AG which suspended decree 025 99 AG thus effectively gt gt allowing again the export of crude and unprocessed maca This chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development decree was based on the fallacy that restricting maca exports to added value products was crippling export opportunities and had lead to a decline in maca prices when indeed maca revenues were increasingly obtained from higher value products Fig 20 and were in 2001 reaching 1999 levels again after the global economic downturn that had temporarily depressed international maca demand More importantly however the drastic decline in farm gate maca prices was the consequence of increasing stockpiles and over supply of dried maca produced in 1999 and 2000 High farm gate prices in the late 1990s and the administration s supply push as described in previous paragraphs at a time when it should have cautioned exuberant maca producers about the limits of maca demand had finally resulted in the collapse of maca production and the disillusionment of man
129. s sola esta se da en esta provincia y tiene en si tanto fuego que me certificaron los indios que donde se siembra dexa esterilizada la tierra por 30 a os que no queda de provecho para poderla sembrar o Cobo 1958 Lib 4 Cap XVIII En la sola provincia de Chinchaycocha diocesis de Lima se halla la raiz llamada maca en la lengua de los naturales de aquella tierra Nace esta planta en lo mas spero y fr o de la Sierra donde no se da otra planta alguna de las que se cultivan para sustento de los hombres que parece provey Dios a los indios de aquella provincia de esta ra z para que no quedasen sin tener en la tierra alg n mantenimiento natural de ella Sirvele de pan verde y seca como la guardan para todo el a o La planta es peque a que no se levanta del suelo m s que un palmo la hoja muy menuda y la ra z es del tama o y forma de una pera cerme a blanca como nabo por dentro y despu s de seca queda mucho menor y muy parecida a las perillas secas es dulce y de buen gusto c mese as pasada cocida y asada Tiene una extra a propiedad que doquiera que se siembra un a o abrasa la tierra de tal manera que en m s de diez a os no se puede volver a sembrar en ella y para que no se hiele con las cont nuas nieves y heladas que siempre hay donde se siembra la suelen cubrir con paja hasta que llegue a saz n de cogerla Su temperamento es muy caliente y es com n opini n que con ser la Provincia de Chinchaycocha d
130. s study we gathered additional data on maca production export quantities price series etc from various Peruvian entities see figures for details We also conducted in late 2006 a series of interviews with key actors of maca supply chains chapter 2 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence Bl The biological and agricultural context of maca supply chains 2 1 Maca is a fully domesticated species belonging to the genus Lepidium Taxonomy and of the Cruciferae family which is also known as Brassicaceae As a nomenclature source of numerous vegetables and oil plants of Eurasian origin this family is of enormous economic importance Maca however is the only domesticate of the Brassicaceae in the New World Hermann and Heller 1997 In 1843 the species was first described and named as Lepidium meyenii by Walpers who based his description on the specimen of a wild plant collected in Puno in Southern Peru far away from the maca crop s endemic and insular distribution in the Central Peruvian highlands This type specimen has only a slightly thickened tap root and is clearly not derived from the cultivated form of L meyenii Nevertheless Le n in his classic text on maca and other Andean root and tuber crops Le n 1964 recognized maca as pertaining to L meyenii In 1990 Chacon proposed Lepidium peruvianum as a new species and name for domesticated maca only Chacon 1990 She justified her deci
131. sa Tropaeolum tuberosum and Ullucus tuberosus PhD thesis University of New York USA Lee KJ Dabrowski K Rinchard J Gomez C Guz L Vilchez C 2004 Supplementation of maca Lepidium meyenii tuber meal in diets improves growth rate and survival of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum alevins and juveniles online Aquaculture Research UK ISSN 1355 557X 35 3 215 223 Available from http dx doi org 10 1111 j 1365 2109 2004 01022 x Date accessed 28 September 2008 Leon J 1964a Plantas alimenticias andinas Lima Peru Instituto Interamericano de Ciencias Agricolas Zona Andina Boletin Tecnico no 6 pp 42 46 Leon J 1964b The maca Lepidium meyenii a little known food plant of Peru Economic Botany USA ISSN 0013 0001 18 2 122 127 Li G Ammermann U Quiros CF 2001 Glucosinolate content in maca Lepidium peruvianum Chacon seeds sprouts mature plants and several derived commercial products Economic Botany USA ISSN 0013 0001 55 2 255 262 Locher NM 2006 Screening of maca ecotypes review of potential standardization procedures and testing of maca to be used as fertility enhancer in breeding bulls Diploma thesis Institut f r Nutztierwissenschaften ETH Zurich Switzerland Lock O Apumayta UP 1993 La maca importante especie vegetal peruana merece mayor estudio Revista de Qu mica Pontificia Universidad Cat lica del Per Vol VII No 2 L pez A MP G mez I Iglesias O Lock U
132. scar Blanco Gald s 11 16 September 1995 Ayacucho Peru Cultivos Andinos 5 1 8 9 Ponce Aguirre D 1995 Estimaci n de par metros gen ticos para once caracteres en una poblaci n de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp de fase generativa producci n de semilla Res menes Ill Congreso Peruano de Gen tica 11 15 December 1995 Lima Peru Sociedad Peruana de Gen tica SPG Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM CIP Lima Peru Gen tica 1 95 97 Ponce Aguirre D 1995 Producci n de Semilla B sica de Maca Lepidium Meyenii Walp mediante Selecci n Individual y Prueba de Progenie para los Agricultores de las Sub Regiones de Pasco y Jun n 4000 m s n m Agosto 1994 Julio 1995 Pasco Per on line Universidad Nacional Daniel Alcides Carri n UNDAC Cerro de Pasco Peru CIP Lima Peru Cooperaci n T cnica Suiza COTESU Berne Switzerland Available from URL http www cipotato org library pdtdocs RTA57649 paf Date accessed 10 January 2009 Ponce Aguirre D 1997 Producci n de Semilla B sica de Maca Lepidium Meyenii Walp mediante Selecci n Individual y Prueba de Progenie para los Agricultores de las Sub Regiones de Pasco y Jun n 4000 m s n m Agosto 95 Julio 97 Pasco Per on line Universidad Nacional Daniel Alcides Carri n UNDAC Cerro de Pasco Peru CIP Lima Peru Cooperaci n T cnica Suiza COTESU Berne Switzerland Available from URL http www cipotato org library pdfdocs RTA57647
133. sh especially for juvenile animals where boosting growth rates and curtailing mortality strongly affect net gains 6 4 Experimental plantings of maca outside Peru in which storage root Maca production formation has been observed have been reported from northern outside Peru California Mediterranean winter conditions Quiros amp Aliaga 1997 Czechoslovakia Valentov amp Ulrichov 2003 and in greenhouse gt gt experiments conducted by Quir s et al 1996 It is not clear from chapter 6 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Modern expansion of use and market development these reports whether commercially relevant yields competing with those common in the Central Andes can be obtained Outside of Peru we are aware of limited commercial maca cultivation in Bolivia only Maca seeds are occasionally on offer in seed catalogues for sale in small quantities to what are presumably hobby gardeners e g Horizon Herbs US There are also several eBay records 2006 2007 of the sales of small batches of maca seeds 15 100 from sellers in the US Australia and Bolivia gt gt chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence Analysis of factors affecting maca market development 7 1 7 1 1 Demand expansion Product innovation and diversification Torres 1984 showed that the acceptance of maca is low among people with no previous exposure to this food His r
134. sioli F 2006 Lepidium meyenii Maca does not exert direct androgenic activities online Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 3 415 417 Available from URL http dx doi org 10 1016 j jep 2005 09 028 Date accessed 3 October 2008 Brack Egg A 1999 Los recursos gen ticos del Per y desarrollo en el Per In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 11 38 Bravo M 2004 Estudio morfo histol gico y farmacol gico de Lepidium meyenii Walpers maca online Libro de Res menes XI Encuentro Cient fico Internacional de Verano ECI 2 5 January 2004 Lima Peru ECI Lima Peru Available from URL http www cienciaperu org eci2004v libroderesumenes pdf Date accessed 3 October 2008 Brescia Saavedra G Chang Lung S Chung Chian JR Santill n Samalvides KC 2000 Estudio de prefactibilidad para la instalaci n de una planta procesadora de harina de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp gelatinizada para exportaci n a Estados Unidos dissertation Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Brinckmann J Smith E 2004 Maca culture of the Junin plateu The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 10 3 426 430 Bustos Obreg n E Yucra S Gonzales GF 2005 Lepidium meyenii maca reduces spermatogenic damage induced by a single dose of malathion in mice online Asian Journal of Andrology 7 1 71 76 Available from URL http www as
135. sion to recognize maca as a species separate from L meyenii mainly by the dissimilarity of the type specimen with the cultigen in terms of the absence of a pronouncedly tuberous root and the state of domestication Chacon s name change remained largely unnoticed over the following years and the limited number of publications on cultivated maca before 1995 used mostly the binomial Lepidium meyenii However after the explosion of commercial interest in the crop especially after 2000 Chacon s proposal of the binomial L peruvianum as the correct name for maca won over an increasing number of followers mainly for reasons that lie outside of taxonomic and nomenclatural considerations Firstly Chacon s reasoning gt gt although unconvincing as we will see below from a taxonomist s chapter 2 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt The biological and agricultural context of maca supply chains point of view seems to appeal to common sense Secondly with the sporadic appearance of maca cropping in Andean countries outside of Peru notably in Bolivia public outrage over the granting of maca patents in the US see Section 7 4 2 a species epithet suggestive of Peruvian ownership of maca peruvianum rather than the non descript meyenii appealed to the sentiment of the public in general and value chain actors in particular Also the new name continues to be a welcome opportunity for som
136. sociated with Internet claims see Section 7 1 3 and maca product promotion especially when they relate to the immune system better concentration and memory etc Locher 2006 Leon 1964b says that maca is now eaten by Indian and white women who want to have children Those early reports stress maca and fertility but do not portray it as an aphrodisiac This is confirmed by our interviews with knowledgeable Junin residents such as Javier Castillo G ere who told us in 2006 that maca was never consumed as a libido stimulant but rather for its allegedly invigorating effect Locher 2006 also found farmers making references to better physical stamina and strength for work as a consequence of maca consumption Fifty eight per cent of the maca farmers in Pasco interviewed by Locher believed in the fertility enhancing effects of maca but a further 40 regarded it as a myth or claimed no experience in that regard On the other hand the Peruvian writer Luis Gallegos provides us with the anecdote of a hot maca potion on sale in 1947 1948 in the mining town of La Oroya next to a brothel and eagerly consumed by the establishment s visitors personal communication 2003 In any case the sparse indigenous knowledge available to us from the literature seems always to have been in the public domain and was not owned by a particular ethnic group gt Maca use chapter 4 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominen
137. ssed 6 October 2008 CONDESAN Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Ecorregi n Andina 1997 Gu a para nueve ra ces y tub rculos andinos online CONDESAN Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Ecorregi n Andina CIP Lima Peru Agencia Suiza para el Desarrollo y la Cooperaci n Berne Switzerland Available from URL http www cipotato org library pdfdocs RTA54680 pdf Date accessed 6 October 2008 C ndor D 1994 Efecto de diferentes niveles de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp en raciones de crecimiento para cuyes Investigaciones en Cuyes XIV Reuni n Cient fica Anual de la Asociaci n Peruana de Producci n Animal APPA 11 15 November 1991 Cerro de Pasco Peru Instituto Nacional de Investigaci n Agraria INIA Lima Peru CIID Centro Interamericano de Investigaciones para el Desarrollo Ottawa Canada C rdova G mez AV 2001 Efecto del Lepidium peruvianum Chac n maca sobre el ciclo espermatog nico en ratas machos adultos en edad reproductiva evaluaci n por el m todo de transiluminaci n dissertation Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia Lima Peru C rdova G mez AV 2003 Efecto de Lepidium meyenii maca sobre los niveles hormonales de varones sanos dissertation Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia Lima Peru C rdova Herrera HE 1993 Ecolog a uso y conservaci n de la maca Lepidium sp en los andes centrales Jun n y Pasco del Per dissertation Universidad Nacional Agra
138. t the biological activity of the isolated compounds has not been demonstrated and thus does not appear to meet the requirement of industrial applicability putting the patents in doubt from a legal point of view In the paper the authors lament that while there is a great deal of literature and information on maca access to this information is difficult This would explain why patent offices from third countries generally fail to revise documents and literature which could refer to ancestral uses of agrobiodiversity by indigenous peoples or to indigenous knowledge The authors conclude that these difficulties constrain rigorous and comprehensive examinations of patent applications giving rise to the granting of rights of doubtful legitimacy The report also points out the need for documenting indigenous knowledge in a national database accessible to the main patent offices in order to conduct searches and examinations of the data It also proposes that Peru should be more proactive about research gt gt 17 www wipo int documents en meetings 2003 igc pdf grtkf_ic_5_13 pdf chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development into and development of plant and other biological materials and seek benefits from these products but notes that Peru still requires a national legal regime to generate incentives for cooperation in research and development Fi
139. t to market prominence gt The biological and agricultural context of maca supply chains 2 2 Several sources are ambivalent about the life form of maca e g Life form and Wikipedia accessed 28 January 2007 Quiros amp Aliaga 1997 but this agro ecology seed propagated crop invariably behaves as a biennial plant in its native habitat as correctly stated by some authoritative texts Le n 1964 Tello et al 1992 Some authors appear to have observed premature flowering Quiros et al 1996 or extended vegetative growth in maca Such as the authors of this study in greenhouse cultivated plants in Quito Ecuador but such phenomena are restricted to locations with day length and temperature regimes substantially different from the Peruvian puna in which maca has evolved For example Quiros et al 1996 conclude from observations of maca field cultivation under winter conditions in Davis California that the plant is annual since it weakly flowers within one growing season Under such artificial circumstances the ontogeny of maca may indeed deviate from the plant s behaviour in its natural environment which is at 11 12 S latitude and altitudes of 3800 4400 m above sea level But this cannot be construed as evidence for its annual nature Based on the observation that maca plants formed storage roots in growth chambers with 12 and 14 hours constant daylength Quiros et al 1996 concluded that maca s storage root format
140. te de cuatro ecotipos y dos tipos de harina del Lepidium peruvianum Chac n maca in vitro on line Res menes XII Encuentro Cientifico Internacional de Verano ECI 2 5 January 2005 Lima Peru Available from URL http www cienciaperu org eci2005v resumeneseci2005v htm Date accessed 10 January 2009 Rubio J Caldas M Davila S Gasco M Gonzales GF 2006 Effect of three different cultivars of Lepidium meyenii Maca on learning and depression in ovariectomized mice on line BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 6 23 1 7 Available from URL http dx doi org 10 1186 1472 6882 6 23 Date accessed 10 January 2009 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Rubio J Riqueros MI Gasco M Yucra S Miranda S Gonzales GF 2006 Lepidium meyenii Maca reversed the lead acetate induced Damage on reproductive function in male rats on line Food and Chemical Toxicology 44 7 1114 1122 Available from URL http dx doi org 10 1016 j fct 2006 01 007 Date accessed 10 January 2009 Rubio Marquina JA 2003 Efecto de Lepidium meyenii Walp maca sobre la espermatog nesis en ratas macho adultas expuestas a la altura de Cerro de Pasco 4340 m s n m dissertation Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia Lima Peru Ruiz Luna AC Salazar S Aspajo NJ Rubio J Gasco M Gonzales GF 2005 Lepidium meyenii Maca increases litter size in normal adult female mice
141. ted in the section References has been excluded here Agroalimentos 2000 Cocinando con maca Con las mejores recetas de maca para una cocina moderna y saludable Editorial San Marcos Lima Peru Aguilar Fern ndez M del P 1998 Estudio tecnol gico y nutricional de las harinas de maca cruda y precocida en sus caracter sticas reol gicas y panificables dissertation Universidad Nacional Federico Villareal Lima Peru Alata Animar a LM 2004 Efecto del zinc en la recuperaci n de ratas desnutridas alimentadas con una mezcla vegetal de maca quinua y habas dissertation Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Alfaro Mori PJ Arteaga Huerta MI Mattos Olavarr a JC Sol s Tarazona JA 1999 Estudio de prefactibilidad para la producci n de maca Lepidium sp en sierra central para la industria nacional dissertation Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Aliaga C rdenas J 1990 Obtenci n y caracterizaci n del almid n pregelatinizado a partir de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp dissertation Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Aliaga C rdenas J 1999 Obtenci n y caracterizaci n del almid n pregelatinizado a partir de la maca Lepidium meyenii Walp In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 166 182 Aliaga C rdenas R Palomino EM 1995 Producci n de maca Lepidium meyeni
142. the insurgency of the Shining Path Maoist guerrilla organisation get in the way of these activities and finally curtail the project s completion Castro 1990 6 2 The 1990s see an unprecedented expansion of the production of Expansion of demand and production from 1990 onwards the Peruvian government finally follows through with its plans to maca Since 1991 and with the Shining Path insurgency subsiding promote maca production in different parts of the country through its agricultural research and extension program INIA V lchez 1991 As illustrated in Fig 15 the area under maca grows manyfold from 1983 to 1993 This Figure also shows that by 1983 maca had been reported only from the traditional maca growing districts in the departments of Junin and Pasco in Central Peru Ten years later in 1993 MINAG agricultural census data record maca also in high altitude districts of the departments of Ancash Apurimac Arequipa Ayacucho Cajamarca Huanuco and Cusco In 2003 however maca areas appear to be contracting again in the non traditional areas of Apurimac Cajamarca and Huanuco In Ancash and Cusco the crop has disappeared again in 1993 Puno and La Libertad start to grow maca only after 1993 According to Roberto Valdivia personal communication 2007 maca is no longer grown in Puno perhaps because of poor adaptation to a climate that is much drier than gt gt the climate of the traditional maca growing areas in Cent
143. ticle E conditions 2000 Tapia et al Rats Improved stress resistence and recuperation Stress resistance and Journal article S from stress recovery 2000 Zheng et al Rats Improved sexual performance and decrease Sexual performance male Journal article E of sexual dysfunction of male rats 2001 Cicero et al Rats Improved sexual performance Sexual performance male Journal article E 2001 Menaldo et al Human Improved fertility in intrauterine insemination Fertility female Journal article E 2002 Sandoval et al None Capacity to protect cells against Prevention of cancer Journal article E oxidative stress 2002 Cicero et al Rats Improvements in sexual performance Sexual performance male Journal article E with hexanic maca 2001a Gonzales et al Rats Invigorated spermatogenesis in male rats Sexual performance male Journal article E 2001b Gonzales et al Human Improved sperm production and Sexual performance male Journal article E sperm motility 2002 Gonzales et al Human Improved sexual desire in men Sexual desire male Journal article E 2003a Gonzales etal Rats Onset and progression of Sexual performance male Journal article E spermatogenesis activated 2003b Gonzales et al Human No effect on serum reproductive Sexual performance male Journal article E hormone levels 2004 Gonzales etal Rats Higher epididymal sperm count than Sexual performance male Journal article E at sea level without treatment 20
144. tir de tub rculos de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp dissertation Pontificia Universidad Cat lica del Per PUCP Lima Peru Glorio Paulet P Repo Carrasco R Velezmoro S nchez C 2006 Almid n y fibra diet tica en alimentos Experiencia de Per In Lajolo FM Wenzel de Menezes E editors Carbohidratos en Alimentos Regionales Iberoamericanos Universidad de Sao Paulo USP Sao Paulo Brazil pp 607 633 G mez J Nieto C Surco F 2000 Evaluaci n del contenido de calcio fosforo hierro magnesio potasio y zinc en maca Lepidium peruvianum G Chac n y sus derivados procesados Anales Cient ficos 45 178 192 Gonzales Arimborgo C 2004 Efecto del extracto acuoso de tres diferentes ecotipos de Lepidium meyenii maca en el tracto reproductivo masculino de ratas macho de la cepa Holtzman dissertation Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia Lima Peru Gonzales C Rubio J Gasco M Nieto J Yucra S Gonzales GF 2006 Effect of short term and long term treatments with three ecotypes of Lepidium meyenii MACA on spermatogenesis in rats on line Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103 3 448 454 Available from URL http dx doi org 10 1016 j jep 2005 08 035 Date accessed 02 January 2009 Gonzales GF Miranda S Nieto J Fern ndez G Yucra S Rubio J et al 2005 Red maca Lepidium meyenii reduced prostate size in rats on line Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology 3 1 5 Available from URL http www pubmedcentral nih
145. tors banning maca as a food from the EU see Section 7 2 2 Several decisions denying the authorization to market maca refer inter alia to the purportedly uncertain taxonomic status of maca and the erroneous perception that domesticated maca may consist of two species requiring separate food safety assessments 2 I have seen the isotype of L peruvianum and it is indistinguishable from the wild and cultivated plants that have been calling L meyenii since the mid 1980s have been hunting to find the type of L meyenii but without much luck Hitchcock who has somehow seen authentic material of the species has a concept much similar to mine Unless someone convinces me that the two species are different continue to recognize one species with both wild and cultivated forms just as spp of Brassica Eruca and yes Lepidium sativum 3 The journal Alimentaci n y Salud Lima Peru in its issue of December 2003 on p 48 Hay intereses comerciales en denominar la maca Lepidium meyenii Walpers para arrebatarle el origen al Peru 4 AFSSA Agence Fran aise de S curit Sanitaire des Aliments Saisine Nro 2004 SA 0155 8 September 2004 La Afssa estima que para evitar los riesgos relacionados a la sustituci n de la especie tradicionalmente consumida la denominaci n cient fica gt gt Lepidium meyenii Walpers o Lepidium peruvianum Chacon debe ser verificada chapter 2 The transition of maca from neglec
146. trated for the time before 15 May 1997 it is viewed as novel and an assessment of the food s safety under the NFR is required Scientific evidence of the highest standards with regard to food composition suggested intake levels toxicological assessments and allergenic potential need to support the application Member states can and do raise objections against the submitted evidence and applicants may be asked to present additional evidence to address such objections In 2002 the first reports of the seizure of maca consignments by EU country authorities became known hitting maca exporters and importers fairly unprepared Most had not heard about the NFR and since maca was an age old crop plant in the Andes was it not safe for consumption by Europeans as well In March 2002 the German customs withheld a consignment of maca flour referring to the potential status of maca as a novel food under the NFR Guillerm personal communication 2002 A letter dated 27 September 2002 by Jos Urrutia Ambassador of the Peruvian Mission to the EU directed to the Directorate General for Health and Consumer Affairs of the European Commission DG SANCO expressed concern about the denying of market access to maca as a food in the EU It referred specifically to section 1 2 1 of the NFR which appears to exempt food products derived from traditional propagation procedures but is contradicted by the prevailing practice of the NFR chapter 7 The
147. uay Ministry of Agriculture DGPA personal communication 2006 In 2006 INDECOPI s Comisi n de Reglamientos T cnicos y Comerciales published drafts of three technical product norms for public consultation with the intention of ratifying them in 2008 The norms concern dehydrated roots PNTP 011180 maca seca toasted flour PNTP 011181 harina de maca tostada and gelatinized flour PNTP 011182 maca gelatinizada These norms provide glossaries of accepted terms and define physical product properties acceptable ranges of product composition and microbial contamination and describe appropriate processing procedures Drafts of three additional norms are in preparation for crude flour liquor and nectar 13 Instituto Nacional de Defensa de la Competencia y de la Protecci n de la Propiedad gt gt Intelectual chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development In summary Peruvian government policies have had a mixed record in terms of support to maca supply chains Ill informed and politics driven activities promoted maca production without complementary market development interventions The decrees limiting exports of crudely processed maca probably generated more damage than benefits to farmers and other supply chain actors However the recent support of INDECOPI in the establishment of maca product norms in consultation with a wide range
148. uch as cacao and tara from Peru in the same year Table 4 Importers in countries of the European Union Italy Spain were among the first to buy maca from Peru as early as 1996 but the EU share of total maca exports has in most years remained significantly less than 20 The importing countries reported together in Fig 20 under the category Other Countries include Australia Brazil Canada China Switzerland Taiwan each with a share of between 0 5 2 0 of total maca FOB value in the period 1995 2005 chapter 7 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Analysis of factors affecting maca market development Figure 20 Evolution of exports of maca products according to country 4 07 y 50 8 destination product type A 3 5 FOB value per country groups F 45 E and gross weight z 304 0 Other countries ce sa 8 Source of data op Puropean Umori 2 Biocomercio PROMPEX 3 United States Note that for 2005 only the total 2207 gt Japan be aS E w Total FOB value te 20 Z FOB value of maca exports Es 1 5 5 ae I z is available Q 1 0 9 BB Ez En a Number of countries SOEs 10 S ie MAMA ae s 2 0 0 ie E Ed i aS iy GH mo M 0 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 02 03 04 05 407 5 3 5 FOB value per type of product o Other E
149. udes fecundantes de la maca Alimentaria T cnicas de Crianzas Cultivos y Agroindustria 1 7 16 18 Palacios Burbano ME 1999 Efectos de la harina de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp sobre la maduraci n sexual de Oncorhynchus mykiss trucha arco iris cultivada en condiciones de cautiverio dissertation Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos UNMSM Lima Peru Palomino Echegaray M 1998 Caracterizaci n agron mica y selecci n de diferentes morfotipos de maca Lepidium sp fase vegetativa en su h bitat natural dissertation Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Paz Queirolo JFE Chiyong Castillo JE 2001 Obtenci n de harina y almid n de la maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n para consumo humano directo Winay Yachay 5 2 245 249 P rez A 2000 Manejo del Cultivo de la Maca Producci n de las Ra ces Serie Folleto 02 00 Instituto Nacional de Investigaci n Agraria INIA Lima Peru P rez A 2000 Manejo del Cultivo de la Maca Producci n de Semilla Bot nica Serie Folleto 01 00 Instituto Nacional de Investigaci n Agraria INIA Lima Peru 20 p P rez W Ames T 1997 Micoflora presente en semilla de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Fitopatolog a 32 1 14 P rez W 1999 Hongos presentes en semilla sexual de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Fitopatolog a 34 1 29 34 Piacente S Carbone V Plaza A Zampelli A Pizza C 2002 Investigation of the tuber constituents of maca Lepid
150. ulinary uses and intake levels gt gt The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence 30 25 20 1 total glucosinolates umol g DM T The above mentioned studies are silent about which secondary metabolites are biologically active and therefore responsible for the reported pharmacological effects of maca in mammals Johns 1981 suggested that the fertility enhancing properties of maca may be due to isothiocyanates Isothiocyanates have been shown to have antioxidant activities Fahey and Talalay 1999 and anticarcinogenic properties Rose et al 2000 Locher 2006 found that glucobrassicine glucosinalbine glucotro paeoline account for 90 of the total glucosinolate content of maca Using roots from different localities in Junin she showed that the total glucosinolate content varies enormously among different root colours and locations Fig 11 It is not clear whether this variation is due to environmental factors genotype or the interaction of these factors Obviously this variation and more importantly our ignorance about the factors causing it could be an impediment to product standardization for pharmacological or nutraceutical uses The overwhelming majority of maca roots are dried after harvest In the cold dry atmosphere of the puna the dried roots remain edible for several years A minor proportion of the freshly harvested roots are roasted in huatias earthen ovens that farmers build at the
151. ustria Journal of Sleep Research 15 s1 253 Tapia M 1992 Los sistemas de rotaci n de los cultivos andinos subexplotados CAS en los andes del Per In Morales D Vacher JJ editors Actas del VII Congreso Internacional sobre Cultivos Andinos 4 8 February 1991 La Paz Bolivia IBTA La Paz Bolivia ORSTOM Paris France CIID Centro Interamericano de Investigaciones para el Desarrollo Ottawa Canada pp 389 394 Tapia M 1980 Los recursos gen ticos de los Andes Altos In Corral L Caceres JH editors Il Congreso Internacional sobre Cultivos Andinos 4 8 June 1979 Riobamba Ecuador Escuela Superior Polit cnica de Chimborazo Riobamba Ecuador IICA San Jos Costa Rica pp 277 286 Tapia M 1992 Bibliograf a sobre Tub rculos Ra ces y Cormos Andinos Subexplotados on line CIP Lima Peru Available from URL http www cipotato org library pdfdocs RTA41115 pdf Date accessed 10 January 2009 Tapia ME 1990 Cultivos Andinos Subexplotados y su Aporte a la Alimentaci n FAO Oficina Regional para Am rica Latina y el Caribe Santiago de Chile Chile Tellez MR Khan IA Kobaisy M Schrader KK Dayan FE Osbrink W 2002 Composition of the essential oil of Lepidium meyenii Walp on line Phytochemistry 61 2 149 155 Available from URL http dx doi org 10 1016 S0031 9422 02 00208 X Date accessed 10 January 2009 Tello J Hermann M Calder n A La maca Lepidium meyenii Walp Cultivo alimenticio pot
152. vances en el control de plagas en el cultivo de maca In Chirinos Saavedra V editor Manual T cnico de Producci n de Maca Lepidium peruvianum Chac n Agronegocios 4 138 141 Z iga Molina E 1999 Cultivo de la Maca en la Sierra Alta del Per Huancayo Peru Z iga Molina E 2000 M todo de producci n de semilla bot nica en el cultivo de la maca Libro de Memorias Primer Congreso Internacional Fito 2000 y 1er Congreso Peruano de Plantas Medicinales y Fitoterapia 27 30 September 2000 Lima Peru Asociaci n Argentina de Fitomedicina Capital Federal Argentina Coordenac o Nacional de Plantas Medicinais em Servicos P blicos Brasilia Brazil Instituto de Fitoterapia Americano Lima Peru Red Iberoamericana de Productos Fitofarmac uticos RIPROFITO
153. ww cipotato org library pdfdocs RTA55744 pdf Date accessed 6 October 2008 CIP 2001 Il Simposio Latinoamericano de Ra ces y Tub rculos SLART 2 Gu a para Participantes 8 30 November 2001 Lima Peru CIP Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina UNALM Lima Peru Coello de la Puente Y 2005 Evaluaci n del metabolismo hidrol tico de N bencil alquilamidas en Lepidium meyenii Walp dissertation Pontificia Universidad gt gt Cat lica del Per Lima Peru The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt Bibliography on maca available at CIP Colque Mamanchura T 2003 Cuatro fuentes de abonamiento en la producci n de semilla bot nica de maca Lepidium meyenii Walp en Puno dissertation Universidad Nacional del Altiplano Puno Peru Comas M Miquel X Arias G Torre MC de la 1997 Estudio bromatol gico de la maca o paca Lepidium meyenii Alimentaria 35 286 85 90 Comhaire FH Mahmoud A 2003 The role of food supplements in the treatment of the infertile man Reproductive BioMedicine Online 7 4 385 391 CONDESAN Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Ecorregi n Andina 1997 Pocket guide to nine exotic Andean roots and tubers online CIP CONDESAN Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Ecorregi n Andina Lima Peru Agencia Suiza para el Desarrollo y la Cooperaci n Berne Switzerland Available from URL http www cipotato org library pdfdocs RTA54679 pdf Date acce
154. xed with floral debris known locally as pita in small plots in grazing fields which are then trampled by sheep released for that purpose This facilitates the movement of seeds into the soil for germination Weeding of maca fields is not required as most weeds do not grow vigorously in the puna at very high altitudes Fungicides are now sometimes used against mildew Locher 2006 which is unfortunate because mildew poses no serious threat to maca yields or quality and the use of fungicides unnecessarily compromises the traditional organic quality of maca According to Rea 1994 fresh matter yields of maca roots can be as low as 2 3 t ha under extensive low input management but in conditions of good soil fertility or fertilizer application can reach 15 16 t ha Tello et al 1992 recorded in a field experiment at 4200 m altitude a fresh root matter yield of about 14 7 t hat Mean individual plant weight was 18 g planting density 105 m and harvest index 0 77 According to data provided by the Peruvian Ministry of Agriculture average maca yields in 2005 were about 7 t ha but varied greatly between departments Table 1 Maca production data have been recorded nation wide only since 2004 but yield records are difficult to interpret since it is often unclear whether they refer to fresh or dehydrated roots chapter 2 The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence gt The biological and agricultural context of maca su
155. y an d Li y Bioversity International INTERNACIONAL o a r z w v VdVd Y1 30 CIP Global Facilitation Unit for Underutilized Species THE TRANSITION OF MACA _ gt gt Lessons for improving use strategies and market chains of minor crops Michael Hermann amp Thomas Bernet Agricultural Biodiversity and Livelihoods Discussion Papers THE TRANSITION Lessons for improving use strategies and OF MACA market chains of minor crops Michael Hermann amp Thomas Bernet NS Bioversity International is an independent international scientific organization that seeks to improve the well being of present and future e enerations of people by enhancing conservation and the deployment Bioversity 9 ante Saas qa pey International of agricultural biodiversity on farms and in forests It is one of 15 centres supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CGIAR an association of public and private members who support efforts to mobilize cutting edge science to reduce hunger and poverty improve human nutrition and health and protect the environment Bioversity has its headquarters in Maccarese near Rome Italy with offices in more than 20 other countries worldwide The organization operates through four programmes Diversity for Livelihoods Understanding and Managing Biodiversity Global Partnerships and Commodities for Livelihoods The international status
156. y poor producers The value of maca exports nearly doubled in the year following decree 035 2001 AG but not as a consequence of resuming exports of the unprocessed roots but rather owing to the growth of international demand for products with medium and high added value Fig 20 The export of unprocessed roots accounted for only a tiny proportion of overall exports from 2001 to 2003 Still in 2003 under a new administration the presidential decree No 039 2003 AG marked another change of mind among Peruvian policy makers reverting to their original position of prohibiting the export of maca products of primary processing as specified in article 113 in accordance with the original decree 025 99 AG The flour obtained by milling the roots clearly falls under the decree s export restrictions 12 El Peruano p 256756 8 December 2003 Decreto Supremo No 039 2003 AG Articulo 1 Prohibase la exportaci n de semillas bot nicas vegetativas especimenes productos y subproductos de la maca Lepidium meyenii Lepidium peruvianum al estado natural o con proceso de transformaci n primaria a efectos de promover su exportaci n con mayor valor agregado Enti ndase por Proceso de Transformaci n Primaria todo aquel que implique la limpieza clasificaci n y envasado de ra ces tallos hojas flores frutos y semillas as como la molienda picado pelado chancado y otro proceso f sico similar aplicado a hojas flores gt gt
157. ysine each occurring at contents of 50 150 mg g protein Dini et al 1994 The main fatty acids include linoleic linolenic palmitic and oleic acid Dini et al 1994 Ganzera et al 2002 as well as the polyunsaturated acids and their amides the macaenes and macamides Zheng et al 2000 Ganzera et al 2002 Muhammed et al 2002 Ganzera et al 2002 described the first HPLC method suitable for the qualitative and quantitative determination of the main macamides and macaenes in maca and also a standardization protocol for these compounds Locher 2006 based on a review of Dini et al 1994 and Zheng et al 2000 lists as the main secondary metabolites of maca glucosinolates flavonoids steroids benzyl alcamides and essential oil Sitosterol 45 5 appears to be the main component of the sterol fraction followed by campesterol 27 3 erosterol 13 6 brassicasterol 9 1 A7 22 ergostadienol 4 5 stigmasterol and beta sistosterol Maca contains high concentrations of aromatic glucosinolates benzyl and p methoxybenzyl glucosinolates in particular and their derivatives the isothiocyanates Johns 1981 which are the compounds responsible for the pungent flavour of raw maca Li et al 2001 The absolute content of glucosinolates in fresh maca roots is higher than in other crops of the Brassicaceae Li et al 2001 Li et al 2001 isolated from the tissue of maca roots the glucosinolates gt gt benzyl glucosinolates

The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence: Lessons

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